A STUDY ON THE TRANSLATION OF ENGLISH COMPUTER TEXTS IN VIETNAMESE EQUIVALENTS

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HA NOI
COLLEGE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES
POST GRADUATE DEPARTMENT
*********************







A STUDY ON THE TRANSLATION OF ENGLISH
COMPUTER TEXTS IN VIETNAMESE EQUIVALENTS

Nghiên cu vic dch tài liu ting Anh chuyên ngành vi tính
trong tài liu ting Vit tng ng



MA THESIS


Field: English Linguistics
Code:




Supervisor: Assoc.Prof. PhD. Le Hung Tien
By: Vu Thi Thu Thuy – M.A. 11

Hanoi 2005

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

On completion of this thesis, I am gratefully indebted to my supervisor Dr. Le Hung Tien
for his enthusiasm, valuable suggestions, advice and correction during the course of my
writing.
I also wish to express my sincere thanks to Dr. Tran Huu Manh, Dr. Duong Thi Nu and
Dr. Ngo Huu Hoang for their initially insightful comments and suggestions.
I also take this opportunity to thank all of my colleagues at the Department of ESP, CFL,
Vietnam National University - Hanoi, for their encouragement during the thesis
preparation as well as their interesting discussions relating to the field of research which
are additional resources for this study.
Finally, I would like to show my deep gratitude to my family and my friends for their
support and encouragement without which my thesis would not have been accomplished.

Hanoi, December 2005

Vu Thi Thu Thuy

ABSTRACT

This thesis focuses on the translation of English computer texts in Vietnamese
equivalents. Specifically, it is more concerned with the translation of some typical
syntactic and lexical features in English texts, that is relative clauses, -ed participle
clauses and passive structure and computing terminologies.
The study starts with the theoretical background which elaborates on the notion of
translation, translation equivalence as well as translation methods and procedures.
Simultaneously, characteristics of technical texts are touched upon, which leads to the
discussion of computer texts with their typical features like computing terminologies and
other discourse features such as relative clauses, -ed participle clauses and passive
structure. A detailed investigation and examination of the translation of computer
terminology and relative clauses, -ed participle clauses and passive structure is carried
out, from which the translation procedures are extracted. Implication for translating
computer texts will only be based on the results of the study.








ABBREVIATIONS

SL: source language
TL: target language
ST: source text
TT: target text

N: noun
Adj: adjective
V: verb
IT: Information Technology
ESP: English for Specific Purposes












TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………

Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………………
Abbreviations ……………………………………………………………………
Table of contents ……………………………………………………………………………….

i
ii
iii

iv

PART A: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale…………………………………………………………………….
2. Aims of the study……………………………………………………………
3. Scope of the study …………………………………………………………
4. Methods of the study ………………………………………………………
5. Design of the study ………………………………………………………….
PART B: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER I: LITERATURE REVIEW
I.1. Translation theory …………………………………………………………
I.1.1. Definition ……………………………………………………………
I.1.2. Translation equivalence ………………………………………………
I.1.3. Translation methods and procedures …………………………………
I.1.3.1. Word-for-word translation ……………………………………
I.1.3.2. Literal translation ………………………………………………
I.1.3.3. Faithful translation ……………………………………………
I.1.3.4. Semantic translation …………………………………………….
I.1.3.5. Adaptation ………………………………………………………

1
2
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8

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10
I.1.3.6. Free translation ………………………………………………….

