Difficulties in translating English Marketing documents into Vietnamese faced by thirdyear Englishmajored students at Thuongmai University

ABSTRACT
With the rapid development of the market economy and globalization, the
language of business is also growing at a brisk speed. In this regard, the work of
translating business documents is becoming a genuine challenge. While there exists
a variety of studies on this specific topic, the shortage of research on the struggles in
translation regarding marketing documents remains inherent. Hence, this study is
conducted to exploring and analyzing the difficulties that aspiring translators have
to face in this particular field. The singular subject of this study is the Englishmajored third-year students at Thuongmai University. Apart from applying two
main research methods which are quantitative and qualitative, this study also
combines several dimensions such as language, culture, and communication to
identify the challenges of translating documents in the field of marketing for the
language pair English-Vietnamese. Co-currently, it also aims at suggesting ways for
undergraduates to study the subject of translation more effectively as well as
provide the teachers and the university with valuable additional information to
enhance their teaching quality and attract more prospective students.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my
supervisor, Prof. Vu Thi Thanh Hoa, for her continuous guidance and motivation
during my study. Her immense knowledge and experience are the prerequisites for
completing my thesis. Without her insightful advice and incredible support, this
thesis could not have been completed on schedule.
Besides, I would like to express my special thanks to Thuongmai University
for allowing me to do research as well as all the teachers of the English faculty for
their extensive dedication to imparting knowledge. The knowledge which I have
attained during my four years of study at Thuongmai University not only provides
the basis for my thesis research process but also equips me with a toolbox of
essential skills to succeed in life.

Also, I would like to extend my heartfelt thanks to all the teachers and the
students who sacrificed their invaluable time answering my interview questions so
that I could collect such quality data for my study.
Additionally, I would like to acknowledge all the authors of the books,
magazines, and the other materials listed in the reference part. Their great ideas and
findings play as vital sources of inspiration for me to reflect and further develop my
study.
Finally, I am indebted to my parents and my family for their love,
understanding, and sacrifices for educating and preparing me for my future. It is
their continuous support and caring that motivate me to overcome setbacks in life.
As the thesis was completed with limited knowledge and restricted implementation
time, shortcomings would be inevitable. I would appreciate it if the teachers and
those who read the study could give constructive feedbacks and offer specific
recommendations on how I could perfect it.
February 26th, 2021
Student
Nguyen Thi Hong Ngoc

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

No
1
2
3
4
5
6

7
8
9
10

Abbreviated words
TMU
ESP
EST
EBE
EAP
ESS
EOP
ESL
TL
SL

Full phrase
Thuongmai University
English for Specific Purposes
English for Science and Technology
English for Business and Economics
English for Academic Purposes
English for Social Studies
English for Occupational Purposes
English as a Second Language
Target Language
Source Language

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CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
1.1. Rationale
Marketing is essentially a key driver of every business. According to the
American Marketing Association’s definition, it is the activity, set of institutions,
and processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings
that have value for customers, clients, partners, and society at large. Nowadays,
marketing becomes more essential than ever. As the world is constantly changing
and awash in new innovative products, services, technologies, business models, and
a sea of newly-established companies, the competition in business has become
fiercer. To successfully thrive, sustain and prosper in such an environment,
marketing is a powerful tool for companies to generate revenue and profit. Good
marketing practices contribute to raising people’s awareness of a company and its
products, attracting and retaining customers, and increasing sales.
As a result, the global marketing industry has been witnessing significant
growth in recent years. According to a survey done by the equity research firm
Redburn and PwC in 2019, the marketing sector is worth $1.7 trillion worldwide. A
marketing degree can compensate one with top-paying jobs in the world. For
instance, a marketing manager has the potential to earn a high average income of
$99,000, £50,000, C$87,000 in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada,
respectively. In Vietnam, marketing is emerging at breakneck speed thanks to the
exceptional integration of the country into the global economy. While Vietnam’s
marketing industry is currently in high demand for labor, it is predicted to continue
to grow in the future. Apart from offering prospective career opportunities,
marketing also promises the highest-paying jobs. The average monthly salary of a
marketer in Vietnam ranges from VND 10 million to 20 million.
In this respect, translating English marketing documents into Vietnamese plays
a vital part. The language of business, however, is never easy to learn, not to
mention translation. Marketing is dynamic and ever-changing. New terms can be

