OUT OF CLASS ENGLISH VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGIES INSIGHTS FROM HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
VINH UNIVERSITY

TRẦN THỊ HẢI

OUT-OF-CLASS ENGLISH VOCABULARY
LEARNING STRATEGIES: INSIGHTS FROM
HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS

Major: Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL)
Code: 60.14.01.11

MASTER’S THESIS IN EDUCATION

Supervisor: Nguyễn Gia Việt, Ph.D.

Nghe An, 2017


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ABSTRACT
This study was motivated by an interest in the process of acquisition of
English vocabulary by a previously unstudied group of learners, high school
students. The study identified the vocabulary learning strategies of 70 students
in high school. It also examined relationships between reported strategies and
their insights over the period of the studying English out-of-class. The data were
collected with a self-report online questionnaire administered at the beginning of
the 2017 semester, as well as with interviews with the participants. Descriptive
analysis of students’ importance indicated that the participants highly valued the
role of vocabulary in studying a foreign language, understood the complexity of

the process of vocabulary acquisition, and believed that words and phrases
should be carefully studied and then practiced in context. The participants
reported high motivation and high expectations of their success as learners of
English. Descriptive analysis of vocabulary learning strategies demonstrated that
besides active use of a dictionary, guessing, and note-taking strategies, virtually
all participants reported frequent use of rehearsal strategies, especially
repetition.
Analysis of the responses to open-ended questions and interview prompts
confirmed that the participants frequently used repetition and rehearsal strategies
and considered them most effective for establishing form–meaning connections
for new words. The respondents also reported frequent use of contextual
encoding, activation, and affective strategies. Comparison of the results of the
two questionnaires revealed several vocabulary learning strategies that
underwent changes as a result of one semester of studying English. At the end of
the semester students reported even more agreement with value of repetition,
practice, good memory, and cultural knowledge for learning vocabulary.


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Interviewed students explained this shift by noting the difficulty of
English vocabulary and cognitive overload while trying to acquire new words in
context. These findings once again argue against the claim that contextual
acquisition of foreign language vocabulary is always effective in instructed
foreign language learning. Using correlation and cluster analyses, the study
identified multiple relationships between groups of vocabulary learning
strategies, as well as between the importance and strategies. From detailed
findings, some implications for teaching reading skill were proposed.
Limitations of the study were pointed out and further research was suggested.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to express my deepest thanks to my beloved
supervisor, Nguyen Gia Viet, who directly supported and encouraged me during
the preparation of this study. I am truly grateful to him for his professional
advice, invaluable support and guidance he offered to help me carry out the
study.
I would also like to express my gratitude to all lecturers and staff of the
Department of Foreign Languages, Vinh University who supply me with the
good conditions to conduct this thesis.
I wish to express my sincere thanks to the students of the two classes I
worked with in order to gather data for my study.
Last but not least, I owe special heartfelt appreciation to my parents, my
friends without whose unceasing support, patience and understanding I could
not have been able to complete my study.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS
...................................................................................................................................................iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS..........................................................................................................iv
................................................................................................................................................iv
Techniques in remembering vocabulary teachers have to think of ways of making the
experience of learning and recycling vocabulary more memorable. Pavicic mentions her
former research in which she divided learning strategies into four groups......................11
...................................................................................................................................................74
CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSION............................................................................................75
Griffiths, C. (2013). The Strategy Factor in Successful Language Learning. Bristol, UK:
Multilingual Matters.................................................................................................................84
APPENDICES..........................................................................................................................90

APPENDIX A...........................................................................................................................90
APPENDIX B...........................................................................................................................92
APPENDIX C...........................................................................................................................94
APPENDIX D...........................................................................................................................96
APPENDIX E...........................................................................................................................98
APPENDIX F..........................................................................................................................100
APPENDIX H.........................................................................................................................102
.................................................................................................................................................103
APPENDIX L.........................................................................................................................104


