A study on common grammatical errors in translating Vietnamese text into English of secondyear Englishmajored students at Thuongmai University

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
During the process of conducting, I have received a great deal of support and
assistance from the teachers, family and friends who bring me a lot of motivation to
complete this thesis. Thus, I would like to show acknowledgement to them.
First of all, I would like to express my deepest and most sincere thanks to my
supervisor, Ms. Pham Thi Xuan Ha, who is always willing to help me from the topic
selection as well as the completing process of this study. With her depth of
knowledge, she convincingly guided and encouraged me to be professional and do
the right thing even when the road got tough. Without her persistent help, the goal
of this project would not have been realized.
Secondly, I wish to show my gratitude to Thuongmai University and
especially the English Faculty’s teachers, who taught me useful knowledge and
lessons about life during 4 years. Thanks to the assistance of the college board,
principal, and teachers, I have been given the best condition and facilities to finish
my college curriculum.
In addition, I would like to give my thank to my second-year English majors at
Thuongmai University for their warm co-operation during the time I collected data
and information for my research.
Finally, I would like to express my indebtedness to my family and friends who
always stand by me and give me their supports to accomplish this study.
Because of limited time, awareness and practical experience, the study could
not avoid shortcomings and errors. Therefore, I look forward to receiving comments
and suggestions in order to improve this study.
Hanoi, 10 April 2021
Student
Ha Thi Quy Hong

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ABSTRACT

Nowadays, with the development of the world economy, English has become an
extremely important tool in all fields. Therefore, translation also become
indispensable area to help writers convey the message to reader.
Understanding the importance of translation, Thuongmai University has put
translation subjects into operation for students as bachelor of English faculty.
However, most of these students met several difficulties in grammar when they
conducted translation. This study was carried out to find out the common
grammatical errors in Vietnamese - English translation encountered by second-year
English major students at Thuongmai University. The data was collected from 33
students of translation class in the second years in English Department.
Observation, documentation and questionnaire survey are the techniques in
collecting data.
The results of the study suggest a number of potential errors students are prone to
making when translating text from Vietnamese to English. The researcher found 100
errors in total from nine categories that are subject-verb agreement, tense usage,
voice usage, prepositions, articles, adjectives, singular and plural forms, parallel
structure, and word order. Then, the study also provides some practical guidelines
for teachers and students so that they can help students deal with these types of
errors in Vietnamese-English translations.

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TABLES OF CONTENTS

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

No

Full expression

1

Abbreviation
s
TMU

2
3
4
5

TL
SL
E.g
No

Target language
Source language
Example
Number

Thuongmai University

4

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

No
1
2
3

Page
08
16
21

17

Name
Diagram 1: Diagram V Newmark,1988
Table 2.1: Tense in English
Table 3.1: The students' attitude toward the important of
translation
Table 3.2: The benefits of students when learning translation
Table 3.3: The common grammar errors
Table 3.4: Grammatical error classifications
Table 3.5: Error of subject- verb agreement
Table 3.6: Error of Verb tense
Table 3.7: Error of selecting passive or active form
Table 3.8: Error of selecting preposition
Table 3.9: Error of articles
Table 3.10: Error of adjectives
Table 3.11: Error of singular and plural forms
Table 3.12: Error in parallel structure

Table 3.13: Error of word order
Chart 3.1: The students' attitude toward Vietnamese-English
translation
Chart 3.2: Translation level of students

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19
20
21
22

Chart 3.3: Time of practicing translation
Chart 3.4: Time of translating a paragraph about 200 words
Chart 3.5: The importance of English grammar
Chart 3.6. The causes of grammar error
Chart 3.7: How to improve English grammar

25
26
27
29
30

4
5
6
7
8
9
10

11
12
13
14
15
16

5

22
28
31
32
32
33
33
34
34
34
35
35
23
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CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
1.1 Rationale
Every country in the world has its own language, which creates cultural diversity.
However, nowadays, to communicate with each other, they need a common
language and that is English. In order for the process of cooperation and exchange

between countries to take place smoothly, translation into English activity has
become people’s urgent need. Thanks to English-translated versions, countries can
have a mutual understanding and a sense of global citizenship in the multilingual
world. It is considered an effective means to learn how to appreciate different
countries, cultures, communities, and people. Moreover, English translation makes
people understand each other better in the process of diplomatic relations and
economic cooperation, and other fields when countries tend to integrate for
comprehensive development.
In Vietnam, when the country becomes one of the members of the World Trade
Organization,

