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Reading 1
Reading Passage has four sections A-D
Choose the correct heading for the each section from the list of headings below. Write the
correct number i-vi in boxes 1-4 on your answer sheet.
List of Headings
i Causes of volcanic eruption
ii Efforts to predict volcanic eruption
iii Volcanoes and the features of our planet
iv Different types of volcanic eruption
v

International relief efforts
vi The unpredictability of volcanic eruption
1. Section A
2. Section B
3. Section C
4. Section D

Volcanoes - earth-shattering news
When Mount Pinatubo suddenly erupted on 9 June 1991, the power of volcanoes past and
present again hit the headlines
A Volcanoes are the ultimate earth-moving machinery. A violent eruption can blow the top
fewkilometres off a mountain, scatter fine ash practically all over the globe and hurt rock
fragments into the stratosphere to darken the skies a continent away.
But the classic eruption - cone-shaped mountain, big bang, mushroom cloud and surges of
molten lava - is only a tiny part of a global story. Volcanism, the name given to volcanic

processes, really has shaped the world. Eruptions have rifted continents, raised mountain
chains, constructed islands and shaped the topography of the earth. The entire ocean floor has


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a basement of volcanic basalt.
Volcanoes have not only made the continents, they are also thought to have made the world’s
first stable atmosphere and provided all the water for the oceans, rivers and ice-caps. There are
now about 600 active volcanoes. Every year they add two or three cubic kilometres of rock to
the continents. Imagine a similar number of volcanoes smoking away for the last 3,500 million
years. That is enough rock to explain the continental crust.
What comes out of volcanic craters is mostly gas. More than 90% of this gas is water vapour
from the deep earth: enough to explain, over 3,500 million years, the water in the oceans. The
rest of the gas is nitrogen, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, methane, ammonia and hydrogen.
The quantity of these gases, again multiplied over 3,500 million years, is enough to explain the
mass of the world’s atmosphere. We are alive because volcanoes provided the soil, air and water
we need.
B Geologists consider the earth as having a molten core, surrounded by a semi-molten mantle
and a brittle, outer skin. It helps to think of a soft-boiled egg with a runny yolk, a firm but squishy
white and a hard shell. If the shell is even slightly cracked during boiling, the white material
bubbles out and sets like a tiny mountain chain over the crack - like an archipelago of volcanic
islands such as the Hawaiian Islands. But the earth is so much bigger and the mantle below is so
much halter.
Even though the mantle rocks are kept solid by overlying pressure, they can still slowly ‘flow’
like thick treacle. The flow, thought to be in the form of convection currents, is powerful enough
to fracture the ‘eggshell’ of the crust into plates, and keep them bumping and grinding against

each other, or even overlapping, at the rate of a few centimetres a year. These fracture zones,
where the collisions occur, are where earthquakes happen. And, very often, volcanoes.
C These zones are lines of weakness, or hot spots. Every eruption is different, but put at its
simplest, where there are weaknesses, rocks deep in the mantle, heated to 1,350oC, will start
to expand and rise. As they do so, the pressure drops, and they expand and become liquid and
rise
more swiftly.


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Sometimes it is slow: vast bubbles of magma - molten rock from the mantle - inch towards the
surface, cooling slowly, to show through as granite extrusions (as on Skye, or the Great Whin
Sill, the lava dyke squeezed out like toothpaste that carries part of Hadrian’s Wall in northern
England). Sometimes - as in Northern Ireland, Wales and the Karoo in South Africa - the magma
rose faster, and then flowed out horizontally on to the surface in vast thick sheets. In the Deccan
plateau in western India, there are more than two million cubic kilometres of lava, some of it
2,400 metres thick, formed over 500,000 years of slurping eruption.
Sometimes the magma moves very swiftly indeed. It does not have time to cool as it surges
upwards. The gases trapped inside the boiling rock expand suddenly, the lava glows with heat,
it begins to froth, and it explodes with tremendous force. Then the slightly cooler lava following
it begins to flow over the lip of the crater. It happens on Mars, it happened on the moon, it even
happens on some of the moons of Jupiter and Uranus. By studying the evidence, vulcanologists
can read the force of the great blasts of the past. Is the pumice light and full of holes? The
explosion was tremendous. Are the rocks heavy, with huge crystalline basalt shapes, like the
Giant’s Causeway in Northern Ireland? It was a slow, gentle eruption.
The biggest eruption are deep on the mid-ocean floor, where new lava is forcing the continents