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LIST OF TABLES
Table: 1.1 Vocabulary learning strategies listed by Gu & Johnson (1996) Error:
Reference source not found
Table 1.2. Vocabulary learning strategies......Error: Reference source not found
Table 1.3. Self-Regulating Capacity in Vocabulary Learning scale..........Error:
Reference source not found
Table 4.1.The importance of learning English vocabulary......Error: Reference
source not found
Table 4.2 The importance to use vocabulary. Error: Reference source not found
Table 4.3 Means and standard deviation of participants’ vocabulary learning
strategies by using wordlists measured level (1+2+3) and level (4+5+6).Error:
Reference source not found
Table 4.4 Means and standard deviations of participants’ vocabulary learning
strategies by repetition measured by levels for two groups.....Error: Reference
source not found
Table 4.5: Means and standard deviations of participants’ vocabulary learning
strategies by associations measured by levels for two groups. Error: Reference

source not found
Table 4.6 Means and standard deviations of participants’ vocabulary learning
strategies by encoding: Imagery measured by levels for two groups........Error:
Reference source not found


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Table 4.7 Means and standard deviations of participants’ vocabulary learning
strategies by contextual encoding measured by levels for two groups....Error:
Reference source not found
Table 4.8 Means and standard deviations of participants’ vocabulary learning
strategies by visual encoding of word structure measured by levels for two
groups............................................................Error: Reference source not found
Table 4.9 Means and standard deviations of participants’ vocabulary learning
strategies by analysis of word structure measured by levels for two groups
.......................................................................Error: Reference source not found
Table 4.10 Result of score on using dictionary on cognitive and affective
strategies by participants from the two groups.......Error: Reference source not
found
Table 4.11 Result of score on using note-taking on cognitive and affective
strategies by participants from the two groups.......Error: Reference source not
found
Table 4.12 Result of score on using guessing on cognitive and affective
strategies by participants from the two groups.......Error: Reference source not
found
Table 4.13 Result of score on using technology on cognitive and affective
strategies by participants from two groups. . .Error: Reference source not found
Table 4.14 Result of score on using semantic encoding affective strategies on
cognitive and affective strategies by participants from the two groups....Error:
Reference source not found

Table 4.15.The rank of strategy categories in descending order...............Error:
Reference source not found
Table 4.16 The most frequently used vocabulary learning strategies (mean
≥4.50)............................................................ Error: Reference source not found


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Table 4.17 the least frequently used vocabulary learning strategies (mean ≤
3.50)...............................................................Error: Reference source not found
Table 4.18: Students’ difficulties learning vocabulary (N=70) Error: Reference
source not found
Table 4.19.The relationship between learning vocabulary and learning
strategies........................................................Error: Reference source not found
Table 4.20 Relationship between S21 and learning strategies. Error: Reference
source not found
Table 4.21 The most frequently used vocabulary learning strategies at time 1
and time 2......................................................Error: Reference source not found
Table 4.22 Perceived helpfulness of activities........Error: Reference source not
found
Table 4.23: Support activities for learning vocabulary out - of - class......Error:
Reference source not found
Table 4.24 Means and standard deviations of level (1+2+3) and level (4+5+6)
on vocabulary learning strategies for the treatment and control groups (Time
1)....................................................................Error: Reference source not found
Table 4.25 Means and standard deviations of level (1+2+3) and level (4+5+6)
on vocabulary learning strategies for the treatment and control groups (Time
2)....................................................................Error: Reference source not found