Vietnamese-English

translation

has

gradually

become

an

indispensable and urgent tool, creating the success of individuals, organizations, and
even businesses. Because English is considered a second language after only the
native language, Vietnamese students need professional translation skills to meet the
needs of integration into the world economy and cultural exchanges with other
countries. The Vietnamese-English translation skill is very useful to help students in
analyzing, producing the document, text for learning, and finding the ideal jobs in
the future.

However, translation is not an easy work and is a combination of art and skills. It
needs a comprehension of the structure of both source and target language indeed to
make a good translation result. One of the language aspects required in a good and
readable translation is grammar. The use of grammar influences the meaning or
message of the translated text since producing the equivalent message. Grammar
mistakes that appear in translation will deliver different messages that are
unacceptable and incomprehensible to the readership. Moreover, it will be a great
problem if errors occur in academic writing. In particular, Vietnamese and English
are two languages from the East and the West, which have obvious differences in
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grammar. The existence of different grammar rules in English and Vietnamese is
possibly the reason why students often do errors. For instance, English has the
concept of tenses for verb and subject-verb agreement, while grammar in
Vietnamese does not have any.
Regarding the existing problem of grammatical aspect and given that the students of
English faculty at Thuongmai University in particular and other translators, in
general, make some mistakes in translating Vietnamese -English text which leads to
not fully convey the meaning of the original to the reader, I have decided to choose
the topic: “A study on common grammatical errors in translating Vietnamese text
into English of second-year English-majored students at Thuongmai University”
for my graduation paper. The aim of the study is to figure out common errors in
translation from Vietnamese to English and offer solutions for students in improving
translation skills. I hope the study can help the students have a suitable learning
method to get the best result.
1.2 Previous studies
Learning English and translation is not easy so many students sometimes meet
difficulties and make errors in the translation process. To find out and overcome the
difficulties and the errors, research topics on issues of “common errors in

translation” have been studied by many different researchers around the world in
general and in Vietnam in particular. Relating my graduation paper’s topic, there are
several previous studies that I have consulted for my thesis.
1.2.1 Foreign researchers
The first study was made by Matius Tandikombong, Haryanto Atmowardoyo and
Sukardi Weda. The topic was "Grammatical Errors in the English Translation
Made by the Students of English Study Program of UKI Toraja". In this study, they
divided the sample of this study into two groups: the six-semester and the fourthsemester students to find out the different levels of UKI Toraja. After handing out
literature reviews, she has conducted a real survey and used the findings of the
survey to verify it. The grammatical errors were mentioned in that study were the
wrong verb, noun, conjunction, pronoun, adjective, adverb, article, and preposition.
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In addition, the study showed that the most frequent errors are errors in verbs and
that most of the errors are due to overgeneralization and ignorance of the rule
restriction.
The second study was "Investigating Grammatical Errors in Translation " made by
Muslih Hambali in

Sriwijaya University Palembang, Indonesia. The sample

consists of 30 students. They were asked about common errors encountered during
translating process. After conducting the study and using a descriptive quantitative
method, the research showed that the major types of errors made by the students
were related to incomplete clauses having no either subject, verbs, or neither both,
subject-verb agreement, and the absence of subordinators and plural nouns. Out of
the six types of identified grammatical errors, incomplete plural nouns ranked
number one followed by the absence of verb and subject-verb agreement. Through
this study, the researchers also provided useful information about translation and