formed and used every day, which poses challenges, confusion, and mistakes in the
translating process, especially for those who are new to translation. Students at
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Thuongmai University are required to take the translation course at the beginning of
the first semester in the third year of their study. Because of certain cultural
differences and limited knowledge and hands-on experience, most third-year
students may encounter a variety of difficulties when they first approach translation,
especially technical translation in terms of marketing documents. As a learner
myself, I have an awareness of the importance of translation nowadays and the
bottlenecks in the process of translation in this particular field.
For those reasons, I choose to study the “Difficulties in translating English
Marketing documents into Vietnamese faced by third-year English-majored students
at Thuongmai University.” This study is carried out in the hope of helping students
to have more effective methods in studying and practicing technical translation, to
enhance the quality of their translation, as well as to prepare themselves to pursue a
career in translation in the future.
1.2. Previous studies
Research topics on issues “the difficulties of learners in English translation”
have been studied by many different researchers around the world in general and in
Vietnam in particular.
1.2.1.

International studies

Through researching on translation issues, I see that there have been many
books, many works by foreign authors on this issue.
A study named “Difficulties and some problems in translating legal
documents” by Ivanka Sakareva. The paper aims at revealing the difficulties in

translating legal documents. In order to make a full characteristic of these problems,
Ivanka Sakareva has described the actual process of translating the rules that should
be observed by the translators, the translation strategy in translating documents as
well as the importance of the cultural transfer. How does the legal translation differ
from the literal one? Is it an easy task to translate specialized texts?
Another study named “Analysis of Translation Difficulties for the Fourth
Semester Students of English Department of IKIP Gunungsitoli Year 2013/2014”
with the objective of the research is to find out and to describe translation
difficulties for the fourth semester students of English department of IKIP
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Gunungsitol. The researcher uses two kinds of research instruments that are
questionnaires which consist of a test as the source of content analysis applied as a
part of qualitative research method.
And others: “A Linguistic Theory of Translation” by Catford (1965.
Oxford University Publishing House, Oxford); "Contemporary Translation
Theories" by Hay Gentzler (1993. Roudledge Publishing House, London & New
York); “Discourse and the Translator” by Hatim and Mason (1990. Longman
Publishing House, UK); Jakobson's "On Linguistic Aspects of translation" (1959.
Article published in The Translation Studies Reader, L. Venuti (ed.) Roudledge,
London & New York, 1998); "A Textbook of Translation" by Newmark (1988.
Prentice Hall Publishing House, London 1988).
1.2.2.

Domestic studies

A study named “Difficulties in Learning the Translation of Students majoring
in International Relations”. The purpose of the research is to identify and explain
these difficulties, and to provide some methods for students to be good at translating

and have their own experience in the following working process. The researcher
limited his research subjects to two students of TA39A and TA39B classes, English
department, Diplomatic Academy of Vietnam.
Another research, “A study on the translation of economic terminology”,
conducted by Hoang Thi Bay, her MA minor-thesis, has been carried out with the
hope of finding out the common, appropriate and preferable ways to make the
translation of economic terms from English into Vietnamese sound original and
natural. The major concern of this paper is to give the answer to the question:
“What are the common translation strategies and procedures used in the translation
of economic terms in the economic textbook “Business Law?”. Based on the results
from the study, some suggestions are given, that can be of some use to those who
are responsible for teaching English for economics and translating technical
documents, espcially economics texts.
Additionally, a MA minor thesis of Pham Thi Minh Chien, “A study on
English translation of Vietnamese traditional medicine texts”. It aims at clarifying
and discussing some characteristics of VTM texts and then giving suggestions on
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strategy and techniques used in translating VTM texts and standardization of
English translation of VTM texts. It also analyzes some common mistakes and
figures out the reasons for this present chaotic situation.
There are some previous studies on translation skill of university students. All
these studies show that different aspects of the problem give the reader a more
multidimensional view and to recognize the importance of improving English
translation skill in general and marketing translation skills in particular.
1.3. Aims of the study
The study primarily aims at figuring out the difficulties faced by third-year
English-majored students at Thuongmai University when it comes to translating
marketing documents from English into Vietnamese. It also aims at suggesting

some possible resolutions to overcome these challenges, providing good strategies
and procedures so that they can furnish the quality of translation.
1.4. Research subjects
This study seeks to answer the following questions:
-