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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
This chapter consists of the following five parts which offer a general outline
of the study: rationale, the aims and objectives, research questions, scope and design
of the study..
1.1 Rationale
English has been used more and more widely. It also becomes a
compulsory subject in education curriculum. Especially, nowadays, vocabulary
learning plays an important role in language teaching in the context where
English is taught as a foreign language. McCarthy (1990) stated that “No matter
how well the students learn grammar, no matter successfully the sounds of L2
are mastered, without words to express a wide range of meanings,
communication an L2 just can not happen in any meaningful way”. This is
because lexical competence is now seen as the heart of language learning and
the ultimate goal of language teaching is to improve the language competence of
learners.
Moreover, vocabulary has been recognized as an important factor for
language learning because insufficient vocabulary knowledge leads the learners
to encounter difficulties in language learning. Learners can significantly
improve their language competence by developing their ability to use
vocabulary learning strategies (VLSs). High students generally encounter
problems in English learning, except those who attend international programs
where English is used as the medium of instruction (Somsai & Intaraprasert,
2011). Despite a regular use of the English language both inside and outside the
classroom settings, the students still encounter problems in their out-of-class
learning and they are difficult to communicate because of lacking vocabulary.


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The reason may be because vocabulary has been recognized as crucial to
language use in which insufficient vocabulary knowledge of the learners led to

difficulties in second language learning (Asgari& Mustapha, 2011). Mastering
vocabulary is one of the most challenging tasks that any learner faces while
acquiring another language (Nyikos& Fan, 2007). Thus, in the case of language
learning, students need to be educated with the strategies Silpakorn University
Journal of Social Sciences, Humanities, and Arts149 which can help the learners
acquiring the meaning of words. The particular strategies which are used by
learners for the acquisition of new words in the second language are called
‘vocabulary learning strategies’ (Gu, 1994).
Michael Shelby manifested that other difficulties in learning and using
English vocabulary include fixed word collocations, phrasal verbs, idioms,
proverbs and regional differences in vocabulary usage. There are differences in
English usage in English-speaking countries in terms of spelling, pronunciation,
vocabulary and grammar. This problems can be mentioned by any language
learners, any age bracket. Real situations for some difficulties which students
usually encounter in the out-of- class vocabulary learning is attaining the
vocabulary in mind, misunderstanding some words, forgetting promptly the
words.
Moreover, communication will become more difficult with the reason
lacking vocabulary. In addition, the high school must learn many subject, so,
they are limited the time, the problem dividing suitable time in house to study is
necessary to be noticeable in this study. To face with challenges about out-ofclass vocabulary learning problems, these strategies should have been brought to
the language classroom to enhance language learners’ effectiveness in language
learning. According to Dóczi (2011) It can be said that through the use of
vocabulary learning strategies, learners may be able to maximize the


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effectiveness of their English language learning. On this basis, it is crucial to be
aware of the basics of vocabulary learning strategies and how students adopt the
strategies effectively by doing insights from high school students. That is to say,

it is vital to gain more insights into helping learners perceive the use of out-of
-class vocabulary learning strategies.
1.2 Purpose of the study
The aim of this study is:
- to establish the students’ attitude towards the out-of-class vocabulary
learning
- to explore the challenges which high students usually encounter in outof-class
vocabulary learning.
- to promote positive attitudes to help students learn vocabulary more
effectively
- to find strategies for students in the out-of-class vocabulary learning
- to increase opportunities to do other activities, concurrently save the
time , lessen
the stress for students in learning vocabulary.
1.3 Scope of the study
This study was carried out with three groups of high school students: 30
students in the 10th grade, 20 students in the 11 th grade , 20 students in the 12 th
grade. The topic of the study is limited in high school students’ attitudes, and
thus not applicable to extend generalization to other subjects and contexts.
1.4. Research questions
1) How important is it to learn vocabulary out of class from students’
perspectives?
2) What strategies do students employ in learning vocabulary out of
class?


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3) What are the challenges that students face in learning vocabulary out
of class?
1.5. Design of the thesis

Chapter one: Introduction- provides an introduction and an interview of
the research. It presents the rationale, purposes, research questions, scope, and
organization of the study.
Chapter two: Literature review- presents theoretical background related to
the study. It deals with the importance of vocabulary learning, some challenges
for students in out-of -class vocabulary learning.
Chapter three: Methodology presents the research methodology of the
study. It specifies research questions, information about the participants, the
instruments, and the data collection and data analysis procedures.
Chapter four: Finding and discussion reports and discusses the main
findings according to the research questions.
Chapter five: Conclusion, summarizes the main findings, presents the
implications and limitations of the study and finally offers suggestions for
further research.