some suggestions to correct these errors.
1.2.2 Vietnamese researchers
A study was made by Nguyen Thi Thu Hang and Trieu Thu Hang at VNU
University of Languages and International Studies. The title was “VietnameseEnglish translation errors made by second-year translation-major students”. The
researchers identified common Vietnamese-English translation errors made by
second-year students and propose some suggestions for the improvement of the
current practice. After conducting the study and using the descriptive quantitative
method, the researchers discovered the most common linguistic errors were lexical
choice and other common errors including lengthy and awkward expressions while
some grammar errors such as misuse of articles, punctuation, and plural or singular
forms were not a serious problem for students. Thus, they suggested some valuable
solutions to improve these problems.
Another one is the study on “Common structural errors in Vietnamese - English
translation made by English majored students at Duy Tan University” implemented
by Bui Thi Kim Phung. The instruments in the study included document
observations, questionnaires, and interviews. The study indicated that common
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errors made by the students included Omission of Subject, Inappropriate Choice of
Subject or Predicate, Inappropriate Choice of Negative Form, and Lack of Main
Clause in Complex Sentences. Noticeably, errors caused by “hidden” elements in
Vietnamese sentences were the most common. The study not only finds common
errors in translating English text but also figures out factors influencing the
students’ errors in doing translation and suggests solutions to improve translation
skills.
In summary, through these studies above, the researchers investigated some
common errors in the translating process and some grammatical errors in translating
into English. However, English grammar is extensive and these studies did not
cover all problems. Therefore, I hope my study can bring full of these errors and

comprehensive solutions to improve this problem.
1.3 Aims of the study
Firstly, the main aim of the thesis is to figure out the common grammatical errors in
translating from Vietnamese text to English faced by second-year English major
students at Thuongmai University so that they are fully aware of and able to avoid
them. The study also classifies the difficulties and explains the causes which lead to
the difficulties in translating processes. Secondly, the report also suggests some
possible strategies for students to help them gain the best learning methods to
overcome the problems.
1.4 Research Subjects
The research subjects of the study are common grammatical errors faced by secondyear students when translating from Vietnamese text to English. The study also
offers solutions for students and teachers to obtain the best learning and studying
translation methods.
1.5 Scope of the study
According to the curriculum of Thuongmai university, students of English major at
Thuongmai University will take a translation course in the third year. However, to
meet the practical needs of students, now second-year students can also register to
study translation earlier than the program of study. In this subject, they have to
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study both English-Vietnamese translation and Vietnamese- English translation.
Because of the limitation of time, resources, and my knowledge, this study focuses
on analyzing the errors in grammar in the Vietnamese-English translation. The
study is conducted for second-year students of English faculty who study translation
earlier than the program of study at Thuongmai University. The reason is that they
have knowledge about English and have just got a grammar review in the first year.
They understand the importance and difficulty level of learning English in general
and practice translating Vietnamese-English in particular. The study is conducted in
semester 2 of the school year 2020-2021.

1.6 Research methodology
To study the grammatical common errors in translating from Vietnamese into
English and get accurate findings, the researcher attempts to address the research
questions from both qualitative and quantitative approaches, then compare, contrast,
supplement, and especially produce the most adequate outcomes.
-

Document observations

All of the databases are collected some necessary documents from reliable sources
via the internet, websites, and books. Besides, I read some previous studies related
to translation and grammar to get more knowledge to conduct the study.
-

Questionnaire survey

A survey questionnaire is a method of data collection that has been implemented for
the surveyed students. The questionnaires were designed for students in the way that
the researcher finds information easily to summarize and analyze the collected data.
The researcher research and design questions for participants. It includes questions
related to common mistakes made when translating, the factors that cause them, and
their solutions to improve. The questionnaire was conducted through the internet,
there will be an application system that will statistically answer specific questions.
The questionnaire was designed in the form of Numerical rating scales and
Multiple-choice items and comprised both closed-ended and open-ended questions.
Then the researcher seeks help from second-year students major English who are
studying translating subjects. For the most objective results, the researcher asks
them to pay attention and seriously answer the questions in their own views.
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Participants included 34 students from K55N in translation class. The quantitative
method will help the researchers calculate, analyze and evaluate easily the
information and data source. Then, it will give reliable figures which are displayed
in charts or diagrams.
-

Collected translations from students and tests

The researcher uses mini test papers which help exploit more information and
databases. Besides, some sentences and phrases will be given to them and ask for
help from them by translating from Vietnamese into English. Then, the researcher
finds out the grammatical errors, analysis and corrects them. The qualitative method
is used to analyze, synthesize and explain the difficulties of the students.
1.7 Organization of the study
This study focuses on four primary following chapters, including:
- The first chapter is an overview of the study. The chapter helps readers

understand generally about the study including seven part: Rationale, Previous
studies, Aims of the study, Research subjects, Scope of the study, Research
methodology and Organization of the study.
- The second chapter is literature review. In this chapter, the researcher provides
concepts related to the term of translation, theories concerning VietnameseEnglish translation and it is considered a premise for the assumptions and
discussions in the third chapter.
- The third chapter is the research findings. In this chapter, the researcher
expresses how to collect and process the data. The researcher shows results of the
survey and analyzes them.
- The last chapter is recommendations and suggestions. After finding out the
difficulties in translating and showing demonstrations through the results of the
survey questionnaire, the research offers several solutions for both students and

teachers to get the most effective learning and teaching methods in the translation
subject.