What are the attitudes of third-year students on English-Vietnamese

translation in the field of marketing?
-

What are the main difficulties faced by third-year students when

translating marketing documents for the language pair English-Vietnamese?
-

What are some optimal strategies and tactics to help students enhance their

translation skills in this particular field?
1.5. Scope of the study
At Thuongmai University, translation is one of the obligatory subjects in
the curriculum of English-majored undergraduates. While some of the second-year
students can take this course in advance, most third-year students in the Faculty of
English are required to take this course at the beginning of the first semester. In this
course, they experience translating documents, especially business ones, either from
English into Vietnamese or from Vietnamese into English. This thesis, however,
solely concentrates on exploring and analyzing the challenges in the process of
English-Vietnamese translation in the field of marketing made by third-year

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students at Thuongmai University. The study is conducted in the second semester of
the academic year 2020-2021.
1.6. Research methodology
On basis of scientific research, research methodology is considered a vital
factor which determines the success of a research paper. In today's era of
information technology, numerous sources of materials such as books, newspapers,
and especially the Internet are of great help. To study students’ difficulties in
English-Vietnamese marketing translation, this study adopts two research methods:
quantitative and qualitative.
Regarding the qualitative method, a survey questionnaire for 30 (SỐ LƯỢNG
SVIEN THAM GIA ĐIỀU TRA QUÁ ÍT, TỐI THIỂU LÀ 80 E NHÉ) random
third-year students was carried out to collect data in a brief period. To keep the
results objective, three teachers of English faculty who are in charge of teaching the
translation course at Thuongmai University were also specially invited to an
interview for this study. Besides, test papers were also used to identify common
mistakes in the process of translation.
On the other hand, the quantitative method was used to gather the data and
analyze the challenges via statistics and numbers.
Altogether, they help determine the common difficulties that third-year
students have encountered in the process of translating English marketing materials
into Vietnamese. Comments, remarks, recommendations, and conclusions found in
the study were delivered as a result of the data analysis.
1.7. Organization of the study
This study consists of four main chapters as follows:
The first chapter is the Overview of the study, which provides general
information about the research. It is comprised of seven parts: rationale, previous
studies, aims of the study, research subjects, scope of the study, research
methodology, and organization of the study.

The second chapter is the Literature review. This part provides the concepts
related to the term “translation”, including some different definitions of different

5


authors, theories related to the theoretical background, the difficulties in EnglishVietnamese translation in terms of marketing documents, and translation errors.
The third chapter is called the Research findings, which provides data
analysis, results of the study, and further discussion on the results.
The final chapter is the Recommendations and suggestions where some
resolutions were presented. These suggestions aim to support teachers and students
to adopt effective methods for teaching and learning about technical translation,
especially in the marketing field, as well as to enhance the quality of the translated
documents.

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
1.8. Concepts of translation
2.1.1.

Definitions of translation

There exists various approaches to define translation, depending on how
language and translation are perceived. In that regards, the following definitions
have been selected because of being really typical in some sense.
Peter Newmark (1981:7) indicates that "Translation is a craft consisting in the
attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same
message and/or statement in another language."

Wills (1982: 3) defines translation is a transfer process which aims at the
transformation of a written SL text into an optimally equivalent TL text, and which
requires the syntactic, the semantic and the pragmatic understanding and analytical
processing of the SL. Part of the difficulty in translation arises due to the lexical gap
and syntactical, semantic and pragmatic differences between the source language
and the target language, especially between two languages belonging to different
language families. Therefore, Wills focuses on not only the process of transferring
the written text but also the optimal equivalence about the syntactic, semantic and
pragmatic understanding and analytical processing between source language and
target language.
McGuire (1980: 2) denotes that "Translation involves the rendering of a
source language (SL) text into the target language (TL) so as to ensure that (1) the
surface meaning of the two will be approximately similar and (2) the structure of
the SL will be preserved as closely as possible, but not so closely that the TL
structure will be seriously distorted.” He emphasizes on keeping the closet meaning
when translating from the SL to TL.
In Translation: Applications and Research, Brislin (1976: 1) defines
translation as: "the general term referring to the transfer of thoughts and ideas from
one language (source) to another (target), whether the languages are in written or
oral form; whether the languages have established orthographies or do not have