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW


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This chapter focuses on the literature review and theoretical background
of the study which starts with definitions and the importance of learning
vocabulary out of class. It reviews previous studies related to strategies as well
as challenges of learning vocabulary.
2.1 What is vocabulary?
Graves (1999, as cited in Taylor, 2000) defines vocabulary as the entire
stock of words belonging to a branch of knowledge or known by an individual.
Hestates that the lexicon of a language is its vocabulary, which includes words
and expressions. Krashen (1998, as cited in Herrel, 2004) extends
Graves‘definition further by stating that lexicon organizes the mental vocabulary
in a speaker‘s mind. An individual‘s mental lexicon is that person‘s knowledge

of vocabulary (Krashen, 1998, as cited in Herrel, 2004). Miller (1999, as cited in
Zimmerman, 2007) states that vocabulary is a set of words that are the basic
building blocks used in the generation and understanding of sentences.
According to Gardener (2009, as cited in Adger, 2002) vocabulary is not only
confined to the meaning of words but also includes how vocabulary in a
language is structured: how people use and store words and how they learn
words and the relationship between words, phrases, categories of words and
phrases.
2.2 Kinds of vocabulary?
Graves (2000, as cited in Taylor, 1990), Cummins (1999, as cited in
Herrel, 2004) show that there are different types of vocabulary: Reading
vocabulary refers to all the words an individual can recognize when reading a
text. Listening vocabulary refers to all the words an individual can recognize
when listening to speech. Writing vocabulary this includes all the words an
individual can employ in writing. Speaking vocabulary this refers to all the
words an individual can use in speech. Lexicon also refers to a reference book


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containing an alphabetical list of words with information about them and can
also refer to the mental faculty or power of vocal communication (McCarthy,
1990, as cited in Taylor, 1990). And McCarthy (1990, as cited in Taylor, 1990)
the rothat mental lexicon plays in speech perception and production is a major
topic in the field of psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics.Celce-Murcia and
Larsen Freeman (1999) define lexicon as a mental inventory of words, a
productive word derivational process. They also state that lexicon does not only
comprise of single words but also of word compounds and multi-word phrases
(Celce- Murcia and Larsen Freeman, 1999).
According to Celce-Murcia and Larsen Freeman (1999) lexical units
function at three levels: the level of the individual word, word compounds and

co-occurrences and conventional multi-word phrases
2.3 Categories of vocabulary
Nations and Waring (2000, as cited in Adger, 2002) on the other hand,
classify vocabulary into three categories: high frequency words, general
academic words and technical or specialized words. Academic comprehension
improves when students know the meaning of words. Words are the building
blocks of communication. When students have a great vocabulary, the latter can
improve all areas of communication, namely speaking, listening, reading,
writing. Current models of reading in the English for Academic Purposes ESL
class rooconsider vocabulary knowledge an important source of variation in
reading comprehension, because it affects higher level language processes such
as grammatical processing, construction of schemata and text 8 models (Adams
and Collins, 1977 as cited in Zimmerman, 2007). In addition, when students
have a higher academic vocabulary development, they can tolerate a small
proportion of unknown words in a text without disruption of comprehension,
this can even infer the meaning of those words from rich contexts.


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2.4 Vocabulary acquisition
English language learners who experience slow vocabulary development
are less able to comprehend text at grade level. Students are likely to perform
poorly when assessed in various areas and are at risk of being diagnosed as
learning disabled.