I.1.3.7. Idiomatic translation ……………………………………………
I.1.3.8. Communicative translation …………………………………….
I.1.3.9. Transference ……………………………………………………
I.1.3.10. Naturalisation …………………………………………………
I.1.3.11. Cultural equivalent ……………………………………………
I.1.3.12. Functional equivalent …………………………………………
I.1.3.13. Descriptive equivalent ………………………………………
I.1.3.14. Synonymy …………………………………………………….
I.1.3.15. Through-translation …………………………………………
I.1.3.16. Shift or transposition ………………………………………….
I.1.3.17. Modulation ……………………………………………………
I.1.3.18. Recognized translation ……………………………………….
I.1.3.19. Compensation ………………………………………………
I.1.3.20. Reduction and expansion ……………………………………
I.1.3.21. Couplets ………………………………………………………
I. 2. Technical translation and computer texts………………………………………
I.2.1. Technical translation …………………………………………………
I.2.2. Computer texts ……………………………………………………….
I.2.2.1. Computing terminology ……………………………………
I.2.2.1.1. Single terms ………………………………………………
I.2.2.1.2. Compound terms ………………………………………….
I.2.2.2. Syntactic features …………………………………………
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I.2.2.2.1. Relative clauses as post modifications ……………………
I.2.2.2.2. –ed participle clause and passive structure ……………….
CHAPTER II: THE STUDY
II.1. Subjects of study and collection of data………………………………………
II.1.1. Subjects of study …………………………………………………….
II.1.2. Collection of data ……………………………………………………
II.2. Findings and discussion ……………………………………………………….
II.2.1. Translation of computing terms ………………………………………

II.2.1.1. Translation of single terms and neologisms by transference
procedure (the use of loan-words) ………………………………………….
II.2.1.2. Translation of single terms and neologisms by naturalization
procedure ……………………………………………………………………
II.2.1.3. Translation of compound terms by transposition procedure ………
II.2.1.4. Compound terms consisting of “N + agential N” are translated
with transposition procedure by the use of a generic classifier ……………

II.2.1.5. Translation of compound terms by both transference and
naturalization procedures (couplets) …………………………………
II.2.2. Translation of relative clauses by transposition procedure …………
II.2.2.1. Translation of relative clauses by replacing word class …………
II.2.2.2. Translation of relative clauses by zero linking device …………….
II.2.2.3. Translation of relative clauses by means of apposition ……………
II.2.2.4. Translation of relative clauses by syntagmatic change ………
II.2.3. The translation of –ed participle clauses and passive structure ………
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II.2.3.1. Translation of –ed participle clauses and passive structure by
transposition procedure …………………………………………………….
II.2.3.2. Translation of –ed participle clauses and passive structure by either
transposition or modulation procedure …………………………………….
II.2.4. Problems in the translation of computer texts ………………………………
II.2.4.1. Problems in the translation of computing terms …………………
II.2.4.2. Problems in the choice of translation procedure …………………
II.2.5. Summary …………………………………………………………………….
PART C: CONCLUSION
I. Major findings ………………………………………………………………….
I.1. Translation of computing terms ……………………………………………
I.2. Translation of relative clauses ……………………………………………

I.3. The translation of –ed participle clause or passive structure ………………

II. Implication for the translation of computer text ………………………………
III. Suggestions for further research ………………………………………………
REFERENCES


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PART A: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale
In the College of Technology, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, English is a
compulsory subject and an essential tool for students of different majors such as
Computer Science, Electronics and Communication, Nuclear Physics etc. to move
forward, becoming most up-to-date with scientific and technological advances in today’s
world.
It is recognized that the students majoring in technology often have to deal with
specific and technical documents in English, i.e. reading comprehension or translation
tasks for study purposes, so as to keep themselves well-informed of the field. To many
students, doing translation of specialized documents is a difficult and demanding task

since there are too many pitfalls in producing a good translation.
As an English teacher in charge of teaching computing English to students of
information technology, I am fully aware of students’ difficulties in doing translation of
English computer texts, which are consequences of inadequate knowledge of English and
misunderstanding of the purpose of translation.
There have been many discussions on various aspects of language and language
learning which all aim to be beneficial to language learners, facilitating their
understanding of the language so that they can master it more easily. Among those are the
study by Van Chu Thi Phuong (2004) on collocations in the English textbook on
Electronics and Telecommunications, Phuong Nguyen Thi Mai (2004) on discourse
features in written documents on Information Technology, Bac Nguyen Thi (2004) on the
translation of Electronics and Telecommunications terminologies, and so on.
Inspired by the situation and previous studies, I have decided to carry out a study on
the translation of English computer texts into Vietnamese as a contribution to the field of
ESP in general, and to the understanding of translation strategies applied in computer
texts in particular, thus hoping to raise awareness concerned with the translation of
computing English.
2. Aims of the study
The study is aimed at
 Pinpointing the prominent factors affecting the translation of computing
English, that is computing terminologies and certain significant syntactic
features of computer texts such as relative clauses, –ed participle clauses
and passive structure
 Identifying the translation strategies applied in the translation of
computing terminologies and some outstanding syntactic features of
computer texts by observing and investigating a number of English
computer texts and their translation.
 Spotting some translation problems in the study corpus, thus giving
suggested translation for such problematic translation.
In general, it is expected that the thesis would provide ESP teachers, IT students and