7


such standardization or whether one or both languages is based on signs, as with
sign languages of the deaf."
Roger Thomas Bell (1991) says that translation is the expression in another
language (target language) of what has been expressed in one language (source
language), preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences. Translation is the
replacement of a presentation of a text in one language by a representation of an

equivalent text in a second language. He focuses on the expression what has been
expressed in the written text such as thoughts or feelings of the author that
translators have to take responsibility to preserve semantic and stylistic
equivalencies.
According to Wikipedia, translation is claimed: “Translation is the interpreting
of the meaning of a text and the subsequent production of an equivalent text,
likewise called a translation that communicates the same message in another
language. The text to be translated is called the source text, and the language that it
is to be translated into is called the target language; the final product is sometimes
called the target text.”
From the above definitions, we know that “translation is rendering a written
text into another language in the way that the author intended the text” (Theory of
interpreting and translation, Thuongmai University.)
It is clear that the above definitions given by different linguists from
different contexts, share common features of emphasizing the importance of finding
closest equivalence in meaning with similar characteristics to the original by the
choice of appropriate target language’s lexical and grammatical structures. Some
sorts of transfer from one language to another also insist on the different methods of
translation which will be taken into consideration in the next part.
2.1.2.

Translation methods

Some of the methods mentioned by Peter Newmark, in his “A Textbook of
Translation” are given below:
2.1.2.1. Word-for-word translation
Word-for-word translation is often demonstrated as interlinear translation, with
the target language immediately the source language words. The source language
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word order is preserved and the words translated singly by their most common
meanings, out of context. Cultural words are translated literally. The main use of
word-for-word translation is either to understand the mechanics of the source
language or to construe a difficult text as pre – translation process.
2.1.2.2. Literal translation
The SL grammatical constructions are translated to their nearest language
(TL). A literal translation sounds like nonsense and has little communicative values.
The lexical words are again translated singly, out of context. The literal translation
used for pre-translation process to identify problems and basis of poetry translation
for poet who does not understand SL.
2.1.2.3. Faithful translation
A faithful translation tries to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the
original within the constraints of the target language grammatical structures. It
“transfers” cultural words and preserves the degree of grammatical and lexical
'abnormality (deviation from the source language norms) in the translation. It
attempts to be completely faithful to the intentions and the text realization of the
source language writer. This kind of translation used for literary translation,
authoritative texts, drafts.
2.1.2.4. Semantic translation
Semantic translation must take more account of the aesthetic value (the
beautiful and natural sound) of the SL text:


More flexible than faithful translation.



Naturalize a bit while faithful translation is uncompromising (but in order

to achieve aesthetic effect), for instance, it may translate cultural words with neutral
or functional items.


Great focus on aesthetic features of source text (at expense of meaning if

necessary).
This kind of translation used for texts that have high status (religion texts,
legal texts, politicians’ speeches), expressive texts (literature).

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2.1.2.5. Adaptation
Adaptation is used mainly for plays (comedies) and poetry; the themes,
characters and plots are usually preserved, the source language culture converted to
the target language culture and the text is rewritten. The deplorable practice of
having a play or a poem literally translated and then rewritten by an established
dramatist or poet has produced many poor adaptations, but other adaptations have
'rescued' period plays.
2.1.2.6. Free translation
Free translation produces the matter without the manner, or the content
without the form of the original. Usually it is a paraphrase much longer than the
original. Free translation focuses on the content of the target text rather than the
form, which means that the same content is expressed in the target text but with
very different grammatical structures if need be.
2.1.2.7. Idiomatic translation
Idiomatic translation reproduces the “message” of the original but tends to
distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms. Idiomatic
translation makes use of idioms and colloquialisms that do not exist in the source

text.
2.1.2.8. Communicative translation
Communicative translation tries to render the exact contextual meaning of the
original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and
comprehensible to the readership. It focuses on factors such as readability and
naturalness. This kind of translation used for informative texts.
2.1.3.