The fact show that vocabulary acquisition, semantic

development and growth of word knowledge are currently being studied in
several interesting ways, the research that is presented here is to complement
and augment these studies by introducing effective vocabulary teaching

strategies in the English for academic purposes ESL classroom that will expedite
the vocabulary development in ELLs. Without some knowledge of vocabulary,
neither language production nor language comprehension would be possible.
As the growth of vocabulary knowledge is one of the essential prerequisites for language acquisition, this growth of vocabulary knowledge can
only be possible when teachers employ effective vocabulary teaching and
learning strategies which are the objectives of this research thesis.
In short, what the definitions above about vocabulary have in common is
the vocabulary knowledge requires not only word meanings knowledge, but it
requires the usage of the words in the appropriate context, in a natural way and
also includes the relationship between new words acquired. Vocabulary
knowledge is viewed as a critical tool for second language learners because a
limited vocabulary in a second language impedes successful communication.
Underscoring the importance of vocabulary acquisition, Schmitt (2000) states
that “lexical knowledge is central to communicative competence and to the
acquisition of a second language” ) Nation (2001) emphasizes the relationship
between vocabulary knowledge and language use as complementary: knowledge
of vocabulary enables language use and, conversely, language use leads to an
increase in vocabulary knowledge


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2.5 Importance of the vocabulary
The importance of vocabulary is demonstrated daily in and out the school.
The achieving students possess the most sufficient vocabulary. Researchers such
as Laufer and Nation (1999), Maximo (2000), Read (2000),Gu (2003), Marion
(2008) and Nation (2011) and others have realized that the successful second
language using needs the acquisition of vocabulary and plays an important role
in the formation of complete spoken and written texts. In English as a second
language (ESL) and English as a foreign language (EFL) learning vocabulary
items plays a vital role in all language skills (i.e. listening, speaking, reading,

and writing (Nation, 2011).

Nunan (1991), furthermore, argue that the

acquisition of an adequate vocabulary is essential for successful second
language use because without an extensive vocabulary, we will be unable to use
the structures and functions we may have learned for comprehensible
communication. Research has shown that second language readers rely heavily
on vocabulary knowledge and the lack of that knowledge is the main and the
largest obstacle for L2 readers to overcome (Huckin, 1995).
Oxford (1990) emphasizes that vocabulary is “by far the most sizeable
and unmanageable component in the learning of any language, whether a foreign
or one’smother tongue, because of tens of thousands of different meanings”
Despite these difficulties that language learners face in L2 vocabulary, they still
have to deal with it in their examinations as ‘‘vocabulary has traditionally been
one of the language components measured in language tests’’ (Schmitt, 1999,
189). Moreover, many learners see second language acquisition (SLA) as
essentially a matter of learning vocabulary and therefore they spend a great deal
of time on memorizing lists of L2 words, rely on their bilingual dictionary as a
basic communicative resource. In short, language teachers and applied linguists
now generally recognize the importance of vocabulary learning and are


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exploring ways of promoting it more effectively. Some of this research takes the
form of investigation of strategies learners use specifically for vocabulary
(VLS), which is our focus of attention.
In addition, many researchers argue that vocabulary is one of the most
important value in studying language. Wilkins (1972) shows that: ‘‘There is not
much value in being able to produce grammatical sentences if one has not got

the vocabulary that is needed to convey what one wishes to say. While without
grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be
conveyed’’ ). Krashen (1989), as cited in Maximo (2000)state many reasons for
devoting attention to vocabulary. “First, a large vocabulary is essential for
mastery of a language. Second language acquirers know this; they carry
dictionaries with them, not grammar books, and regularly report that the lack of
vocabulary is a major problem’’. Besides, vocabulary has been acknowledged as
L2 learners’ greatest single source of problems (Meara, 1980). This remark may
possibly reflect that the openness of a vocabulary system is perceived to be a
cause of difficulty by learners. Vocabulary does not have rules the learners may
follow to acquire and develop their knowledge, it is different from the syntax
and phonology. In other words, it is not clear in L2 vocabulary learning what
rules apply or which vocabulary items should be learned first. Oxford (1990)
also shows that vocabulary is “by far the most sizeable and unmanageable
component in the learning of any language, whether a foreign or one’s mother
tongue, because of tens of thousands of different meanings” Thus, vocabulary
knowledge helps students with language comprehension. Like Widdowson
(1989), McKeown (2002) argue that vocabulary knowledge is the heart of a
language comprehension and use. Additionally, Barra (1995) suggests that to
compexpand their vocabulary on their own (2001). Discovering meaning from
context should be done from intermediate level upwards. Students should start