translators of English for Computing with some ideas about ways of dealing with English
computer texts, thus reducing the pitfalls or problems that may arise during the course of
their work.
3. Scope of the study
This study is carried out on the basis of what has been explored in the study entitled
“Typical discourse features in written documents on Information Technology and
implications in teaching ESP at the faculty of technology, VNU-Hanoi” by Phuong
Nguyen Thi Mai (2004). Phuong has realized that the discourse features of English
computer texts involve both syntactic and lexical ones. The former includes the
outnumber of complex sentence structure (55%), the use of relative clauses (57%) and
–ed participle clauses (13%) as post modification while the latter embraces highly
technical terms and sub-technical terms beside general vocabulary. Within the scope of
this thesis, only typical discourse features of computer texts are put under investigation,
which comprise the terminologies, syntactic features such as complex sentences with
relative clauses, -ed participle clause and passive structure. Likewise, the study will spot
some translation problems existing in the study materials. Finally, suggestions for
translating computer texts will only be made on the basis of the results of the study.
4. Methods of the study
This is a descriptive study since the aim of the study is to analyze and pinpoint the
common translation strategies used in the translation of English computer texts into
Vietnamese. In order to accomplish the thesis, a flexible combination of methods is
employed, which embraces reference to publications, collection, categorizing and
analyzing of data, and description of result.
5. Design of the study
Since the ultimate aim of the study is to identify the translation strategies applied in
the translation of English computer texts into Vietnamese, the study is started with the
identification of subjects and data collection in the first place. The subjects of the study
include a collection of twelve volumes entitled “Come to the world of microcomputer”,
translated by CADASA, published by Statistic Publishing House (2002), which present
almost every aspect of computing world in the form of reference books; a textbook

entitled “English for Computer Science” of the same publishing house (1998), translated
by VN-Guide; and another textbook “Oxford English for Computing” translated by
Thanh Le and published by Publishing House of Labor and Social Affairs (NXB
LXH) (1993).
Within the time limit and scope of the study, it is hard to produce statistic data on the
frequency of translation strategies applied in the translation of computer texts so the
collection of data is only expected to cover the outstanding translation samples according
to the features under study, that is computing terms, relative clauses, -ed participle
clauses and passive structures for investigation and analysis. Also, interviews with IT
professions, ESP teachers and IT students are conducted to get information on the choice
or preference of a translation strategy to evaluate its significance and impacts on the
translation of computing documents in general, which will bring more light to the data
analysis and discussion.
Review of relevant literature is necessary, which provides the theoretical background
for the study as it deals with the central concepts in translation incorporating translation
theory, translation equivalence, translation methods and procedures, technical translation
and translation in the field of computer technology.
Afterward, investigation of the study corpus is carried out to come up with
translation strategies which appear significant throughout computer texts. Analysis and
discussion are made to bring about a more insightful look into those translation patterns,
which may induce the issue of appropriateness in the choice of translation strategies
applied in some particular cases.


PART B: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER I: LITERATURE REVIEW
I.1. Translation theory
I.1.1. Definition
The study of translation has been dominated by the debate about its status as an art or
a science. Different linguists have put the definition of translation in various ways,

