USING MINDMAPS AS a TOOL TO TEACH ENGLISH VOCABULARY TO 11TH GRADERS

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
VINH UNIVERSITY

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NGÔ THỊ CẢNH

USING MINDMAPS AS A TOOL TO TEACH
ENGLISH VOCABULARY TO 11TH GRADERS

MASTER THESIS IN EDUCATION

NGHE AN- 2017


MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
VINH UNIVERSITY

----------

NGÔ THỊ CẢNH

USING MINDMAPS AS A TOOL TO TEACH
ENGLISH VOCABULARY TO 11TH GRADERS

Major: Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL)

Code: 60.14.01.11

MASTER THESIS IN EDUCATION

SUPERVISOR: TRẦN BÁ TIẾN, PH. D.

NGHE AN – 2017


STATEMENTS OF AUTHORSHIP
I certify that this thesis is the result of my own study and that it has not been
submitted to any other universities and institution wholly and partially. All
statements of my thesis which are not my own are written in quotation and can be
shown in the list of references.
Nghe An, 2017
Author

Ngo Thi Canh


ABSTRACT

At Trieu Son 3 High School, when students learn English, they usually
faced with many difficulties not only in specific language skills but also in
vocabulary memorizing. Because of their learning habits and learning
strategies, they failed to memorize words for a long time and to recall words
when necessary. Based on literature review, it is found that semantic mapping
has had good effects on vocabulary learning; especially it improves the
retention and retrieval of word meanings. The study was conducted to explore
the effects of mind mapping on students’ memorizing and students’ attitudes
towards this method. This experimental study followed a two-group pre-test and
post-test design. The participants were 40 grade 11 students at Trieu Son 3 High
School. Two instruments: (1) the tests on vocabulary knowledge, (2) the
questionnaire on the students’ perceptions towards mind mapping were employed to

collect both quantitative and qualitative data. The results indicated that the students
in the experimental group outperformed those in the control condition in retaining
word meanings. The results also proved that the students had positive attitudes
towards mind mapping. This leads to the implication that the mind mapping can
improve high school students’ vocabulary retention and is promising to vocabulary
teaching and learning.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This thesis would not have been completed without the support of many people.
First, and foremost I would like to express my deepest thanks to my supervisor
Ph.D Tran Ba Tien for his assistance, encouragement and guidance.
I would like to convey my thanks to all my teachers at the Post Graduate
Faculty, Department of Foreign Languages, Vinh University whose fundamental
knowledge about langue teaching and learning is of great importance to the
achievement of my academic study.
Finally, I would like to express the warmest gratitude to my colleagues,
friends, students, especially my beloved family. I feel greatly indebted to them for
their essential help and encouragement

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ABBREVIATIONS
CA

: Communication Apprehension

CLT

: Communicative Language Teaching

EFL

: English as Foreign Language

ESL

: English as Second Language

L1

: First Language

L2

: Second Language

MM

: Mind mapping

CG

: Control Group

EG

: Experimental Group

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
STATEMENTS OF AUTHORSHIP........................................................................i
ABSTRACT.............................................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...................................................................................iii
ABBREVIATIONS.................................................................................................iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................v
LIST OF TABLES.................................................................................................vii
LIST OF FIGURES..............................................................................................viii
Chapter 1.......................................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................... 1
1. 1 Rationale................................................................................................................................... 1
1. 2 Aim of the study........................................................................................................................ 2
1.3 Research questions................................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Scope of the study..................................................................................................................... 3
1.5 Methods of the study................................................................................................................. 3
1.6 Design of the Study................................................................................................................... 3
Chapter 2.......................................................................................................................................... 5
LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND.......................................................5
2.1 Vocabulary learning................................................................................................................... 5
2.1.1 What is vocabulary?............................................................................................................ 5
2.1.2 What is involved in knowing a word?...................................................................................6
2.1.3 The importance of vocabulary.............................................................................................7
2.1.4 Kinds of vocabulary............................................................................................................. 7
2.1.5 Vocabulary retention.......................................................................................................... 14