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using monolingual dictionaries as early as possible. With adequate training
dictionaries can become an invaluable tool for them.
2.6 Remembering vocabulary
2.6.1 Short-term and long-term memory
Researchers have proved that about 80% of heard information is forgotten
after 24 hours. They claim that new items are firstly stored in the short-term

memory, where retention is not effective if the number of chunks of information
exceeds seven. It is an often experienced phenomenon that after repeating words
again and again, students are able to recall them in a short time, but it is more
difficult to keep words and expressions in the long-term memory. An account for
this is that vocabulary goes from passive to active knowledge, which means that
words need to be often repeated before they become active vocabulary. It takes
time for this process to work.
If words are learned in context instead of in random lists they are more
likely to be remembered in the long run. Meaningful tasks require learners to
analyse and process language more deeply, which helps them retain information
in long-term memory.
Another important fact is that frequently used items are easier to retrieve,
so it is teachers’ responsibility to make sure that the high frequency words get
revised regularly, until they are thoroughly learnt. Also Gairns and Redman
argue that students’ knowledge is primarily determined by the number of times
they see or use the words. Moreover, they need to be challenged to link the
words with other words that they already know. (Gairns and Redman, cited by
Bárdos, et al, 1994). Therefore, improving vocabulary skills requires constant
attention. To activate new vocabulary new techniques are needed which are
suitable for the new generation living in the age of information and
communication technology.


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Techniques in remembering vocabulary teachers have to think of ways of
making the experience of learning and recycling vocabulary more memorable.
Pavicic mentions her former research in which she divided learning strategies
into four groups.
Self-initiated independent learning rehend a text
Learning is planned, and students are motivated to study outside the

classroom. This strategy involves word grouping, making notes of vocabulary
while reading for pleasure, watching TV, using the Internet and doing regular
revision.
‘Formal practice’ It is mostly done in formal education when the aim is
accuracy. Vocabulary is learned and practiced systematically. It is often carried
out in drills, which help to associate a word and a definition. However, language
is not learned to use creatively in speech and writing, as drills are limited in
application.
Functional practice
This strategy is based on learning new words in context. Learning often
happens incidentally, as learners are exposed to language without their making
conscious effort to learn new words. This strategy involves remembering words
while reading or watching TV, and using known words in different contexts.
‘Memorizing’
A number of memory strategies are based on inter-, intra- and visual
associations, such as using pictures, visualization and looking for similarities
between words (Accessed in 2004).
As these strategies contribute to vocabulary learning in different ways,
they should be combined to make language learning effective. Moreover,
techniques are used with greater advantage if students are aware of the aim of
the different tasks.


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2.7. The meaning of ‘knowing a word’
Does knowing a word ‘mean being able to recognize its written form and
its meaning? However, this definition is insufficient because it refers to only
form, meaning, not all the other aspects of vocabulary knowledge. Vocabulary
knowledge involves more than just the link between meaning and form it is
multifaceted (Laufer and Goldstein, 2004). Oxford and Crookall (1990) who

indicates that, knowing an L2 word’ involves not just the ability to recognize the
word or to match it with its L1 counterpart. Ling (2005) states that words are
interwoven in a complex system in which knowledge of various levels of a
lexical item is required in order to achieve adequate understanding in listening
and reading or produce ideas successfully in speaking and writing. Richards
(1976), knowing a lexical item includes knowledge of word frequency,
collocation, register, case relations, underlying forms, word association, and
semantic structure. Alongside form and meaning, there is a distinction between
receptive and productive knowledge that is used by researchers when
investigating vocabulary learning (Milton, 2009). Nation (2001) also applies the
terms ‘receptive and productive’ vocabulary knowledge description covering all
the aspects of what is involved in knowing a word. Therefore, we can say that
receptive and productive knowledge is another aspect which is useful in
understanding the L2 vocabulary learning process.
2.8. Language learning strategies
Oxford (1990) shows that language learning strategies are “specific
actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable,
more self-directed, and more transferable to new situations.” Nunan (1991, p.
168) sees language learning strategies as “the mental processes which learners
employed to learn and use the target language.” Stern (1992) divides language
learning strategies into five main categories. (1) management and planning