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Translation theory
2.1.1 Definition of translation
There are many ways to define translation which depends on how scholars view
language and translation. There are so many concepts of translation and the several
following definitions are typical ones.
According to Wikipedia, translation is the communication of the meaning of a
source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. The text to be
translated is called the "source text," and the language that it is to be translated into
is called the "target language"; the final product is sometimes called the "target
text."
Newmark (1981) indicates that translation is “rendering the meaning of a text into
another language in the way that the author intended the text”. He also describes
“Translation is as a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message
and/or statement in one language with the same message and/or statement in
another language”
Roger Thomas Bell (1991) says that translation is the expression in another
language (target language) of what has been expressed in one language (source
language), preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences. The translation is the
replacement of a presentation of a text in one language by a representation of an
equivalent text in a second language. He focuses on the expression that has been
expressed in the written text such as thoughts or feelings of the author that
translators have to take responsibility to preserve semantic and stylistic
equivalencies.

In the definition of Ghazala (1995), "translation is generally used to refer to all the
processes and methods used to convey the meaning of the source language into the
target language". The concept focuses on the notion of meaning as an essential
element in translation. When translating, understanding the meaning of source text
is vital to have the appropriate equivalent in the target text thus, it is meaning that is
translated in relation to grammar, style, and sounds.

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In the four above definitions, we can see that the definition of Wikipedia is the most
basic one. The above concepts are aimed at conveying the meaning of the source
text to the target text to help the listener fully and completely grasp the main content
of the source text. However, compared with the basic concept of Wikipedia, the
other three concepts of scholars have different elements. In particular, in Mr.
Ghazala's translation concept, this concept not only refers to the community of the
source text but also related to the process and method to convey the source text into
the target text. The important factor when doing the translation process is to focus
on the grammar and style of the source text. This method displays the exact
contextual meaning of the original text in such a way that both the content and the
language are easily accepted and understood. In Mr. Roger's concept, the translation
should reveal honestly the thoughts and feelings of the author. The translation not
only makes the reader grasp the main idea of the original text but also must capture
the expressed thoughts and feelings. This translation is mainly used in novels that
help listeners to fully step into the real space that the author has drawn.
In summary, although there are many definitions of translation, they support that
translation is the replacement of a written text or utterance from one language into
another language, which remains equivalence in content, the purpose of
communication, or pragmatic. In translation, it emphasizes the “equivalence” of two
languages, the source language, and the target language.

2.1.2 Translation methods
In “A textbook of translation” by Peter Newmark, he has proposed to look at
translation methods as a continuum between the emphasis on Source Language (SL)
and the emphasis on Target Language (TL). He considers a scale of eight levels:
SL emphasis
(1) Word-for-word translation
(2) Literal translation
(3) Faithful translation
(4) Semantic translation

TL emphasis
Adaptation (5)
Free translation (6)
Idiomatic translation (7)
Communicative translation (8)

Diagram 1: Diagram V Newmark,1988

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2.1.2.1 Word-for-word translation
In word-for-word translation, the SL word order is preserved and the words
translated by their most common meanings, so translators seek to translate an
original word by the same target word as much as possible. In addition, the order of
words of the original language will be followed as closely as possible. The main use
of this type of translation is either to understand the mechanics of the source
language or to construe a difficult text as a pre-translation process
E.g: Tôi biết chơi bóng chuyền.
 I know play volleyball.