among which the followings stand out.
“Translation is the expression in another language (or target language) of what has
been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic
equivalences” (Marlone, 1988).
Translation means “the replacement of a text in one language (SL) by an equivalent in
another language (TL)” (Catford, 1965).
In spite of the differences in these definitions, there are still common features which
can be realized as the notion of movement between languages, content and the
responsibility to find equivalents that preserve the attributes or characteristic features of
the original text.
It is such an idea of equivalence that we are going to discuss hereafter.
I.1.2. Translation equivalence
Equivalence is well-recognized as a central concept in translation theory, which
postulates a relation between SL text and TL text. The followings are some elaborate
approaches to translation equivalence.
Nida (1964) strongly advocates dynamic equivalence rather than formal equivalence.
As he puts it, formal equivalence means closest possible match of form and content
between ST and TT, or a means of providing some degree of insight into the lexical,
grammatical or structure form of a source text. Meanwhile, dynamic equivalence is the
principle of equivalence of effect on reader of TT or the same effect on the TL receivers
as the source text has on the SL receivers.
Newmark, P. (1995) terms Nida’s dynamic equivalence as “equivalence response” or
“equivalent effect”, and holds that “the overriding purpose of any translation should be to
achieve “equivalent effect”, i.e. to produce the same effect (or one as close as possible)
on the readership of the translation as was obtained on the readership of the original”.
This, according to Newmark, should be considered the desirable result, rather than the
aim of any translation except for two cases: (1) if the purpose of the SL text is to affect
and the TL translation is to inform (or vice versa); (2) if there is a pronounced cultural
gap between the SL and the TL text.
Koller (1979) presents five types of equivalence as follows.

1. Denotative equivalence: This orients towards the extralinguistic content
transmitted by a text.
2. Connotative equivalence: This respect indicates that individual expressions in the
textual context do not only have a denotative meaning but also additional values
which mean various or synonymous ways of expressions.
3. Text-normative equivalence: This has to do with text-type specific features or text
and language norms for given text types. To put it another way, the SL and TL
words are used in the same or similar context in their respective languages.
4. Pragmatic equivalence: This means translating the text for a particular readership,
i.e. the receiver to whom the translation is directed, and to whom the translation is
tuned in order to achieve a given effect.
5. Formal equivalence: This aims to produce an “analogy of form” in the translation
by exploiting the formal possibilities of the TL or even by creating new forms if
necessary.
Baker, M. (1992) approaches the concept of equivalence differently by discussing the
notion of non-equivalence at word level and above word level, grammatical equivalence,
textual equivalence, and pragmatic equivalence.
 Non-equivalence at word level means that the target language has no direct
equivalent for a word which occurs in the source text. Common problems of
non-equivalence then involve such cases as culture-specific concepts, the SL
concept is not lexicalized in the target language, the SL word is semantically
complex, the SL and TL make different distinctions in meaning, the TL lacks
a superordinate, the TL lacks a specific term (hyponym), differences in
physical or interpersonal perspective, differences in expressive meaning,
difference in form, differences in frequency and purpose of using specific
forms, the use of loan words in the source text.
 Non-equivalence above word level is closely related to the differences in the
collocational patterning of the SL and TL, which create potential pitfalls and
can pose various problems in translation.
 Grammatical equivalence is more concerned with the differences in the

grammatical structures of the SL and TL, which often result in some change in
the information content of the message during the process of translation. This
change may take the form of adding to the target text information which is not
expressed in the source text. This can happen when the TL has a grammatical
category which the SL lacks. Likewise, the change in the information content
of the message may be in the form of omitting information specified in the
source text. If the TL lacks a grammatical category which exists in the SL, the
information expressed by that category may have to be ignored.
 Textual equivalence is achieved through the realization of cohesion, or
cohesive devices such as reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and
lexical cohesion from the source text into the target text.
 Pragmatic equivalence is realized by means of studying and translating
coherence and implicature from the SL to the TL.
It is Baker’s ideas on the notion of equivalence that is of great importance and interest
to the study of this thesis since he has drawn out most common problems relating to the
issue and presented various strategies to deal with them, which shed light on our
investigation.
I.1.3. Translation methods and procedures
The central problem of translating has always been whether to translate literally or
freely. Newmark, P. (1995) points outs that differences in the emphasis (SL or TL) have
resulted in a variety of translation methods and procedures, which shall be discussed
hereafter.
I.1.3.1. Word-for-word translation
According to Newmark (1995), this is often demonstrated as interlinear translation,
with the TL immediately below the SL words. The SL word-order is preserved and the
words translated singly by their most common meaning, out of context. For example,
“Viruses are something to worry about, but not a lot” – “Có mt vài iu  lo lng v
các virus, nhng không nhiu”. (Source: Oxford English for Computing, p93. NXB LXH
2002)
According to this method, cultural words are translated literally. The main use of