apart and widening the Atlantic by perhaps five centimetres a year. Look at maps of volcanoes,
earthquakes and island chains like the Philippines and Japan, and you can see the rough outlines
of what are called tectonic plates - the plates which make up the earth’s crust and mantle. The
most dramatic of these is the Pacific ‘ring of fire’ where there have the most violent explosions
- Mount Pinatubo near Manila, Mount St Helen’s in the Rockies and El Chichón in Mexico about
a decade ago, not to mention world-shaking blasts like Krakatoa in the Sunda Straits in 1883.

D But volcanoes are not very predictable. That is because geological time is not like human time.
During quiet periods, volcanoes cap themselves with their own lava by forming a powerful cone
from the molten rocks slopping over the rim of the crater; later the lava cools slowly into a huge,
hard, stable plug which blocks any further eruption until the pressure below becomes
irresistible. In the case of Mount Pinatubo, this took 600 years.
Then, sometimes, with only a small warning, the mountain blows its top. It did this at Mont


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Pelée in Martinique at 7.49 a.m. on 8 May, 1902. Of a town of 28,000, only two people survived.
In 1815, a sudden blast removed the top 1,280 metres of Mount Tambora in Indonesia. The
eruption was so fierce that dust thrown into the stratosphere darkened the skies, canceling the
following summer in Europe and North America. Thousands starved as the harvest failed, after
snow in June and frosts in August. Volcanoes are potentially world news, especially the quiet
ones.
Questions 5-9
Answer the questions below using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS AND/ OR A NUMBER from
the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 5-9 on your answer sheet.

5. What are the sections of the earth’s crust, often associated with volcanic activity, called?
6. What is the name given to molten rock from the mantle?
7. What is the earthquake zone on the Pacific Ocean called?
8. For how many years did Mount Pinatubo remain inactive?
Questions 9-13
Complete the summary below. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each
answer.
Write your answers in boxes 9-13 on your answer sheets.
Volcanic eruptions have shaped the earth’s land surface. They may also have produced the
world’s atmosphere and 9 ........................ Eruptions occur when molten rocks from the earth’s
mantle
rise and expand. When they become liquid, they move more quickly through cracks in the
surface. There are different types of eruption. Sometimes the 10............. moves slowly and
forms outcrops of granite on the earth’s surface. When it moves more quickly it may flow out in
thick horizontal sheets. Examples of this type of eruption can be found in Northern Ireland,
Wales, South Africa and 11 ........................ A third type of eruption occurs when the lava
emerges
very quickly and 12 ......................... violently. This happens because the magma moves so
suddenly


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that 13 ........................... are emitted.


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READING 2
Experience versus speed
Certain mental functions slow down with age, but the brain compensates in ways that can keep
seniors as sharp as youngsters.
Jake, aged 16, has a terrific relationship with his grandmother Rita, who is 70. They live close by,
and they even take a Spanish class together twice a week at a local college. After class they
sometimes stop at a cafe for a snack. On one occasion, Rita tells Jake, 'I think it's great how fast
you pick up new grammar. It takes me a lot longer.' Jake replies, 'Yeah, but you don't seem to
make as many silly mistakes on the quizzes as I do. How do you do that?'
In that moment, Rita and Jake stumbled across an interesting set of differences between older
and younger minds. Popular psychology says that as people age their brains 'slow down'. The
implication, of course, is that elderly men and women are not as mentally agile as middle-aged
adults or even teenagers. However, although certain brain functions such as perception and
reaction time do indeed take longer, that slowing down does not necessarily undermine mental
sharpness. Indeed, evidence shows that older people are just as mentally fit as younger people
because their brains compensate for some kinds of declines in creative ways that young minds
do not exploit.
Just as people's bodies age at different rates, so do their minds. As adults advance in age, the
perception of sights, sounds and smells takes a bit longer, and laying down new information into
memory becomes more difficult. The ability to retrieve memories also quickly slides and it is
sometimes harder to concentrate and maintain attention.
On the other hand, the ageing brain can create significant benefits by tapping into its extensive
hoard of accumulated knowledge and experience. The biggest trick that older brains employ is
to use both hemispheres simultaneously to handle tasks for which younger brains rely
predominantly on one side. Electronic images taken by cognitive scientists at the University of
Michigan, for example, have demonstrated that even when doing basic recognition or