2.2 Vocabulary teaching................................................................................................................ 16
2.2.1 Multimodality..................................................................................................................... 17
2.2.2 Multimodality and the English language teaching..............................................................18
2.2.3 The application of multimodal teaching to English vocabulary teaching............................19
2.3 Mind maps................................................................................................................................ 20
2.3.1 What is a mind map?......................................................................................................... 20

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2.3.2 Classifications of mind maps............................................................................................. 21
2.3.3 Characteristics of mind maps............................................................................................ 24
2.3.4 Advantages of mind maps................................................................................................. 25
2.3.5 How to draw a mind map................................................................................................... 25
2.3.6 Applying mind maps to teaching and learning...................................................................26
2.3.7 The applications of mind mapping to teaching a foreign language....................................27
2.3.8 The applications of mind mapping to teaching vocabulary................................................29
2.3.8.3 Activities in teaching with mind maps.............................................................................33
Chapter 3........................................................................................................................................ 38
METHODOLOGY............................................................................................................................ 38
3.1 Research questions................................................................................................................. 38
3.2 Research design...................................................................................................................... 38
3.3 The participants....................................................................................................................... 38
3.4 Materials................................................................................................................................... 39
3.5 Research instruments............................................................................................................. 39
3.5.1 Tests on vocabulary knowledge (SEE APPENDIX 1)........................................................41
3.5.2 Questionnaire on the students’ perceptions towards mind mapping (SEE APPENDIX 2). 42
3.6 Data analysis............................................................................................................................ 45
Chapter 4........................................................................................................................................ 46
FINDINGS AND DISSCUSSION..................................................................................................... 46

4.1 Pretest and Posttest................................................................................................................ 46
4.1.1 Pre-test.............................................................................................................................. 46
4.1.2 Post-test............................................................................................................................ 48
4.1.3 Improvement of the control and experiment groups in vocabulary knowledge..................50
4.2 Students’ feedbacks on the application of MM in vocabulary lessons (from
questionnaires).............................................................................................................................. 55
Chapter 5........................................................................................................................................ 59
CONCLUSION................................................................................................................................ 59
5.1 Conclusion............................................................................................................................... 59
5.2 Pedagogical implications and suggestions..........................................................................60
5.2.1 Limitation of the study....................................................................................................... 60
5.2.2 Suggestions for further research.......................................................................................61

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REFERENCES................................................................................................................................ 62
APPENDIX 1...................................................................................................................................... I
APPENDIX 2.................................................................................................................................... VI
APPENDIX 5.................................................................................................................................. XIII

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LIST OF TABLES
Page

vii

LIST OF FIGURES
Page

viii


Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1. 1 Rationale
The importance of vocabulary in English as a second language (ESL) or
English as a foreign language (EFL) learning process has been widely recognized.
Much of the research indicates that enlarging language vocabulary has been one of
the objectives of many EFL learners. When learning English, students in my
teaching context, Trieu Son 3 High School, also try hard to improve their
vocabulary knowledge. However, students have to cope with many difficulties in
learning vocabulary, especially in memorizing and recalling the word meanings.
Low vocabulary proficiency makes an obstacle for them in acquiring language
knowledge and participating in the activities in class. It is frustrating when they
discover that they cannot communicate effectively because they do not know
enough words they need. Students usually forget the words they learnt or fail to use
words communicatively. They cannot get words into long-term memory and recall
them when necessary. Although they spend most of their time learning vocabulary,
the results are disappointing.
One of the reasons for students’ low vocabulary retention and retrieval can be
addressed as their learning habits. Their learning habits such as writing down words
on a piece of paper, learning words by heart, heavily depending on wordlists in
textbook, passively waiting for teacher’s explanation for new words seem to be
ineffective and make them bored with learning vocabulary. In order to memorize
new items, students often use rote memorization techniques. As they reported, they
used to write down the words for several times, to speak aloud the words and to

make sentences with words. They admitted that they fail to recall most of the words
they had learnt before as there were no clues. It can be seen that students’ bad
memory is due to lack of appropriate vocabulary memorizing strategies. They are
not provided with different vocabulary learning techniques and are not encouraged