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strategies - relating with the learner’s intention to direct his own learning, (2)
cognitive strategies - learning steps that require direct analysis, transformation,
or synthesis of learning materials, (3) communicative strategies - gesturing,
paraphrasing, or asking for repetition, (4) interpersonal strategies monitoring
their won development and evaluating their own performance, and (5) affective
strategies.

2.9. Vocabulary learning strategies
2.9.1 Definition of vocabulary learning strategies
Regarding a definition of vocabulary learning strategies, different
researchers have defined VLSs differently. For example, Rubin (1987) defines
lexical strategies as “the process by which information is obtained, stored,
retrieved, and used.” Takač (2008) explains that VLSs are “specific strategies
utilized in the isolated task of learning vocabulary in the target language.”
Further, Catalán (2003) sees VLSs as ‘knowledge about the mechanisms
(process, strategies) used in order to learn vocabulary as well as steps or actions
taken by students (a) to find out the meaning of unknown words, (b) to retain
them in long - term memory, (c) to recall them at will, and (d) to use them in
oral or written mode.’
Asgari and Mustapha (2011, p.85) have defined VLSs as steps taken by
the language learners to acquire new English words.” Moreover, it can be said
that VLSs are commonly used not only to discover the meanings of unknown
words but also to retain them in long-term memory and to recall them at will.
For the present investigation, the term ‘vocabulary learning strategies’ has been
defined as an attempt or attempts made by language learners while encountering
vocabulary problems to discover the meanings of unknown words, to retain the
newly learned words in long-term memory and to recall them at will.’


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Vocabulary Learning Strategies Considerable research was done in
vocabulary acquisition and learning strategies before the result of their
intersection - vocabulary learning strategies - attracted attention of SLA
researchers (Schmitt, 1997). The fact that the vocabulary needs of learners often
outstrip learners’ ability to acquire a large number of new words has stimulated
research into how vocabulary-learning strategies can assist learners (Nyikos&
Fan, 2007). Considerable research was done in vocabulary acquisition and

learning strategies before the result of their intersection - vocabulary learning
strategies - attracted attention of SLA researchers (Schmitt, 1997).
The fact that the vocabulary needs of learners often outstrip learners’
ability to acquire a large number of new words has stimulated research into how
vocabulary-learning strategies can assist learners (Nyikos& Fan, 2007). Studies
of the vocabulary-learning strategies used by L2 learners have demonstrated 9
that learners differ in the range of strategies they use and in the effectiveness
with which they apply those strategies (Gu& Johnson 1996; Lawson &Hogben
1996; Schmitt 1997). There are many studies researching the effectiveness of
particular vocabulary learning strategies, such as memory-based strategies,
inferencing strategies, incidental vocabulary learning from reading, or
consulting reference sources.
Many studies show that the conscious and coordinated use of such
learning strategies is associated with language achievement and proficiency
(O’Malley &Chamot, 1990). However, most research has focused on specific
vocabulary learning strategies used by learners of English as a second or a
foreign language like lack of methods, time, the help from the teachers, having
difficulties in pronunciation, intonation learning grammar is straight and it is
easy to give up learning’s habit every day.
2.9.2 Classification of vocabulary learning strategies