memorization exercises, seniors exploit the left and right side of the brain more extensively than
men and women who are decades younger. Drawing on both sides of the brain gives them a
tactical edge, even if the speed of each hemisphere's process is slower.


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In another experiment, Michael Falkenstein of the University of Dortmund in Germany found
that when elders were presented with new computer exercises they paused longer before
reacting and took longer to complete the tasks, yet they made 50% fewer errors, probably
because of their more deliberate pace.
One analogy for these results might be the question of who can type a paragraph 'better': a I6year-old who glides along at 60 words per minute but has to double back to correct a number
of mistakes or a 70-year-old who strikes keys at only 40 words per minute but spends less time
fixing errors? In the end, if 'better' is defined as completing a clean paragraph. both people may
end up taking the same amount of time.
Computerized tests support the notion that accuracy can offset speed. In one so-called
distraction exercise, subjects were told to look at a screen, wait for an arrow that pointed in a
certain direction to appear, and then use a mouse to click on the arrow as soon as it appeared
on the screen. Just before the correct symbol appeared, however, the computer displayed
numerous other arrows aimed in various other directions. Although younger subjects cut
through the confusion faster when the correct arrow suddenly popped up, they more frequently
clicked on incorrect arrows in their haste.
Older test takers are equally capable of other tasks that do not depend on speed, such as
language comprehension and processing. In these cases, however. the elders utilize the brain's
available resources in a different way. Neurologists at Northwest University came to this
conclusion after analyzing 50 people ranging from age 23 to 78. The subjects had to lie down in
a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machine and concentrate on two different lists of printed

words posted side by side in front of them. By looking at the lists, they were to find pairs of
words that were similar in either meaning or spelling.
The eldest participants did just as well on the tests as the youngest did, and yet the MRI scans
indicated that in the elders' brains, the areas which are responsible for language recognition
and interpretation were much less active. The researchers did find that the older people had
more activity in brain regions responsible for attentiveness. Darren Gleitman, who headed the
study, concluded that older brains solved the problems just as effectively but by different
means.


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Questions 1-3
Choose the correct answer A, B, C or D ans write them on your answer sheet from 1-3
1. The conversation between Jake and Rita is used to give an example of
A. the way we learn languages.
B. the changes that occur in our brains over time.
C. the fact that it is easier to learn a language at a young age.
D. the importance of young and old people doing things together.
2. In paragraph six, what point is the analogy used to illustrate?
A. Working faster is better than working slower.
B. Accuracy is less important than speed.
C. Accuracy can improve over time.
D. Working faster does not always save time.
3. In the computerized distraction exercises, the subjects had to
A. react to a particular symbol on the screen.
B. type a text as quickly as possible.

C. move an arrow in different directions around the screen.
D. click on every arrow that appeared on the screen.
Questions 4-7
Complete each sentence with the correct ending A-F.
Write the correct letter A-F in boxes 4-7 on your answer sheet
4. According to popular psychology
5. Researchers at the University of Michigan showed that
6. Michael Falkenstein discovered that
7. Scientists at Northwest University concluded that
A. the older we get the harder it is to concentrate for any length of time.
B. seniors take longer to complete tasks but with greater accuracy.
C. old people use both parts of their brain more than young people.


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D. older people use their brains differently but achieve the same result.
E. the speed of our brain decreases with age.
F. older people do not cope well with new technology.
Questions 8-12
Complete the summary below.
Choose NO MORE THAN ONE WORD from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in spaces 8-12 of your answer sheet.
People's bodies and 8 ______________ grow older at varying stages. As we age our senses take
longer to process information and our aptitude for recalling 9 _________ also decreases.
However, older people's brains do have several advantages. Firstly, they can call upon both
the 10 ________________ and 11 _________ which is already stored in their brain. Secondly,

although the 12 ______________ of each side of their brain is reduced, they are able to use
both sides at once.