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to use them. They also have no chance to work with words in a deeper process. This
is a pity because working with words can be enjoyable and satisfying for learners.
The questions posed to teachers of English at Trieu Son 3 High School are
how to help students memorize words effectively and how to motivate them in
vocabulary lessons. Teachers can encourage their students to systematically record
vocabulary that they taught in class. They also provide them with strategies transfer
this record into their long-term memory so that each item is added to the repertoire
of words and phrases that they can understand and use when necessary.
There is a wide variety of previous research into the effects of mind mapping on
vocabulary memorizing: Ward and Annita (1998), Pikula (1987), DeCarrico (2001),
Margosein, Pascarella and Pflaum (1982) and Vogt (1983). The above research indicated
the positive effects of mind mapping on students’ vocabulary memorizing.
In my teaching context at Trieu Son 3 High School, the English teachers
seldom use mind mapping in teaching vocabulary. Besides, there was not yet any
empirical study on the use of mind mapping in vocabulary teaching and learning at
Trieu Son 3 High School.
For all the reasons mentioned above, I have decided to choose “Using
mindmaps as a tool to teach English vocabulary to 11 th graders” as the topic of
my MA thesis
1. 2 Aim of the study
Multimodality has long been proposed by various researchers to be an
approach that involves different aspects in interaction, including verbal and written

language, pictures, graphics, speech… (Baldry&Thibault, 2006). In the sense of
language teaching, multimodality has been proved to be beneficial to students’
learning process and help stimulate learners with a motivating environment. When
applied to the teaching of vocabulary as an aspect of language teaching,
multimodality is often discussed from the angle of using visuals in teaching such as
mind map, images, pictures, graphics, etc. This study, which focuses on vocabulary
teaching methods, is going to investigate the application of multimodality to the

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vocabulary learning of students from the perspectives of using mind map in some
communicative activities to enhance students’ vocabulary retention. The major aim
of the research is to investigate whether the use of mind maps in vocabulary
teaching can help improve students’ vocabulary retention. The participants in the
study are students at Trieu Son 3 high school.
1.3 Research questions
In an attempt to achieve the above-presented aims, the study should to answer
the following research questions:
1. How does mindmapping affect students’ motivation in learning English
vocabulary?
2. Does mindmapping facilitate students’ retention of new words?
1.4 Scope of the study
The research is focuses on using mind-map to teach English vocabulary to 11 th
graders at Trieu Son 3 high school.
1.5 Methods of the study
This study involves 40 students at Trieu Son 3 high school. The study employs
vocabulary test (pre-test and post-test) and survey questionnaire as the principal
method of data collection. Data are analyzed statistically, resulting in percentage of
items. The data are presented in tables and figures in Chapter Four. More details

about research methodology are provided in Chapter Three.
1.6 Design of the Study.
The study consists of the following parts:
Chapter 1. Introduction: This part introduce the issues leading to the study,
including rationale, aims, methods, scope, and organization of the study.
Chapter 2: Literature review: Theoretical background relevant to the topic
and surveys of articles, books and other resources relevant to a particular the study
topic be presented. This part also provide description, summary, and critical
evaluation of each work quoted.

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Chapter 3. Methodology: This part presents the detailed procedure of the
study: the methodology, population selection, data collection and analysis.
Chapter 4. Findings and Discussions: The part deals with the findings drawn
out from the analysis of data. The findings and discussion are based on the study
about difficulties in teaching and learning English vocabulary and the solutions for
these problems.
Chapter 5. Conclusion: Main points and contents of the study are summarized
based on the results of the study. The implication of the study and the
recommendation for further research will be presented.