word-for-word translation is either to understand the mechanics of the SL or to construe a
difficult text as a pre-translation process.
I.1.3.2. Literal translation
The SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents but
the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context. As a pre-translation process,
this indicates the problems to be solved.
As Vinay, J.P. and Darbeinet, J. (1958) puts it, “literal translation or word-for-word
translation is defined as one where the resulting TL text is grammatically correct and
idiomatic, but where the translator has not needed to make any changes other than those
that are obviously required by the TL grammar itself”. For example, “the sooner, the
better” (càng sm càng tt), ray of hope (tia hy vng), school of thought (trng phái t
tng) etc.
Literal translation is most commonly found in translation between closely related
languages, such as French – Italian, and especially among those having a similar culture.
I.1.3.3. Faithful translation
As Newmark (1995) sees it, a faithful translation attempts to reproduce the precise
contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical
structures. It “transfers” cultural words and preserves the degree of grammatical and
lexical “abnormality” (deviation from SL norms) in the translation. It attempts to be
completely faithful to the intentions and the text realization of the SL writer. For
example, “Scientists have also emulated the flexibility of an octopus where the tentacles
can conform to the fragile objects of any shape and hold them with uniform, gentle
pressure. A variation of this design can be used to handle animals, turn hospital patients
in their beds, or lift a small child”. – “Các nhà khoa hc cng ã mô phng tính mm do
ca mt con mc ni các xúc tu có th phù hp vi các  vt d v  bt k hình dng
và gi chúng ng b, áp lc nh. Mt s thay i ca nhng thit k này có th c
dùng  iu khin các loài vt, chuyn các bnh nhân ti bnh vin vào các ging ca
h hay nhc mt  a tr nh” (Source: Oxford English for Computing, p147. NXB LXH
2002).
I.1.3.4. Semantic translation

Semantic translation differs from faithful translation only in as far as it must take
more account of the aesthetic value of the SL text. Further, it may translate less important
cultural words by culturally neutral third or functional terms but not by cultural
equivalents and it may make other small concession to the readership. For example, “BP
on the moves – BP liên t!c phát trin”, “Toshiba - vn ti tng lai”.
I.1.3.5. Adaptation
This is the freest form of translation which is mainly used for plays and poetry; the
themes, characters, plots are usually preserved, the SL culture converted to the TL culture
and the text written. As Vinay, J.P. and Darbeinet, J. (1958) see it, this procedure is used
in cases when the situation to which the message refers does not exists at all in the TL
and must thus be created by reference to a new situation, which is judged to be
equivalent. This is thus the concern of situational equivalent. For example, “May and
December – Gái t mà ly chng già”, “It’s all Greek to me – Tôi ch" hiu mô tê gì c"”.
I.1.3.6. Free translation
In Newmark’s view, free translation reproduces the matter without the manner, or the
content without the form of the original. Usually, it is a paraphrase much longer than the
original, a so- called “intralingual translation”, often prolix and pretentious, and not
translation at all. For example,
“To hoá gây chi cuc hí trng
n nay thm toát my tinh sng” (Bà Huyn Thanh Quan)
“Why does it please the Creator to upset the human stage?
How many stars have fled, how many misty seasons gone!” (The wife of the Sub
prefect of Thanh Quan)
Source: S tay ngi dch ting Anh - A Handbook for the English Language
Translator, p292. NXB Giáo dc. 1995.