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READING TEST 3
Questions 1-4
Reading Passage has five sections A-E
Choose the correct heading for section A and C-E from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number i-viii in boxes 28-31 on your answer sheet.
List of Headings
i

The connection between health-care and other human rights

ii

The development of market-based health systems.

iii

The role of the state in health-care

iv

A problem shared by every economically developed country

v

The impact of recent change

vi

The views of the medical establishment

vii

The end of an illusion

viii

Sustainable economic development

1

Section A

2

Section C

3

Section D

4

Section E

Example

Answer

Section B

viii


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The Problem of Scarce Resources
Section A
The problem of how health-care resources should be allocated or apportioned, so
that they are distributed in both the most just and most efficient way, is not a new
one. Every health system in an economically developed society is faced with the
need to decide (either formally or informally) what proportion of the community’s
total resources should be spent on health-care; how resources are to be
apportioned; what diseases and disabilities and which forms of treatment are to be
given priority; which members of the community are to be given special
consideration in respect of their health needs; and which forms of treatment are
the most cost-effective.
Section B
What is new is that, from the 1950s onwards, there have been certain general

changes in outlook about the finitude of resources as a whole and of health-care
resources in particular, as well as more specific changes regarding the clientele of
health-care resources and the cost to the community of those resources. Thus, in
the 1950s and 1960s, there emerged an awareness in Western societies that
resources for the provision of fossil fuel energy were finite and exhaustible and that
the capacity of nature or the environment to sustain economic development and
population was also finite. In other words, we became aware of the obvious fact
that there were ‘limits to growth’. The new consciousness that there were also
severe limits to health-care resources was part of this general revelation of the
obvious. Looking back, it now seems quite incredible that in the national health
systems that emerged in many countries in the years immediately after the 193945 World War, it was assumed without question that all the basic health needs of
any community could be satisfied, at least in principle; the ‘in visible hand’ of
economic progress would provide.
Section C


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However, at exactly the same time as this new realization of the finite character of
health-care resources was sinking in, an awareness of a contrary kind was
developing in Western societies: that people have a basic right to health-care as a
necessary condition of a proper human life. Like education, political and legal
processes and institutions, public order, communication, transport and money
supply, health-care came to be seen as one of the fundamental social facilities
necessary for people to exercise their other rights as autonomous human beings.
People are not in
a position to exercise personal liberty and to be self-determining if they are

poverty-stricken, or deprived of basic education, or do not live within a context of
law and order. In the same way, basic health-care is a condition of the exercise of
autonomy.
Section D
Although the language of ‘rights’ sometimes leads to confusion, by the late 1970s
it was recognized in most societies that people have a right to health-care (though
there has been considerable resistance in the United Sates to the idea that there is
a formal right to health-care). It is also accepted that this right generates an
obligation or duty for the state to ensure that adequate health-care resources are
provided out of the public purse. The state has no obligation to provide a healthcare system itself, but to ensure that such a system is provided. Put another way,
basic health-care is now recognized as a ‘public good’, rather than a ‘private good’
that one is expected to buy for oneself. As the 1976 declaration of the World Health
Organisation put it: ‘The enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health is
one of the fundamental rights of every human being without distinction of race,
religion, political belief, economic or social condition’. As has just been remarked,
in a liberal society basic health is seen as one of the indispensable conditions for
the exercise of personal autonomy.
Section E
Just at the time when it became obvious that health-care resources could not
possibly meet the demands being made upon them, people were demanding that