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Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
This chapter focuses on the literature review and theoretical background of
the study. It includes a number of important theoretical terms related to

vocabulary, vocabulary teaching, mind map and previous studies related to the
research will also be mentioned.
2.1 Vocabulary learning
2.1.1 What is vocabulary?
So far there have been a lot of definitions of vocabulary. Vocabulary is defined
as words in a specific language or freestanding items of language that have meaning
(McCarthy, 1990). Ur (1996) defined vocabulary roughly as “the words we teach in
the foreign language”. Besides, vocabulary is broadly defined as knowledge of
words and word meanings (Lehr et al., 2004). According to Lehr et al., vocabulary
is more complicated than this definition suggests. Words not only come in oral
forms which include the words that can be recognized and used in listening and
speaking, but also in print forms of reading and writing. In addition, word
knowledge also comes in two forms: receptive and productive. Receptive
vocabulary refers to words that can be recognized in reading and listening.
Productive vocabulary indicates words that can be used in speaking and writing
(Lehr et. al., 2004). Therefore, vocabulary is understood as knowledge of word
spelling, pronunciation, collocations and appropriateness (Nation, 1990). Pyles
(1970), from another perspective, confirmed that vocabulary is the focus of
language with its sounds and meaning, which interlock to allow us to communicate
with one another.
As discussed above, vocabulary can be seen in many different ways.
Vocabulary refers to words or a set of words in a language or knowledge of words
regarding its forms, meanings and how to use it accurately in the context. In other

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words, vocabulary refers to the words, compounds and idioms in a language that
can be used to convey and receive information in oral and written communication.
2.1.2 What is involved in knowing a word?

When it comes to vocabulary, it surely is the first step toward learning a
foreign language. A sentence is usually made up of numerous words. Without any
concepts of grammar, learners may guess the meaning of a sentence if the
vocabulary is comprehensible to them. Likewise, learners of a foreign language are
likely to get their messages across by putting all the words together, even though
not in a grammatical, correct order. Therefore, vocabulary serves as the foundation
for language learners in communication. However, mastering numerous vocabulary
lists to use in communication is not always easy for language learners. For some
students, vocabulary has always been one of the obstacles that hinder their English
learning. Learners may have different problems in learning vocabulary. Some are
capable of recognizing the word in reading but fail to spell it out. Some are able to
spell the word out in writing, yet they mispronounce the word in speaking. Still,
others can say the word and spell it out perfectly, but surprisingly, they may not
know the meaning of the word. Indeed, to learn is one thing; to know is another.
In order to know a new word, students need to take great efforts. Nation
(2001) pointed out that in order to know a word, many aspects are involved. Nation
distinguished vocabulary knowledge into receptive and productive. The former
refers to the ability to understand a word while listening or reading. The latter
means the ability to use a word in speaking or writing. Sun (2007) introduced an
idea that vocabulary gaining develops along a linear continuum, and that the
concept denies the dichotomy that vocabulary knowledge is either known or
unknown. On the both ends of the continuum are one’s receptive vocabulary
knowledge as well as one’s productive knowledge. This model assumes that for a
word to be a productive one, it must be a receptive one first (Melka, 1997;
Palmberg, 1987; Pigott, 1981, as cited in Sun, 2007).

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2.1.3 The importance of vocabulary

Regarding the importance of vocabulary, Krashen (1989) pointed out that “a
large vocabulary is, of course, essential for mastery of a language” as “without
vocabulary, nothing can be conveyed” (Wilkins, 1972).
Rubin and Thompson (1994) considered the significant role of vocabulary in
communication as stating that “one cannot speak, understand, read or write a
foreign language without knowing a lot of words. Vocabulary learning is at the
heart of mastering a foreign language”. Nguyen and Khuat (2003) also accepted that
vocabulary knowledge plays an important role in learning a foreign language.
Vocabulary is one element that links the four skills of speaking, listening, reading
and writing all together. Vocabulary is a core component of language proficiency
and provides much of the basis for how well learners listen, speak, read, and write
(Richards and Renandya, 2002).
In fact, vocabulary is a means to support communication. It is a necessary
component of language instruction. In order to communicate well in a foreign
language, learners should acquire an adequate numbers of words and should know
how to use them accurately. When emphasizing the importance of vocabulary in
communication, Della and Hocking (1992) also claimed that with a little grammar,
the learners can have a little smooth communication, but without vocabulary, it is
difficult for others to understand the information the learners want to express. For
this reason, a lack of good grammatical structures may not interrupt communication.
However, if we lack vocabulary, there is no successful communication. With a good
knowledge of vocabulary, learners may feel confident in communication, and it
contributes to the success in communication. However, the question to arise is
which words are necessary for learners to know and how to remember these words.
2.1.4 Kinds of vocabulary
Thornbury (2002: 3) states that knowing how words are described and categorized
can help us understand the decisions that syllabus planners, materials writers and teacher
make when it comes to the teaching of vocabulary. There are some kinds of vocabulary:

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Noun
Nouns are words that used to name a person, animal, place, or thing. Seaton
(2007: 5) states every name is called a noun. Azar (2006: 158) suggest that a noun is
used as the subject of sentence, as the object of verb and a noun is also used as the
object of a preposition.
There are some kinds of nouns:
1. Countable nouns; are the nouns can be counted. Azar (2003: 313) states that
countable nouns can be counted with numbers, can be preceded by a/an in the
singular, has a plural form ending in -sor –es. Ex: one pen, a cat, box, table, etc.
2. Uncountable noun; are the nouns can be not counted. Ex: milk, sugar, oil,
etc. McCarty (1994: 52) states that uncountable nouns are not normally used with
a(n) or the plural, e.g. information, not an information, or some information.
3. Singular nouns; are single nouns. Sargeant (2007: 11) states when you are
talking about just one thing or person, use a singular noun. Ex: a car, a pen, an
orange, etc.
4. Plural nouns; are nouns which more than one. Seaton (2007: 23) states that
when you are talking about two or more people, animals, places, or things, use
plural nouns. Ex: some books, many girls, two knives, etc.
5. Common nouns; are general words which show the class or type for people,
animals, places or things. Sargeant (2007: 7) states that words

for people, places

and things are called common nouns. Ex: water, teacher, city, etc.
6. Proper Nouns; are names for particular people, places or things. Sargeant
(2007: 8) states that the names of particular people, places and things are proper
nouns. They always begin with a capital letter. Ex: Lisa, America, Sunday, etc.
7. Concrete Nouns; are names for things that can be felt, groped or seen. Ex:

sweet, water, noisy, etc.
8. Abstract Noun; are names for things that can be not felt, groped or seen.

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McCarty (1994: 22) suggest that an abstract noun is one which is used to mean
an idea, experience or quality rather than an object. Ex: happiness, friendship,
agreement, etc.
9. Collective Nouns; are words that used to name for group of peoples, animals or
things. Sargeant (2007: 17) states that words for groups of people, animals or things are
called collective nouns. Ex: family, a brood of chickens, a school of fish, etc.
Pronoun
Pronoun is the words that used to replace the noun when we want to refer to
people or things without continually repeating their names. Seaton (2007: 44) states
pronoun is a word that takes the place of a common noun or a proper noun. Azar
(2006: 164) suggest that pronoun has the same meaning as a noun. It is divided into
some types as follow.
1. Personal pronouns; are the pronouns which function as subjects and object
in the sentences. As subject, such as; I, you, they, we, she, he, it. And as object such
as; me, you, them, us, her, him and it. Seaton (2007: 44) states that the words I,
you, he, she, it, we and they are called personal pronouns. They take the place of
nouns and are used as the subject of the verb in a sentence. Seaton (2007: 45) states
that the words me, you, him, her, it, us and them are also personal pronouns. They
also take the place of nouns. These pronouns are used as the object of the verb in a
sentence.
2. Possessive pronoun; are the pronouns that show possession, such as: my,
your, their, our, his, her and Its.
3. Reflexive pronouns; are the pronouns that refers to another noun or pronoun
in the sentence. They are also show reflection of the pronouns themselves, such as:

myself, yourself, themselves, herself, etc. Seaton (2007: 47) states that The words
myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves and themselves are
called reflexive pronouns. They refer to the person or animal that is the subject of
the verb.