Equivalence in translation

The dictionary defines equivalence as being the same, similar or
interchangeable with something else. In translation terms, equivalence is a term
used to refer to the nature and extent of the relationships between SL and TL texts
or smaller linguistic units.
The problem of equivalence is one of the most important issues in the field
of translating. It is a question of finding suitable counterparts in target language for
expressions in the Source language.
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The comparison of texts in different languages inevitably involves a
theory of equivalence. According to Vanessa Leonardo “Equivalence can be said to
be the central issue in translation although its definition, relevance, and applicability
within the field of translation theory have caused heated controversy, and many
different theories of the concept of equivalence have been elaborated within this
field in the past fifty years.” Here are some elaborate approaches to translation
equivalence:
 Translation equivalence is the similarity between a word (or expression) in
one language and its translation in another. This similarity results from overlapping
ranges of reference.

 Translation equivalence is a corresponding word or expression in another
language.
Nida argued that there are two different types of equivalence, namely
formal equivalence - which in the second edition by Nida and Taber (1982) is
referred to as formal correspondence - and dynamic equivalence. Formal
correspondence “focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content”,
unlike dynamic equivalence which is based upon 'the principle of equivalent effect'
(1964:159). In the second edition (1982) or their work, the two theorists provide a
more detailed explanation of each type of equivalence.
Formal correspondence consists of a TL item which represents the closest
equivalent of a SL word or phrase. Nida and Taber make it clear that there are not
always formal equivalents between language pairs. They therefore suggest that
these formal equivalents should be used wherever possible if the translation aims at
achieving formal rather than dynamic equivalence. The use of formal equivalents
might at times have serious implications in the TT since the translation will not be
easily understood by the target audience (Fawcett, 1997). Nida and Taber
themselves assert that 'Typically, formal correspondence distorts the grammatical
and stylistic patterns of the receptor language, and hence distorts the message, so as
to cause the receptor to misunderstand or to labor unduly hard' (ibid: 201).
Dynamic equivalence is defined as a translation principle according to
which a translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that
11


the TL wording will trigger the same impact on the TC audience as the original
wording did upon the ST audience. They argue that 'Frequently, the form of the
original text is changed; but as long as the change follows the rules of back
transformation in the source language, of contextual consistency in the transfer, and
of transformation in the receptor language, the message is preserved and the
translation is faithful' (Nida and Taber, 1982:200).

Newmark (1988) defined that: “The overriding purpose of any translation
should be achieved „equivalence effect‟ i.e. to produce the same effect on the
readership of translation as was obtained on the readership of the original”. He also
sees equivalence effect as the desirable result rather than the aim of any translation
except for two cases: (a) If the purpose of the SL text is to affect and the TL
translation is to inform or vice versa; (b) If there is a pronounced cultural gap
between the SL and the TL text.
Koller (1979) considers five types of equivalence:
 Denotative equivalence: the SL and the TL words refer to the same thing in
the real world. It is an equivalence of the extra linguistic content of a text.
 Connotative equivalence: This type of equivalence provides additional value
and is achieved by the translator‟s choice of synonymous words or expressions.
 Text-normative equivalence: The SL and the TL words are used in the same
or similar context in their respective languages.
 Pragmatic equivalence: With readership orientation, the SL and TL words
have the same effect on their respective readers.
 Formal equivalence: This type of equivalence produces an analogy of form in
the translation by either exploiting formal possibilities of TL, or creating new forms
in TL.
Although equivalence translation is defined with different point of view of
theorists, it is the same effective equivalence between SL and TL.
2.1.4.

Criteria of a good translation

3. Translation is an intricate and often subjective process that goes far
beyond a simplistic word-for-word exchange. A good translation needs to carry the
meaning and the tone of the original text, while still remaining culturally sensitive
12

and appropriate to the target audience. So, what are the qualities that go into making
a good translation?
4. A good translation must convey all the ideas as well as the structural and
cultural characteristics of the original text. Massoud (1988) put forward the
following criteria to determine a good translation:


A good translation is easily comprehensible.



A good translation is concise and coherent.



A good translation uses common expressions or idioms.



A good translation conveys, to a certain extent, the subtlety of the original.



A good translation is able to distinguish between metaphorical expressions

and literary language.


A good translation renders the cultural/historical context of the original.



A good translation clearly translates acronyms, indefinite words and

phrases, songs, and rhymes.


A good translation communicates as much as possible the meaning of the

original text.
El Shafey, another linguist, suggested a different set of criteria for a good
translation, including 3 key principles:


The knowledge of the source language grammar, vocabulary knowledge,

and a good understanding of the original text.


The ability of the translator to render the text required translation (the

source language text) into the target language.