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their fundamental right to health-care be satisfied by the state. The second set of
more specific changes that have led to the present concern about the distribution
of health-care resources stems from the dramatic rise in health costs in most OECD

countries, accompanied by large-scale demographic and social changes which have
meant, to take one example, that elderly people are now major (and relatively very
expensive) consumers of health-care resources. Thus in OECD countries as a whole,
health costs increased from 3.8% of GDP in 1960 to 7% of GDP in 1980, and it has
been predicted that the proportion of health costs to GDP will continue to increase.
(In the US the current figure is about 12% of GDP, and in Australia about 7.8% of
GDP.)
As a consequence, during the 1980s a kind of doomsday scenario (analogous to
similar doomsday extrapolations about energy needs and fossil fuels or about
population increases) was projected by health administrators, economists and
politicians. In this scenario, ever-rising health costs were matched against static or
declining resources.
Note
OECD: Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development GDP: Gross
Domestic Products
Questions 5-8
Classify the following as first occurring
A between 1945 and 1950 B between 1950 and 1980 C after 1980
Write the correct letter A, B or C in boxes 32-35 on your answer sheet.
5

the realisation that the resources of the national health system were limited

6

a sharp rise in the cost of health-care.

7
a belief that all the health-care resources the community needed would be
produced by economic growth

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7
an acceptance of the role of the state in guaranteeing the provision of healthcare.
Questions 8 - 12
Do the following statements agree with the view of the writer in Reading Passage?
In boxes 8-12 on your answer sheet write:
YES - if the statement agrees with the views of the writer
NO - if the statement contradicts the views of the writer
NOT GIVEN - if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
8. Personal liberty and independence have never been regarded as directly linked
to health-care.
9. Health-care came to be seen as a right at about the same time that the limits of
health-care resources became evident.
10. IN OECD countries population changes have had an impact on health-care costs
in recent years.
11. OECD governments have consistently underestimated the level of health-care
provision needed.
12. In most economically developed countries the elderly will to make special
provision for their health-care in the future.


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READING 4
Urban planning in Singapore
British merchants established a trading post in Singapore in the early nineteenth
century, and for more than a century trading interests dominated. However, in
1965 the newly independent island state was cut off from its hinterland, and so it
set about pursuing a survival strategy. The good international communications it
already enjoyed provided a useful base, but it was decided that if Singapore was to
secure its economic future, it must develop its industry. To this end, new
institutional structures were needed to facilitate, develop, and control foreign
investment. One of the most important of these was the Economic Development
Board (EDB), an arm of government that developed strategies for attracting
investment. Thus from the outset, the Singaporean government was involved in
city promotion.
Towards the end of the twentieth century, the government realised that, due to
limits on both the size of the country’s workforce and its land area, its labourintensive industries were becoming increasingly uncompetitive. So an economic
committee was established which concluded that Singapore should focus on
developing as a service centre, and seek to attract company headquarters to serve
South East Asia, and develop tourism, banking, and offshore activities. The land
required for this service-sector orientation had been acquired in the early 1970s,
when the government realised that it lacked the banking infrastructure for a
modern economy. So a new banking and corporate district, known as the ‘Golden
Shoe’, was planned, incorporating the historic commercial area. This district now
houses all the major companies and various government financial agencies.
Singapore’s current economic strategy is closely linked to land use and
development planning. Although it is already a major city, the current development
plan seeks to ensure Singapore’s continued economic growth through
restructuring, to ensure that the facilities needed by future business are planned
now. These include transport and telecommunication infrastructure, land, and

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environmental quality. A major concern is to avoid congestion in the central area,
and so the latest plan deviates from previous plans by having a strong
decentralisation policy. The plan makes provision for four major regional centres,
each serving 800,000 people, but this does not mean that the existing central
business district will not also grow. A major extension planned around Marina Bay
draws on examples of other ‘world cities’, especially those with waterside central
areas such as Sydney and San Francisco. The project involves major land
reclamation of 667 hectares in total. Part of this has already been developed as a
conference and exhibition zone, and the rest will be used for other facilities.
However the need for vitality has been recognised and a mixed zoning approach
has been adopted, to include housing and entertainment.
One of the new features of the current plan is a broader conception of what
contributes to economic success. It encompasses high quality residential provision,
a good environment, leisure facilities and exciting city life. Thus there is more
provision for low-density housing, often in waterfront communities linked to
beaches and recreational facilities. However, the lower housing densities will put
considerable pressure on the very limited land available for development, and this
creates problems for another of the plan’s aims, which is to stress environmental
quality. More and more of the remaining open area will be developed, and the only
natural landscape surviving will be a small zone in the centre of the island which
serves as a water catchment area. Environmental policy is therefore very much
concerned with making the built environment more green by introducing more
plants - what is referred to as the ‘beautification’ of Singapore. The plan focuses on

green zones defining the boundaries of settlements, and running along transport
corridors. The incidental green provision within housing areas is also given
considerable attention.
Much of the environmental provision, for example golf courses, recreation areas,
and beaches, is linked to the prime objective of attracting business. The plan places
much emphasis on good leisure provision and the need to exploit Singapore’s island
setting. One way of doing this is through further land reclamation, to create a whole
new island devoted to leisure and luxury housing which will stretch from the central