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4. Demonstrative pronoun; are the pronoun that used as word change indicator.
Seaton (2007: 49) states the words this, these, that and those are called
demonstrative pronouns. They are showing words, such as; this, that, these, those,
some, etc.
5. Interrogative pronoun; are the pronoun that used in question. Ex: what,
where, when, etc. Seaton (2007: 48) states that the words who,

whom, whose,

what and which are called interrogative pronouns. These pronouns are used to
ask questions.
Verb
Verbs are words that show an action or an event or being. Whatever we are
doing can be expressed by using a verb. Jeremy Harmer (1998: 37) suggest that
verb is a word (or group of words) which is used in describing an action, experience
or state. Verb classified into three types such as:
1. Transitive verb is a verb that needs an object. Redman (1997: 38) states that
many phrasal verbs are transitive and need a direct object. Ex: catch, drive, eat, etc.
2. Intransitive verb is a verb that does not need an object. Redman (1997: 38)
states that some phrasal verbs are intransitive and do not need a direct object. Ex:
cry, laugh, sleep, etc.
3.Auxiliary verb is a verb that helps another verb or the principle verb to

express action or condition or state of being. Sargeant (2007: 88) states

that

auxiliary, or helping verbs, are used before infinitives to add a different meaning.
Ex: is, am, are, was, were, etc.
Adjective
Adjective is word that used to explain noun by describing, identifying, or
quantifying. Jeremy Harmer (1998: 37) suggests that adjective is a word that gives
more information about a noun or pronoun. Ron Cowan (2008: 238) states that
adjective describe the properties of an entity that a noun represents. Sargeant (2007:
32) states that adjectives describe nouns and pronouns. They give you more
information about people, places, and things. There are some types of adjective:

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1. Qualitative adjective is used to explain the situation of things, people, place
or animal. Such as; big, fat, far, brave, etc.
2. Proper adjectives; they describes a person or things with a certain name
such as: Indonesian, Turkish, English and etc.
3. Quantitative Adjectives; they describes quantity of things (how much) such
as; much, little, a lot of, some, any, enough, etc.
Adverbs
Adverbs are the words that used to clarify verbs, adjectives and the whole
sentences. Commonly an adverb will tell you when, where, how, in what manner or
to what extent an action is performed. Jeremy Harmer (1998: 37) states adverb is a
word (or group of words) that describes or adds to the meaning of a verb, adjective,
another adverb or a whole sentence. Ron Cowan (2008: 251) states adverbs can
modify adjectives, other adverbs, verbs, and clauses. There some types of adverbs:

1. Adverb of manner; are words that used to explain how something happen.
In general adverbs of manner are formed by adding suffix –LY at adjectives. It
is used after or before object on a sentence. Such as; normal, fast, hard, etc.
2. Adverb of time; are words that used to explain the time when something
happens, such as; now, today, tomorrow, everyday, etc. The adverbs are used on the
first and the last of sentences.
3. Adverb of place; are words that used to explain the location where
something happens, such as: here, there, around, beside, near, etc. It is placed on
after verb, object, and adverb of manner.
4. Adverb of degree; are the adverb that clarifies the extent of something or
event, such as: only, much, quite, almost, very, rather, etc. The adverbs are placed
after “To Be”, before all of verb, and before adjective and adverb that explained.
5. Adverb of Frequency; are the adverb that used to explain often or seldom
something done. The adverbs are placed after “To Be”, before or after verbs, after
object, after auxiliary, before the first word of a verb phrase if we want to explain
the adverbs. Such as: always, seldom, often, never, etc.