I.1.3.7. Idiomatic translation
This reproduces the message of the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning
by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in the original. For
example, “make a mountain out of a molehill - vic bé xé ra to”, “life circle – sinh lão

bnh t#”.
I.1.3.8. Communicative translation
Communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the
original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and
comprehensible to the readership. For example,
“Mt èo, mt èo, li mt èo
Khen ai khéo tc cành cheo leo” (H Xuân Hng)
“A gap, a pass and still another pass
Praise to the sculptor of this land of sweet suspense”
Source: S tay ngi dch ting Anh (A Handbook for the English Language
Translator). p292. NXB Giáo dc. 1995



I.1.3.9. Transference
Transference (emprunt, loan word or transcription) is the process of transferring a SL
word to a TL text as a translation procedure, which means the same as Catford’s
transference that relates to the conversion of different alphabets: e.g. Russian, Greek,
Arabic, Chinese etc. into English. The word then becomes a “loan word”. For example,
“Internet” (Internet), “bowling” (bowling), quota (quota), etc.
The things that are normally transferred are names of all living and most dead people,
geographical and topographical names including newly independent countries, names of
periodicals and newspapers, titles of as yet translated literary works, plays, films; names
of private companies and institutions, names of public or nationalized institutions, unless
they have recognized translation; street names addresses etc. The argument in favor of
transference is that it shows respect for the SL country’s culture. The argument against it
is that it is the translator’s job to translate, to explain.
According to Baker (1992), translation by the use of loan words is not only because
the concepts are not lexicalized or unknown in the TL culture, but sometimes because
they sound more modern, smart or high-class. The loan word can be followed by an

explanation and then can be used on its own when it is repeated throughout the text.
I.1.3.10. Naturalisation
This procedure succeeds transference and adapts the SL word first to the normal
pronunciation, then to the normal morphology (word forms) of the TL. For example,
“seminar” (xe mi na), “cow boy” (cao bi), (virus) vi rút, gh b$ng (banc in French),
laser( la ze), etc.


I.1.3.11. Cultural equivalent
According to Newmark (1995), this is an approximate translation where a SL cultural
word is translated by a TL cultural word. For example, “yard” is meant “thc (o)”. The
main purpose of this procedure is to support another translation procedure in a couplet.
I.1.3.12. Functional equivalent
This common procedure, applied to cultural words, requires the use of a culture-free
word, sometimes with a new specific term; it therefore neutralizes or generalizes the SL
word. Since it is a cultural componential analysis, it is the most accurate way of
translating a cultural word. This procedure is also used when a SL technical word has no
TL equivalent. For example, “macro” in computing English has no equivalent in
Vietnamese and thus is explained as “mt danh sách các lnh, các cú nhn phím, ho%c các
hành ng khác vn ã c lu và c %t mt tên gi” (Source: Word processing and
spreadsheet software, p 59 – Come to the world of microcomputer).
I.1.3.13. Descriptive equivalent
In translation, descriptive sometimes has to be weighed against function, for example,
“samurai” is described as “the Japanese aristocracy from the eleventh to the nineteenth
century”; its function was to “provide officers and administrators” (Newmark, 1995).
Description and function are essential elements in explanation and therefore in
translation.
I.1.3.14. Synonymy
Newmark (1995) states his purpose of using the word “synonym” to mean a near TL
equivalent to an SL word in a context, where a precise equivalent may or may not exist.

This procedure is used for a SL word where there is no clear one-to-one equivalent, and
the word is not important in the text, particularly for adjectives or adverbs of quality
(which in principle are “outside” the grammar and less important than other components
of a sentence). A synonymy is only appropriate where literal translation is not possible
and because the word is not important enough for componential analysis.
A translator cannot do without synonymy; he has to make do with it as a compromise,
in order to translate more important segments of the text, segments of the meaning, more
accurately; but unnecessary use of synonyms is a mark of many poor translations. For
example, “For linework and picture placing, an 8-bit colour monitor is perfectly
adequate, as you can still define colours for print even if you can’t show them on the
screen” – “ hình v& nét và sp xp b c tranh, mt màn hình 8 bit màu hoàn h"o 'y 
trong lúc bn v(n có th )nh rõ các màu  in thm chí nu bn không th biu din
chúng trên màn hình” (Source: Oxford English for Computing, p205. NXBLXH 2002).
I.1.3.15. Through-translation
As Newmark (1995) points out, this is the literal translation of common collocations,
names of organizations (e.g. acronyms of international organizations such as UNESCO,
NATO, IMF), the components of compounds, also known as calque or loan translation,
for example, “the White House” is translated into Vietnamese as “Nhà Trng”. Normally,
through translations should be used only when they are already recognized terms.
I.1.3.16. Shift or transposition
A “shift” (Catford’s term) or “transposition” (Vinay and Darbelnet) is “a translation
procedure involving a change in the grammar from SL to TL” (Newmark, P. 1995).
Transposition, according to Newmark (1995), is the only translation procedure concerned
with grammar, and most translators make transpositions intuitively. There are four types
of “shift”. The first type of change may be from singular to plural or in the position of
adjective, which is automatic and offers the translator no choice. This is clearly seen in
the case of Vietnamese versus English grammar. For example, “a white horse” will be
“mt con nga trng”, which involves automatic change of word order in the noun
phrase; or “glasses”/ spectacles” means “kính eo mt” which automatically neglects the
plural form of the original version but does not affect the meaning of the words in TL.