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area to the airport. A current concern also appears to be how to use the planning
system to create opportunities for greater spontaneity: planners have recently
given much attention to the concept of the 24-hour city and the cafe society. For
example, a promotion has taken place along the Singapore river to create a cafe
zone. This has included the realisation, rather late in the day, of the value of
retaining older buildings, and the creation of a continuous riverside promenade.
Since the relaxation in 1996 of strict guidelines on outdoor eating areas, this has
become an extremely popular area in the evenings. Also, in 1998 the Urban
Redevelopment Authority created a new entertainment area in the centre of the
city which they are promoting as ‘the city’s one-stop, dynamic entertainment
scene’.
In conclusion, the economic development of Singapore has been very consciously
centrally planned, and the latest strategy is very clearly oriented to establishing
Singapore as a leading ‘world city’. It is well placed to succeed, for a variety of
reasons. It can draw upon its historic roots as a world trading centre; it has invested

heavily in telecommunications and air transport infrastructure; it is well located in
relation to other Asian economies; it has developed a safe and clean environment;
and it has utilised the international language of English.
Question 1-6
Complete the summary below using words from the box.
Singapore
When Singapore became an independent, self-sufficient state it decided to build
up its 1….., and government organisations were created to support this policy.
However, this initial plan met with limited success due to a shortage of 2……and
land. It was therefore decided to develop the 3….. sector of the economy instead.
Singapore is now a leading city, but planners are working to ensure that its
economy continues to grow. In contrast to previous policies, there is emphasis on
4……. In addition, land will be recovered to extend the financial district, and
provide 5…. as well as housing. The government also plans to improve the quality


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of Singapore’s environment, but due to the shortage of natural landscapes it will
concentrate instead on what it calls 6……..
Question 7-13
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage?
Write:
True- if the statement agrees with the information
False - if the statement contradicts the information
Not Given - if there is no information on this.
7. After 1965, the Singaporean government switched the focus of the island’s

economy.
8. The creation of Singapore’s financial centre was delayed while a suitable site was
found.
9. Singapore’s four regional centres will eventually be the same size as its central
business district.
10. Planners have modelled new urban developments on other coastal cities.
11. Plants and trees are amongst the current priorities for Singapore’s city planners.
12. The government has enacted new laws to protect Singapore’s old buildings.
13. Singapore will find it difficult to compete with leading cities in other parts of the
world.


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READING 5
Questions 1-5
Reading Passage contains six Key Points.
Choose the correct heading for Key Points TWO to SIX .from the list of headings
below. Write the correct number, i-viii, in boxes 14-18 on your answer sheet.
List of Headings
i