2.1.2.2 Literal translation
Literal translation is a mode of translation that remains close to the form of the
original. In other words, “translation which gives priority to lexical correspondences
and results in ungrammatical sentences or it could also mean a translation that is as
close as possible to the original while ensuring TL grammaticality (but not
naturalness)”. (Palumbo, Giuseppe)
E.g: He looked up at the Milky Way
 Anh ta nhìn lên con đường màu sữa.
2.1.2.3 Faithful translation
A faithful translation tries to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the
original within the constraints of the target language grammatical structures. It
transfers cultural words and preserves the degree of grammatical and lexical
“abnormality” (deviation from the source language norms) in the translation. It
attempts to be completely faithful to the intentions and the text realization of the
source language writer. This kind of translation is used for literary translation,
authoritative texts, drafts.
E.g: He is as fast as a kangaroo.
Anh ta nhanh như một con kanguru.
2.1.2.4 Semantic translation
It differs from faithful translation only in as far as it must take more account of
aesthetic value of the SL text, compromising on meaning where appropriate so that
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no assonance, word play or repetition jars in the finished version. It does not rely on
cultural equivalence and makes very small concessions to the readership. While
faithful translation is dogmatic, semantic translation is more flexible.
E.g: She has a sunny smile on her face.
 Cơ bé có gương mặt với nụ cười tỏa nắng.
2.1.2.5 Adaptation

Adaptation is used mainly for plays (comedies) and poetry; the themes, characters
and plots are usually preserved, the source language culture converted to the target
language culture and the text is rewritten. Depending on the language and cultural
style of the translator, plays and poems are translated differently. These works have
original meaning but due to having different writing styles, they make readers have
different feelings about each translation.
E.g: Continuous as the stars that shine
And twinkle on the Milky Way
 Vẫn triền miên như sao trời lấp lánh
Và lung linh trên dải sáng Ngân Hà.
2.1.2.6 Free translation
Free translation reproduces the matter without the manner, or the content without
the form of the original. Usually it is a paraphrase much longer than the original.
Free translation focuses on the content of the target text rather than the form, which
means that the same content is expressed in the target text but with very different
grammatical structures if need be.
E.g: The film was beyond any words.
Bộ phim không chê vào đâu được.
2.1.2.7 Idiomatic translation
Idomatic translation is where the meaning of original is translated into forms which
most accurately and naturally preserve the meaning of the original forms. Idomatic
refers to being in the common language of average speakers, using the natural
phrases and idoms of the language.

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E.g: He leads a peasant’s hard life
 Anh ấy sống cuộc sống chân lấm tay bùn
2.1.2.8 Communicative translation

It attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that
both language and content are readily acceptable and comprehensive to the
readership. The communicative translation is freer and gives priority to the
effectiveness of the message to be communicated. It focuses on factors such as
readability and naturalness and is appropriate to translations of “pragmatic” texts
where the actual form of the original is not closely bound to its intended meaning.
E.g: Safe stopping distance
 Giữ khoảng cách an toàn
2.2 The factors influence the translating process
In fact, there are many factors influencing the translation, such as SL writer, SL
norms, SL culture, SL setting and tradition, TL relationship, TL norms, TL culture,
TL setting and tradition, the truth (the facts of the matter), and the translator.
However, in the Vietnamese-English translation process, there are several factors
that influence the translation most. According to Thanh Thuy (Common errors on
verb tenses and word choices in Vietnamese-English translations), there are four
factors that influence the translating process. They are the mother tongue, words
and choices of word meanings, grammatical structures and context of translation.
2.2.1 The mother tongue
The mother tongue is the language we use often in our lives, so it is ingrained in our
thoughts, subconscious and words. Therefore, when learning the second language,
we are easily influenced by the mother tongue. According Thanh Thuy, “in the
process of learning a foreign language, the mother tongue shapes our way of
thinking, and to some extent, our use of the target language (word order, choice of
words)”. And the translation is no exception. Our mother tongue is Vietnamese, and
we all know Vietnamese is a complex language with a variety of structures,