A second type of shift is required when an SL grammatical structure does not exist in
the TL. Here are always options for translators, for example, the English gerund offers
many choices when is is to be translated such as verb-noun, a subordinate clause, a noun-
infinitive or an infinitive in some other languages. For example, “On hearing his death
…” (Khi bit tin anh y mt…/ Khi bit tin v cái cht ca anh y…”.
The third type of shift is the one where literal translation is grammatically possible
but may not accord with natural usage in the TL. As Vinay and Darbelne (1958) see it,
transposition means the replacing of one word-class by another, without changing the
meaning of the message and there are six transpositions of this type between French and
English as (1) SL verb, TL noun, for example, “essaie – attempt”; (2) SL conjunction, TL
indefinite adjective, for example, “dès que – any”; (3) SL clause, TL noun group, for
example, “dès qu’on essate – any attempt”; (4) SL verb group, TL verb, for example, “est
aux prises – involve”; (5) SL noun group, TL noun, for example, “des contradictions –
inconsistencies”; (6) SL complex sentence, TL simple sentence.
These cases are also sometimes seen between English and Vietnamese. For example,
“After his arrival…”- Sau khi anh y n …”, which shows a change of SL noun into TL
clause, or “My father wanted to live in a room in the outbuilding like my mother, but my
wife wouldn’t hear of it. This saddened my father.”- “Cha tôi mun  mt phòng di
dãy nhà ngang ging nh m tôi. V tôi không ch)u. Cha tôi bun.” (Source: Nguyen Huy
Thiep, Tuong ve huu – “The General Retires” in “The Other Side of Heaven”, 1995),
which reflects the use of TL adjective in place of SL verb.
The fourth type of transposition is the replacement of a virtual lexical gap by a
grammatical structure. For example, the word “seminar” in English can be explained by a
phrase or sentence in Vietnamese “hi hp  th"o lun ho%c nghiên c u mt  tài riêng
vi th'y giáo.” (Source: English-Vietnamese Dictionary. Vin Ngôn ng hc. NXB
TpHCM)
Nevertheless, in Newmark’s view, certain transpositions appear to go beyond
linguistic differences and can be regarded as general options available for stylistic
consideration. Thus, a complex sentence can normally be converted to a coordinating
sentence, or to two simple sentences, for example, “My father wanted to live in a room in

the outbuilding like my mother, but my wife wouldn’t hear of it.”- “Cha tôi mun  mt
phòng di dãy nhà ngang ging nh m tôi. V tôi không ch)u.”
I.1.3.17. Modulation
The term “modulation” was coined to define “a variation through a change of
viewpoint, of perspective and very often of category of thought” (Vinay and Darbelnet,
1958). Modulation procedures include positive for double negative, part for the whole,
abstract for concrete, cause for effect, one part for another, reversal of terms (or
conversive term in Nida’s word), active for passive, space for time, intervals and limits,
change of symbols. Of these procedures, active for passive and vice verse is a common
transposition, mandatory when no passive exists, advisable when a reflexive is normally
preferred to a passive. Examples of this procedure are “It’s not unlikely that - Có v nh
là” (positive for double negative) or “He is supposed to finish his assignment before this
Monday - Anh ta ph"i hoàn thành bài tp trc th hai ti” (active for passive).
I.1.3.18. Recognized translation
This means the use of the official or the generally accepted translation of any
institutional term. If appropriate, gloss can be added, which would indirectly shows the
translator’s disagreement with the official version. For example, UNDP (United Nation