The translation should capture the style or manner of the original text, and

deliver the message of such text.
According to David Colmer, a good translation goes further and achieves the
self-evidence and urgency of the original. It sings, whispers, hums in the ear and

swears like the original text and leaves the reader thrilled, disturbed and amused in
the same way as the original text. A good translation does not have to be impeccably
starched and ironed, but dares to be ragged and frantic when appropriate. The voice

13


of a good translation is as distinctive in English as the author’s voice in the original
language.
Alex Zucker says that a good translation respects and, therefore, reflects the
author’s style and vocabulary and is sensitive to the meaning, effect and intent of
the original text, but also the best ways to render them in the target language.
From Ros Schwartz’s view, the spirit of a text is captured by a good translation
without slavishly following it to the letter. The energy and texture and voice of the
source text are captured and are replicated in the translation, drawing on all the
resources of the target language. A good translation conveys what is written
between the lines. A good translation perfectly resolves the tension between
meaning and music, and that of being source-text oriented and target-reader
oriented.
According to Larson (1984) suggest the ways in assessing translation quality
are as follows:


Accuracy: The meaning of target text is similar with the source text.



Readability: Readability intended to ensure whether the meaning of

translated text can be understood.



Naturalness: The aim of naturalness is to confirm whether the form of

translated text is natural and equivalent with the target language.
In brief, translation must meet several criteria in order to be considered as a
good translation.
1.9. Translation of English for Specific Purposes
2.2.1.

Definitions of ESP

English for specific Purpose (ESP) is a worldwide subject. Hutchinson and
Waters (1987) note that two key historical periods breathed life into ESP. First, the
end of the Second World War brought with it an “age of enormous and
unprecedented expansion in scientific, technical and economic activity on an
international scale. For various reasons, most notably the economic power of the
United States in the post-war world, the role (of international language) fell to
English". Second, the Oil Crisis of the early 1970s resulted in Western money and
14


knowledge flowing into the oil-rich countries. The language of this knowledge
became English.
The general effect of all this development was to exert pressure on the
language teaching profession to deliver the required goods. Whereas English had
previously decided its own destiny, it now became subject to the wishes, needs and
demands of people other than language teachers (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987, p.7).
The second key reason cited as having a tremendous impact on the emergence
of ESP was a revolution in linguistics. Whereas traditional linguists set out to

describe the features of language, revolutionary pioneers in linguistics began to
focus on the ways in which language is used in real communication. Hutchinson
and Waters (1987) point out that one significant discovery was in the ways that
spoken and written English vary. In other words, given the particular context in
which English is used, the variant of English will change. This idea was taken one
step farther. If language in different situations varies, then tailoring language
instruction to meet the needs of learners in specific contexts is also possible. Hence,
in the late 1960s and the early 1970s there were many attempts to describe English
for Science and Technology (EST). Hutchinson and Waters (1987) identify Ewer
and Latorre, Swales, Selinker and Trimble as a few of the prominent descriptive
EST pioneers.
The final reason Hutchinson and Waters (1987) cite as having influenced the
emergence of ESP has less to do with linguistics and everything to do psychology.
Rather than simply focus on the method of language delivery, more attention was
given to the ways in which learners acquire language and the differences in the
ways language is acquired. Learners were seen to employ different learning
strategies, use different skills, enter with different learning schemata, and be
motivated by different needs and interests. Therefore, focus on the learners' needs
became equally paramount as the methods employed to disseminate linguistic
knowledge. Designing specific courses to better meet these individual needs was a
natural extension of this thinking. To this day, the catchword in ESL circles is
learner-centered or learning-centered.

15


As for a broader definition of ESP, Hutchinson and Waters (1987) theorize,
"ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and
method are based on the learner's reason for learning". Anthony (1997) notes that, it
is not clear where ESP courses end and general English courses begin; numerous

non-specialist ESL instructors use an ESP approach in that their syllabi are based on
analysis of learner needs and their own personal specialist knowledge of using
English for real communication.
2.2.2.