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Rubin and Thompson (1994) introduced three main categories of
vocabulary learning strategies that have been reported by language learners to be
effective. They are Direct Approach, Mnemonics, and Indirect Approach.
Lawson and Hogben (1996). They classified vocabulary learning strategies
based on the information obtained through the think-aloud method and
interviews provided by 15 university students learning Italian inAustralia. The
fifteen strategies were classified under four categories: repetition, word feature

analysis, simple elaboration, and complex elaboration.
The aforesaid vocabulary learning strategy classifications have been
classified by different researchers based mostly on the results of their studies.
However, exactly the same vocabulary learning strategy classifications cannot
be found. These studies can be applied for both inside and outside class and in
the different students, regions and environments. This means that there is no
exact agreement for vocabulary learning strategy classification. Additionally,
some problems, such as a limit of English background knowledge, or language
abilities of some teachers fear of being blamed and a feeling of shyness for
making mistakes, or a lack of chance to be in an English environment, limiting
to the time of learning vocabulary, lack of method of out-of –class vocabulary
learning may cause the different strategy use of the learners. Accordingly, the
present study aims to explore what strategies and the challenges are employed
by the students to deal with their vocabulary learning problems.
Research on vocabulary learning strategies as a subgroup of general
language learning strategies is a relatively new field. Porte (1988) and Ahmed
(1989) were the first scholars who investigated how L2 learners applied
vocabulary-learning strategies. Ahmed (1989) divided all strategies into two
sets: macro - strategies, which included memorization, practice, note-taking, and
using different information sources; and micro strategies, which included


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specific behaviors within one of the macro-strategies. Gu and Johnson (1996)
provided one of the most comprehensive lists of vocabulary strategies in their
Vocabulary Learning Questionnaire (VLQ), which consisted of 108 items. The
questionnaire was based on the previous strategy research (Oxford, 1990) and
included two sections: vocabulary meta-cognitive strategies, and cognitive
strategies (Table 1.1).
Table: 1.1 Vocabulary learning strategies listed by Gu & Johnson

(1996)
The discovery of a new word’s Determination strategies
meaning
Social strategies
Strategies for consolidating a word Social strategies
once it has been encountered.

Memory

strategies-

Cognitive

strategies Meta-cognitive strategies .
Classifying vocabulary-learning strategies was proposed by Ma (2009).
She summarized word acquisition stages as follows:
1. A new word is encountered through different contexts
2. The meaning of the word is found out
3. Various aspects of the meaning and form of the word are studied
4. The information about the word is recorded or organized
5. The word is memorized with the help of some strategies
6. The word is reviewed to ensure retention
7. When the word is met again, it is retrieved
8. The word is used to consolidate its acquisition.
At each stage of acquisition, students can use strategies from one or more
categories, which are displayed in Table 1.2
Table 1.2. Vocabulary learning strategies
Stages of vocabulary acquisition

Category of strategies.

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1. Discovering new vocabulary?

Cognitive strategies
Social strategies Meta cognitive

strategies
2. What do you do on encountering Meta cognitive strategies Cognitive
new vocabulary?

strategies

Social strategies
3. When learning a new vocabulary Cognitive strategies
item, what aspects do you study?
4. How do you organize the Meta cognitive strategies Cognitive
information

about

vocabulary?
5. How do

you

the

new strategies

memorize Cognitive

vocabulary?
6. How do you review vocabulary?

strategies

Memory

strategies
Meta cognitive strategies

Social strategies
7. How do you retrieve vocabulary? Cognitive strategies
8. How do you make use of new Meta cognitive strategies
vocabulary?

Social strategies

Ma (2009) suggested that the process of word acquisition is cyclic, and
the words that go through all of the stages are acquired more effectively. In this
classification there are 55 individual strategies distributed across four categories:
memory, meta cognitive, cognitive and social. Schmitt (2010) states that one of
the problems in L2 strategy research is that most studies look at vocabulary
learning strategies as discrete phenomena and explore the 30 quantity of strategy
use, whereas he believes that quality of applying strategies by students should
become the focus of strategy research..
Self-Regulation Models of Vocabulary Learning Strategies
Tseng et al. (2006) proposed a new approach to assessing strategic

learning, based on the concept of self-regulation. They suggested that focus on