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vocabulary and Vietnamese have many differences compared to English. Therefore,

when we learn English, the influence of Vietnamese is natural.
E.g: Vietnamese: Tôi muốn mua một ngôi nhà to.
English: I want to buy a house big.
Because of the influence of Vietnamese, this sentence is wrong when word order is
not true. It should be “I want to buy a big house”. Therefore, we must know how to
use the similarity between Vietnamese and English, and we must also know the
difference to be able to translate better.
2.2.2 Words and choice of words
Words are essential for any language learner to build their vocabulary to get an
advantage in their language learning. Vocabulary is a very important factor of
communication; It brings with it the ability to communicate effectively. Developing
vocabulary will open up opportunities for students to learn translation. With a
translation text, when learners have no difficulty in new words, they can easily
translate into the target language and have a good translation. On the contrary, they
do not seem to translate. Most English words have many meanings; The exact
meaning of a word can only be expressed in context, so choosing the right language
is crucial for a successful translation, as Thanh Thuy said “with a translation text,
when learners have no difficulty in new words, it is easy for them to translate into
the TL. In contrast, they seem to fail translating.
2.2.3 Grammatical structures
The vocabulary is not enough to translate. It needs a special means to make it
meaningful in sentences. It is grammatical or grammatical structure. Thanh Thuy
proved that “In the process of translation, grammatical structures are an
indispensable means. Insufficient knowledge on either of the two areas may lead to
poor quality translation”. English is complex with many different structures when
compared to other languages. It follows a very strict structure while the Vietnamese
language is much more flexible. There are many tenses in English, they are used
with a specific structure. In the case, if using the wrong structure, readers cannot
17

understand or misunderstand. Therefore, using the correct and appropriate structure
is also an important factor to help you have a successful translation.
E.g: Vietnamese: Tôi đã học tiếng Anh 7 năm nay.
English: I have learned English for 7 years.
The tense of the verb is the present perfect tense, it shows an action which happened
in the past, and up to now or in the future.
In conclusion, grammatical structures in English are so complicated and not easy to
master. It requires the learners have to find an effective way of learning to study and
practice more if they want to limit grammar errors in using English in general and
specifically in translation subject as skilled translators.
2.2.4 Context of translation
A language is one of the best ways to see and understand the world. It is the vehicle
of our ideas, thoughts and perspectives of our world. Because humans are
essentially a social animal we perpetually interact with our environment. This
interaction with the environment is a factor of time and space. Whenever and
wherever we are interacting determines what actually we are meaning.
For example, “Do you see the principal”. The word "principal" has a number of
meanings like a head of an institute, the center of something, a protagonist of a
movie or a capital source, et cetera. Without certain context, we will translate the
sentence as "Bạn có nhìn thấy hiệu trưởng khơng?". Ad in the movie theater scene,
when two people are talking about the movie, the sentence translates as "Anh có
nhìn thấy nhân vật chính khơng?”. That demonstrates context also influences our
translating process.
2.3 Grammar
According to Thornbury (1999), grammar is partly the study of what forms (or
structure) are possible in a language. Traditionally, grammar has been concerned
almost exclusively with analysis of the level of sentences. Thus, grammar is a
description of the rules that govern how language sentences are formed. Grammar is
a term used to mean many different things. When teachers and administrators grow

18


frustrated over error in students’ writing, they often call for a return to “the basic”
which they define as grammar (Williams in Andy, 2012).
Another viewpoint said that “Grammar is the structural foundation of our ability to
express ourselves. The more we are aware of how it works, the more we can
monitor the meaning and effectiveness of the way we and others use language. T
can help foster precision, detect ambiguity, and exploit the richness of expression
available n English. And it can help everyone not only teachers of English but
teachers of anything, for all teaching is ultimately a matter of getting to grips with
meaning”. (David Crystal, “in Words and Deed”, TES Teacher, April 30, 2004).
Wikipedia also defines that “Grammar is the set of the structural rules that governs
the composition of clauses, phrases and words in any given natural language. The
term refers also to the study of such rules, and this field includes morphology,
syntax, and phonology, often complemented by phonetics, semantics and
pragmatics”.
Besides, we can see another definition about grammar is that “The whole system
and structure of a language or of languages in general, usually taken as consisting of
syntax and morphology, etc. A particular analysis of the system and structure of
language or of a specific language”.
In general, grammar is the structure and system of a language, which help us
understand a language. And English grammar is the way in which meanings are
encoded into wordings in the English language. This includes the structure of
words, phrases, clauses, and sentences, tenses and right up to the structure of whole
texts.
2.4 Error
2.4.1 Definition of error
According Oxford Dictionary, error is the state or condition of being wrong in
conduct or judgement. Merram Webster also defines that “error is the amount of

deviation from a standard or specification”. In general, error means an act involving
an unintentional deviation from truth or accuracy.
19