Classification of ESP translation

David Carter (1983) identifies three types of ESP:


English as a restricted language



English for Academic and Occupational Purposes



English with specific topics

The language used by air traffic controllers or by waiters are examples of
English as a restricted language. Mackay and Mountford (1978) clearly illustrate the
difference between restricted language and language with this statement:
The language of international air-traffic control could be regarded as 'special',
in the sense that the repertoire required by the controller is strictly limited and can
be accurately determined situational, as might be the linguistic needs of a diningroom waiter or air-hostess. However, such restricted repertoires are not languages,
just as a tourist phrase book is not grammar. Knowing a restricted 'language' would
not allow the speaker to communicate effectively in novel situation, or in contexts
outside the vocational environment (pp. 4-5).
The second type of ESP identified by Carter (1983) is English for Academic

and Occupational Purposes. In the 'Tree of ELT' (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987), ESP
is broken down into three branches:


English for Science and Technology (EST)



English for Business and Economics (EBE)



English for Social Studies (ESS)

Each of these subject areas is further divided into two branches: English for
Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP). An

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example of EOP for the EST branch is 'English for Technicians' whereas an example
of EAP for the EST branch is 'English for Medical Studies'.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) do note that there is not a clear-cut distinction
between EAP and EOP: "· people can work and study simultaneously; it is also
likely that in many cases the language learnt for immediate use in a study
environment will be used later when the student takes up, or returns to, a job" (p.
16). Perhaps this explains Carter's rationale for categorizing EAP and EOP under
the same type of ESP. It appears that Carter is implying that the end purpose of both
EAP and EOP are one in the same: employment. However, despite the end purpose
being identical, the means taken to achieve the end is very different indeed. I

contend that EAP and EOP are different in terms of focus on Cummins' (1979)
notions of cognitive academic proficiency versus basic interpersonal skills. This is
examined in further detail below.
The third and final type of ESP identified by Carter (1983) is English with
specific topics. Carter notes that it is only here where emphasis shifts from purpose
to topic. This type of ESP is uniquely concerned with anticipated future English
needs of, for example, scientists requiring English for postgraduate reading studies,
attending conferences or working in foreign institutions. However, I argue that this
is not a separate type of ESP. Rather it is an integral component of ESP courses or
programs which focus on situational language. This situational language has been
determined based on the interpretation of results from needs analysis of authentic
language used in target workplace settings.
1.10.

Difficulties of marketing translation

2.2.3.

Concepts of marketing translation

Marketing language as a part of business language. Marketing translation
involves the translation and localization of text from one language to another as
well as delivering the right marketing message, mindful of the cultural preferences
of the target audiences. This can include the adaptation of linguistic elements, such
as idioms, in order to localise the copy for its intended audience. It relates mainly to
the translation of copy, rather than touching on branding and imagery.

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As of the high level of specialization, marketing translation is considered a
sub-type technical translation. The terminology “technical translation” can be
understood in two ways: In its widest meaning, it is about translating userguidelines, instructions brochures, internal notices, medical-term translation,
financial reports, minutes of meetings, administrative terms in general, and so on.
These documents give the information about the distinction of being for a specific
and limited target audience and usually have a limited duration. In its most limited
meaning, technical translation refers to “technical” documentation such as
engineering, IT, electronics, mechanics, economic and industrial texts in general.
Technical translation requires wide knowledge of the specialized terminology used
in the sector of the source text
2.2.4.

Translation errors in marketing field

Difficulties in translation process include some errors which students often
face. Errors have long been the obsession of teaching and learning language.
Therefore, there are many studies about errors in translation. In the teaching and
learning of translation, errors play a crucial role as they “form part of the student’s
learning experience, suggesting that they are actively trying out and experimenting
with linguistic structures in the foreign language” (Dodds, 1999, p. 58). The more
errors the students commit in translation, the worse their translation product is (Na
Pham, 2005). Lennon (1991, p. 182) considers an error as “a linguistic form or
combination of forms which, in the same context and under similar conditions of
production, would, in all likelihood, not be produced by the speakers’ native speaker
counterparts”.
Mossop describes translation errors as a given rendering will be deemed to be
non-translation if it fails to conform to the concept of translation predominant in the
target culture. He identifies translation errors in terms of cultural norm and formal
equivalence. It means that the definition of translation error by Mossop includes the
achievement of formal equivalence but excludes other critical factors such as