Ensure the reward system is fair

ii

Match rewards lo individuals

iii

Ensure targets are realistic

iv

Link rewards to achievement

v

Encourage managers to take more responsibility

vi

Recognise changes in employees' performance over time

vii

Establish targets and give feedback

viii

Ensure employees are suited to their jobs

Example

Answer

Key Point One

viii

1

Key Point Two

2

Key Point Three

3

Key Point Four

4

Key Point Five

5

Key Point Six

Motivating Employees under Adverse Condition


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THE CHALLENGE
It is a great deal easier to motivate employees in a growing organisation than a
declining one. When organisations are expanding and adding personnel,
promotional opportunities, pay rises, and the excitement of being associated with
a dynamic organisation create Slings of optimism. Management is able ta use the
growth to entice and encourage employees. When an organisation is shrinking, the
best and most mobile workers are prone to leave voluntarily. Unfortunately, they
are the ones the organisation can least afford to lose- those with me highest skills
and experience. The minor employees remain because their job options are limited.
Morale also surfers during decline. People fear they may be the next to be made
redundant. Productivity often suffers, as employees spend their time sharing
rumours and providing one another with moral support rather than focusing on
their jobs. For those whose jobs are secure, pay increases are rarely possible. Pay
cuts, unheard of during times of growth, may even be imposed. The challenge to
management is how to motivate employees under such retrenchment conditions.
The ways of meeting this challenge can be broadly divided into six Key Points, which
are outlined below.
KEY POINT ONE
There is an abundance of evidence to support the motivational benefits that result
from carefully matching people to jobs. For example, if the job is running a small
business or an autonomous unit within a larger business, high achievers should be
sought. However, if the job to be filled is a managerial post in a large bureaucratic
organisation, a candidate who has a high need for power and a low need for
affiliation should be selected. Accordingly, high achievers should not be put into
jobs that are inconsistent with their needs. High achievers will do best when the
job provides moderately challenging goals and where there is independence and
feedback. However, it should be remembered that not everybody is motivated by
jobs that are high in independence, variety and responsibility.
KEY POINT TWO

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The literature on goal-setting theory suggests that managers should ensure that all
employees have specific goals and receive comments on how well they are doing
in those goals. For those with high achievement needs, typically a minority in any
organisation, the existence of external goals is less important because high
achievers are already internally motivated. The next factor to be determined is
whether the goals should be assigned by a manager or collectively set in
conjunction with the employees. The answer to that depends on perceptions the
culture, however, goals should be assigned. If participation and the culture are
incongruous, employees are likely to perceive the participation process as
manipulative and be negatively affected by it.
KEY POINT THREE
Regardless of whether goals are achievable or well within management's
perceptions of the employee's ability, if employees see them as unachievable they
will reduce their effort. Managers must be sure, therefore, that employees feel
confident that their efforts can lead to performance goals. For managers, this
means that employees must have the capability of doing the job and must regard
the appraisal process as valid.
KEY POINT FOUR
Since employees have different needs, what acts as a reinforcement far one may
not for another. Managers could use their knowledge of each employee to
personalise the rewards over which they have control. Some of the more obvious
rewards that managers allocate include pay, promotions, autonomy, job scope and
depth, and the opportunity lo participate in goal-setting and decision-making.

KEY POINT FIVE
Managers need to make rewards contingent on performance. To reward factors
other than performance will only reinforce those other factors. Key rewards such
as pay increases and promotions or advancements should be allocated for the
attainment of the employee's specific goals. Consistent with maximising the impact
of rewards, managers should look for ways to increase their visibility. Eliminating


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the secrecy surrounding pay by openly communicating everyone's remuneration,
publicising performance bonuses and allocating annual salary increases in a lump
sum rather than spreading them out over an entire year are examples of actions
that will make rewards more visible and potentially more motivating.
KEY POINT SIX
The way rewards ore distributed should be transparent so that employees perceive
that rewards or outcomes are equitable and equal to the inputs given. On a
simplistic level, experience, abilities, effort and other obvious inputs should explain
differences in pay, responsibility and other obvious outcomes. The problem,
however, is complicated by the existence of dozens of inputs and outcomes ana by
the Fact that employee groups place different degrees of importance on them. For
instance, a study comparing clerical and production workers identified nearly
twenty inputs and outcomes. The clerical workers considered factors such as
quality of work performed and job knowledge near the top of their list, but these
were at the bottom of the production workers' list. Similarly, production workers
thought that the most important inputs were intelligence and personal
involvement with task accomplishment, two factors that were quite low in the

importance ratings of the clerks. There were also important, though less dramatic,
differences on the outcome side. For example, production workers rated
advancement very highly, whereas clerical workers rated advancement in the lower
third of their list. Such findings suggest that one person's equity is another's
inequity, so an ideal should probably weigh different inputs and outcomes
according to employee group.
Questions 6-11
Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading Passage?
In boxes 6-11 on your answer sheet, write:
YES - if the statement t agrees with the claims of the writer
NO - if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer


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NOT GIVEN - if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
6. A shrinking organisation lends to lose its less skilled employees rather than its
more skilled employees.
7. It is easier to manage a small business ban a large business.
8. High achievers are well suited lo team work.
9. Some employees can fee! manipulated when asked to participate in goal-setting.
10. The staff appraisal process should be designed by employees.
11. Employees' earnings should be disclosed to everyone within the organisation.
Questions 11-13
Look at the follow groups of worker (Question 11-13 )and the list of descriptions
below Match each group with the correct description, A -E.
Write the correct letter, A-E, in boxes 25-27 on your answer sheet.