2.4.2 Errors in English grammar
According to Corder (1981), the grammatical errors are divided into four
classifications: error of omission, error of addition, error of selection, and error of
ordering.
Another model of grammatical errors classification is created by Keshavarz (1994)
that classified the grammatical errors into 14 types the collected into two main
categories. The first main category is Lexico-Semantic category and the second
main category is Syntactico-Morphologycal category. The first main category
covers cross-association and false cognate, therefore the second main category
covers errors in the use of tenses, the use of subject-verb agreement in indirect
questions, the use of quantifiers and intensifiers, the use of prepositions, the articles,
active and passive voice, the relative clauses and pronoun, errors in the use of “it is”
instead of “there is”, lack of subject-verb inversion in wh-question, wrong use of
parts of speech, errors due to lack of concord, and use of parallel structures and
word order.
2.4.2.1 Combination between Subject and Verb (Subject-Verb Agreement)
In English, subject-verb agreement is important. Unlike in other languages that
require that subject and verb agree in both number and gender, English verbs are not
conjugated for gender and so require only that they match in number. For example,
if a subject is singular, the verb form must also be singular. Likewise, if a subject is
plural, the verb must also be plural.
E.g: Incorrect: She see you.
Correct: She sees you.
2.4.2.2 Tense usage
The term “tense” simply indicates the time. Therefore, we form a relationship in

time in utterance or speech by using the correct tense of Verb.
According to Quirk. R (2010), there are only 2 main tenses in English: present and
past tense which cannot be considered separately from 4 aspects (denote the manner

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in which the action is performed): simple, progressive, perfective progressive
aspect.

Aspect/
tense
Present

Simple

Past

Ved1

V, Vs

Progressive

Perfect

Perfect
Progressive
am, is, are + have/ has + have/ has +
Ving

Ved2
been+ Ved2
was/ were + had + Ved2
had been +
Ving
Ved2
Table 2.1: Tense in English