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6. Interrogative adverb; are the adverbs that follow to form question on a
sentence. The adverbs are placed on the first of questions. Such as: when, why,
where, how.
7. Relative adverb; are the adverb that used to be as link on sentences or
clause. The adverbs placed after the first sentence of clause. Such as: when, where,
why, etc.
8. Inversion; are the adverb which have negative meaning followed by verb
and subject. Such as: never again, neither, nowhere, etc.
Prepositions
Preposition is words that used to connect one word with the others. Seaton

(2007: 132) states preposition is words that connect one thing with another, showing
how they are related. Sargeant (2007: 101) states that prepositions are words that
show a connection between other words. For instance: in, by, between, through, at,
for, next to, up to, in front of, as well as, etc. There are some kinds of preposition:
1. Preposition of place are used to show where something happen. Sargeant
(2007: 102) suggest that some prepositions show where something happens. They
are called prepositions of place. Ex: under, inside, beside, etc.
2. Preposition of time are used to show when something happen. Sargeant
(2007: 102) states that some prepositions show when something happens. They are
called prepositions of time. Ex: at, on, in, during, etc.
3. Preposition of direction are used to show where something is going.
Sargeant (2007: 103) states that some prepositions show where something is
going. They are called prepositions of direction. Ex: along, towards, out of, etc.
Conjunctions
Seaton (2007:135) write that a conjunction is a linking word such as and, or,
but. Conjunctions are used to connect words or sentences. Sargeant (2007: 109)
suggest that conjunctions are words used to link words, phrases or clauses. There
are some types of conjunctions;

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1. Coordinating conjunction is used to connect two equal sentences, such as:
and, but, or, etc.
2. Subordinating conjunction; is used to join or connect two equal sentences
they are dependent clause and independent clause. For example; because, although,
however, since, unless, etc.
Determiner
Seaton (2007: 71-75) states determiner are words such as this, those, my,
their, which. They are special adjectives that are used before nouns. The words a,

an, and the belong to this group of words called determiner. There are some
types of determiner:
1. Demonstrative determiners are used to tell which thing or person you
mean. Ex: this, that, those, these. Sargeant (2007:
46) states that the words this, that, these and those are also special pronoun
called determiner. They are used to point out which thing or person you mean. They
are called demonstrative determiners.
2. Interrogative determiners are used to ask about people or things.
Ex: what, which, whose. Sargeant (2007: 49) states that the words what, which
and whose are used before nouns to ask questions. Interrogative determiners appear
just before nouns.
3. Possessive determiners are used to say who something belongs to. Ex: my,
your, his, her, their. Sargeant (2007: 49) suggests that the words my, your, his, her,
its, our and their are used before nouns to show ownership. They are called
possessive determiners.
4. Quantifying determiners are used to tell quantity of things, animals, or
people without giving an exact number. Sargeant (2007: 47) states that words such
as many, much and several tell about quantity without giving an exact number. They
are called quantifying determiners. Ex: a few children, both brothers, several
friends, etc.
5. Numbers are used to tell how many people or things there are.

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Sargeant (2007: 50) suggest that numbers are determiners, too. Numbers are
often used before nouns to tell you exactly how many people or things there are. Ex:
two dogs, a hundred years, etc.
2.1.5 Vocabulary retention
One of the significance in vocabulary learning process is not always students’

comprehending word meaning or spelling, but vocabulary retention. Retention is
defined as “the ability to retain facts and figures in memory”. Vocabulary retention,
in a similar way, can be referred to as the storage ofvocabulary in memory,
whichbecomes available for usage when needed. The efficiency of vocabulary
learning can be measured by the extent to which students can remember the words
that they’ve already learned to apply in the productive or receptive language
learning. Important as it is, it is worth spending time figuring out the factors that
can affect students’ vocabulary retention.
According to different researchers, retention of vocabulary is affected by three
following factors: memory, language exposure and effective vocabulary learning
strategies. There is a close relationship among these three factors.
2.1.5.1 Memory
Short-term and long-term memory
Cognitive psychologists divide memory into short-term and long-term
memory according to duration of memory retention and capacity of recalling
information after the original input. Long-term memory retains information for use
in anything but the immediate future. Short-term memory is used to store or hold
information while it is being processed. The object of vocabulary learning is to
transfer the lexical information from the short-term memory to the more permanent
long-term memory (Schmitt, 2000).
According to Gairns and Redman (1986), long-term memory is seemingly
inexhaustible and can accommodate any amount of information. It is generally
acknowledged that we need to work much harder to commit information to longterm memory, and the type of repetition that is essential to short-term retention may

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