11. high achievers
12. clerical workers
13. production workers List of Descriptions

A. They judge promotion to be important.
B. They have less need of external goats.
C. They think that the quality of their work is important.
D. They resist goals which are imposed.
E. They have limited job options.


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READING 6
PAPER RECYCLING
A Paper is different from other waste produce because it comes from a sustainable
resource: trees. Unlike the minerals and oil used to make plastics and metals, trees
are replaceable. Paper is also biodegradable, so it does not pose as much threat to
the environment when it is discarded. While 45 out of every 100 tonnes of wood
fibre used to make paper in Australia comes from waste paper, the rest comes
directly from virgin fibre from forests and plantations. By world standards this is a
good performance since the world-wide average is 33 per cent waste paper.
Governments have encouraged waste paper collection and sorting schemes and at
the same time, the paper industry has responded by developing new recycling
technologies that have paved the way for even greater utilization of used fibre. As
a result, industry’s use of recycled fibres is expected to increase at twice the rate
of virgin fibre over the coming years.

B Already, waste paper constitutes 70% of paper used for packaging and advances
in the technology required to remove ink from the paper have allowed a higher
recycled content in newsprint and writing paper. To achieve the benefits of
recycling, the community must also contribute. We need to accept a change in the
quality of paper products; for example stationery may be less white and of a
rougher texture. There also needs to be support from the community for waste
paper collection programs. Not only do we need to make the paper available to
collectors but it also needs to be separated into different types and sorted from
contaminants such as staples, paperclips, string and other miscellaneous items.
C There are technical limitations to the amount of paper which can be recycled and
some paper products cannot be collected for re-use. These include paper in the
form of books and permanent records, photographic paper and paper which is
badly contaminated. The four most common sources of paper for recycling are
factories and retail stores which gather large amounts of packaging material in
which goods are delivered, also offices which have unwanted business documents
and computer output, paper converters and printers and lastly households which


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discard newspapers and packaging material. The paper manufacturer pays a price
for the paper and may also incur the collection cost.
D Once collected, the paper has to be sorted by hand by people trained to recognise
various types of paper. This is necessary because some types of paper can only be
made from particular kinds of recycled fibre. The sorted paper then has to be
repulped or mixed with water and broken down into its individual fibres. This
mixture is called stock and may contain a wide variety of contaminating materials,

particularly if it is made from mixed waste paper which has had little sorting.
Various machineries are used to remove other materials from the stock. After
passing through the repulping process, the fibres from printed waste paper are grey
in colour because the printing ink has soaked into the individual fibres. This recycled
material can only be used in products where the grey colour does not matter, such
as cardboard boxes but if the grey colour is not acceptable, the fibres must be deinked. This involves adding chemicals such as caustic soda or other alkalis, soaps
and detergents, water-hardening agents such as cal-cium chloride, frothing agents
and bleaching agents. Before the recycled fibres can be made into paper they must
be refined or treated in such a way that they bond together.
E Most paper products must contain some virgin fibre as well as recycled fibres and
unlike glass, paper cannot be recycled indefinitely. Most paper is down-cycled
which means that a prod-uct made from recycled paper is of an inferior quality to
the original paper. Recycling paper is beneficial in that it saves some of the energy,
labour and capital that go into producing virgin pulp. However, recycling requires
the use of fossil fuel, a non-renewable energy source, to collect the waste paper
from the community and to process it to produce new paper. And the recycling
process still creates emissions which require treatment before they can be
disposed of safely. Nevertheless, paper recycling is an important economical and
environmental practice but one which must be carried out in a rational and viable
manner for it to be useful to both industry and the community.
Questions 1-7
Complete the summary below of the first two paragraphs of the Reading Passage.