There is no obvious future tense in English corresponding to the time/ tense relation
for present and past. Instead, there are several possibilities for denoting future time.
Futurity, modality, and aspect are closely related, and future time is rendered by
means of modal auxiliaries or semi-auxiliaries, or by simple present forms or
progressive forms. The errors in tense occur when learners combine two or more
tenses that are not synchronic in a sentence or they have difficulty in choosing a
tense that suits the context of the sentence.
E.g: Incorrect: She promised she will not tell anyone my secret.
Correct: She promised she would not tell anyone my secret.
2.4.2.3 Voice usage
An author may write a sentence in one of two "voices"- active or passive. The active
voice emphasizes the performer (or agent) of the action. The active voice is direct,
vigorous, clear, and concise. The reader knows who is responsible for the action.
The passive voice, in contrast, emphasizes the receiver (or product) of the action.
The passive voice is indirect and can be weak, awkward, and wordy. Passive voice
uses a form of the verb to be followed by a past participle (e.g., dispersed,
investigated) and a by phrase. The reader will not directly know who or what
performed the action.
However, the active and passive voice are not grammatically correct or incorrect;
translator often choose inappropriately which voice to use. The passive voice has
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the effect of removing the actor from the subject position or from the sentence
entirely. This removal is appropriate in certain situations, particularly in science and
business. Otherwise, you should typically use the active voice.
E.g: Incorrect: I poured the solution into the beaker.
Correct: The solution was poured into the beaker.
In this example, the active voice would be inappropriate here if this is part of a lab
report. In science writing, the person performing an experiment should be irrelevant
to the process. We should use the passive voice, the "I" can be removed from the
sentence.
2.4.2.4 Prepositions
According to Cambridge Dictionary, a preposition is a word that is used before a
noun, a noun phrase, or a pronoun, connecting it to another word. Prepositions
indicate direction, time, location, and spatial relationships, as well as other abstract
types of relationships.
Direction: Look to the left and you’ll see our destination.
Time: We’ve been working since this morning.
Location: We saw a movie at the theatre.
Space: The dog hid under the table.
Unfortunately, there’s no reliable formula for determining which preposition to use
with a particular combination of words. Some preposition errors are missing,
redundant, or misuse of prepositions.
2.2.4.5 Articles
In English there are three articles: a, an, and the. Articles are used before nouns or
noun equivalents and are a type of adjective. The definite article (the) is used before
a noun to indicate that the identity of the noun is known to the reader. The indefinite
article (a, an) is used before a noun that is general or when its identity is not known.
There are certain situations in which a noun takes no article.
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Definite article: the (before a singular or plural noun)
Indefinite article: a (before a singular noun beginning with a consonant sound)
an (before a singular noun beginning with a vowel sound)
For the purposes of understanding how articles are used, it is important to know that
nouns can be either count (can be counted) or noncount (indefinite in quantity and
cannot be counted). In addition, count nouns are either singular (one) or plural
(more than one). Noncount nouns are always in the singular form.
For example, if we are speaking of water that has been spilled on the table, there
can be one drop (singular) or two or more drops (plural) of water on the table. The
word drop in this example is a count noun because we can count the number of
drops. Therefore, according to the rules applying to count nouns, the word drop
would use the articles a or the.
However, if we are speaking of water in general spilled on the table, it would not be
appropriate to count one water or two waters -- there would simply be water on the
table. Water is a noncount noun. Therefore, according to the rules applying to
noncount nouns, the word water would use no article or the, but not a.
2.4.2.6 Selecting adjective
An adjective is a word that tells us more about a noun. It "describes" or "modifies" a
noun. In English, a word can create two or more adjectives with different meanings,
especially, there are many adjectives that we have in English that end in -ED or
-ING. An adjective that ends in -ING is used to describe the characteristic of a
person, a thing or a situation. An adjective that ends in -ED is used to describe a
feeling (or how a person feels) or an emotion. It is used to describe a temporary
thing.
Eg: My girlfriend is bored. - (My girlfriend feels bored)
My girlfriend is boring. - (My girlfriend is a boring person)
So, if we don't remember it will cause confusion and lead to errors in the use of
adjectives.
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2.4.2.7 Singular and plural forms
Singular means only one. Plural means more than one. In order to make a noun
plural, it is usually only necessary to add “s”. However, there are many irregular
nouns that add “es”. The rules for spelling plural nouns are based on the letters at
the end of the word. Singulars and plurals are interchangeable depending upon the
tense, the amount and the context of the statement. However, are you aware about
the fact that some singulars are the same even in their plural version.
People often make mistake in irregular noun plural forms (e.g. woman-women,
child-children, knife-knives); some nouns have the same singular and the plural
forms (e.g. sheep-sheep, species-species); some nouns are count and non-count;
using plural nouns with singular verbs (e.g. The news is not good.); use plural nouns
with plural verbs (e.g. Her scissors are sharp./Those reading glasses are mine).
E.g: Vietnamese: Tôi có ba người con.
Incorrect: I Have Three Childrens.
Correct: I Have Three Children. / I Have Three Kids.
2.4.2.8 Parallel structure
Parallel structure or parallelism is the rule that words or phrases in a series should
be in the same form. Correct parallel structure is important because it makes a
sentence easier to read and understand. Correct parallel structure allows the essays
and paragraphs to flow more smoothly for the reader.
E.g: Incorrect: Marisa stopped at the grocery store, the bank and ran to the library
Correct: Marissa stopped at the grocery store, the bank and the library.
In this sentence, the words in the series are all nouns with the word the before the
noun. For this sentence to be correct, the last part ran to the library should be
changed to the library.

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2.4.2.9 Errors of order
Word order refers to the conventional arrangement of words in a phrase, clause, or
sentence. Compared with many other languages, word order in English is fairly
rigid.
A sentence’s standard word order is Subject + Verb + Object (SVO).
E.g: The dog (subject) + eats (verb) + popcorn (object).
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, adding things like time,
manner, degree. As a rule, an adverb (or any modifier) should be as close as
possible to the thing it is modifying. But adverbs are special because they can
usually be placed in more than one spot in the sentence and are still correct.
Therefore, without knowing the rules of word order in sentences, translators may
make many mistakes when creating sentences, especially the errors in the order of
adjectives and noun phrases in the sentences.
E.g: Incorrect: I go to the gym morning early.
Correct: I go to the gym early morning.

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