smoothness, readability and consistency in translational product.
Viewed from a functionalistic approach, Seguinot (1990, p. 172) defines
translation errors as “an offence against: the function of the translation, the
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coherence of the text, the text type or text form, linguistic conventions, culture- and
situation-specific conventions and conditions, the language system”. According to
Brown (1987: 125), he states that an error is a noticeable deviation from the adult
grammar of native speaker, reflecting the inter language competence of the learner.
Besides, formal equivalence, as defined by Nida and Taber, is a method of
translating literally and protecting rhythm, special stylistic forms, expression in
syntax and lexis, metaphor, word play and so on; therefore, formal equivalence is
mainly used in translating poems and songs, not all kinds of texts.
A more thorough notion of error is proposed by Pym. This scholar supposes
that translation errors may be attributed to lack of comprehension, misuse of time,
inappropriateness to readership, language, pragmatics, culture, over-translation,
under-translation, discursive or semantic inadequacy. In short, translations errors are
defined differently depending on translation theories and norms.
One of the important factors is that, in marketing translation, the concept of
errors goes far beyond instances of breaking rules of grammar, or incorrect
renderings of semantic and stylistic features of the texts to be translated. There is
also a close relation between translation errors and the concept of translation
competence, which, in very general terms, can be defined as a complex of
knowledge and skills that a person needs in order to be able to translate well. As
marketing translation is a subcategory of technical translation, which is a difficult
field, errors in translating marketing documents are more often than not witnessed
in this regard.
The following categories are correspond to the areas that the various
translation errors may concern:



Linguistic knowledge: Errors involves misinterpretation of grammar,

improper use of general words and word combinations, and mechanics.


Cultural adequacy: Errors involves improper treatment of culturally-

embedded words and phrases, misunderstanding the target conventions for the genre
to which the translation belongs, and inappropriate and inconsistent use of officially
accepted target language terminology.

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

Background knowledge: Errors involves lacks of knowledge in the area of

expertise which is marketing.


Methodological approach: Errors involves improper use of translation

methods and strategies which make the translation either too free or too literal,
miscopied figures or names, distorted message, and lack of guidance from the
translation teacher.
These are designed based on the checklist of translation assessment resulted
from earlier research (cf. Cozma 2013), a checklist which was further improved and

developed. However, I must highlight that, the importance of each of these areas
does not have an absolute nature, as it may depend on the particular skill or area that
the translation teacher intends to emphasize on a specific stage of the training
process.

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APPENDIX: QUESTIONNAIRE & INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
A. QUESTIONNAIRE
Hello. My name is Nguyen Thi Hong Ngoc and I’m currently an Englishmajored senior at Thuongmai University. I’m doing a graduation thesis using this
questionnaire to study difficulties faced by third-year English-majored students at
TMU when translating marketing documents for the language pair of English Vietnamese. Your cooperation will help me to discover and come up with the proper
translation tactics and strategies, which makes translation process regarding this
specific aspect much easier.
Read the questions below and select one answer that you find relatable to the
most.
I.

The students’ attitude towards translating English marketing

documents into Vietnamese
Question 1: The practice of translating English marketing documents into
Vietnamese is ___ to me.
A. Very important/important
B. Somewhat important
C. Neutral
D. Not very important
E. Not important
Question 2: Why are you interested in translating English marketing

documents into Vietnamese?
A. Because it helps me achieving high grades in translation subject
B. Because it helps me broaden my knowledge regarding Business English
C. Because it helps me with my future career (i.e. professional translator,
professional interpreter, and Marketer)
D. For those who are not very or not interested, please type your reason here:

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II. Difficulties

in

English-into-Vietnamese

translation

regarding

marketing documents
Question 3: The practice of translating English Marketing documents into
Vietnamese is ___ to me.
A. Very difficult/difficult
B. Somewhat difficult
C. Neutral
D. Not very difficult
E. Not difficult at all
Question 4: In your opinion, which is the major challenge when translating
English marketing documents into Vietnamese?

A. Choosing the proper words for special terms and jargons
B. Conveying the original idea and message
C. Cultural differences
D. All of the above
III. Students’ approaches to practicing translating English marketing
documents into Vietnamese
Question 5: How much time do you spend on practicing translating English
marketing documents into Vietnamese per week outside classes?
A. More than 3 hours
B. 2-3 hours
C. Less than 2 hours
D. I don’t self-study
Question 6: Which is the main method you often apply when translating
English marketing documents into Vietnamese? (You can select more than one
answer, ideally less than three answers).
A. Word-for-word translation
B. Literal translation
C. Faithful translation
D. Semantic translation
E. Adaption translation
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