Tài liệu Renewable Energy Technology , and Environment Economics doc

Renewable Energy
With 270 Figures and 66 Tables
123
Renewable Energy
Technology ,
and Environment
Martin Kaltschmitt
.
Wolfgang Streicher
Andreas Wiese
Economics
Printed on acid-free paper 5 4 3 2 1 0SPIN: 10942611 42/
E d itors
3100/Integra
Prof. Dr Ing. Martin Kaltschmitt
Institute of Environmental Technology
and Energy Economics
Hamburg University of Technology
Germany
Ao. Univ Prof. Dipl Ing. Dr. techn. Wolfgang Streicher
Institute of Thermal Engineering
Graz University of Technology
Austria
Dr Ing. Andreas Wiese
Lahmeyer International GmbH
Institute for Energy and Environment (IE) gGmbH
Leipzig, Germany
Bad Vilbel, Germany
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ISBN 978-3-540-70947-3 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York

Preface
The utilisation of renewable energies is not at all new; in the history of mankind
renewable energies have for a long time been the primary possibility of generating
energy. This only changed with industrial revolution when lignite and hard coal
became increasingly more important. Later on, also crude oil gained importance.
Offering the advantages of easy transportation and processing also as a raw
material, crude oil has become one of the prime energy carriers applied today.
Moreover, natural gas used for space heating and power provision as well as a
transportation fuel has become increasingly important, as it is abundantly
available and only requires low investments in terms of energy conversion
facilities. As fossil energy carriers were increasingly used for energy generation,
at least by the industrialised countries, the application of renewable energies

decreased in absolute and relative terms; besides a few exceptions, renewable
energies are of secondary importance with regard to overall energy generation.
Yet, the utilisation of fossil energy carriers involves a series of undesirable side
effects which are less and less tolerated by industrialised societies increasingly
sensitised to possible environmental and climate effects at the beginning of the
21
st
century. This is why the search for environmental, climate-friendly and social
acceptable, alternatives suitable to cover the energy demand has become
increasingly important. Also with regard to the considerable price increase for
fossil fuel energy on the global energy markets in the last few years, not only in
Europe, high hopes and expectations are placed on the multiple possibilities of
utilising renewable sources of energy.
Against this background, this book aims at presenting the physical and
technical principles of the main possibilities of utilising renewable energies. In
this context, firstly the main characteristics of the available renewable energy
streams are outlined. Subsequently, the technologies of heat provision from
passive and active solar systems, ambient air, shallow geothermal energy as well
as energy from deep geothermal sources are presented. Also the processes of
electricity generation from solar radiation (photovoltaic and solar thermal power
plant technologies), wind energy, hydropower and geothermal energy are
addressed. Furthermore, the possibilities of harnessing ocean energies are briefly
discussed. Only the possibilities of the energetic exploitation of biomass are not
explained in detail; in this regard, please refer to /1-4/.
For the main possibilities of renewable energies utilisation, in addition,
parameters and data are provided which allow for an economic and environmental
assessment of the discussed options. The assessment thus enables a better
VI Preface
judgment of the possibilities and limits of the various options of utilising
renewable sources of energy.

The present English version is a corrected and enlarged update of the 4
th

German edition published in early 2005. In contrast to the German edition, all
comments and information have been adapted to include the framework
conditions outside of Central Europe. Additionally the presentations on the
possibilities of solar thermal power generation have been significantly enhanced.
The elaboration of the present book would not have been possible without the
assistance of a number of the most varied persons and institutions. First of all we
would like to thank very much Lahmeyer International GmbH for sponsoring the
translation services; without this support this English edition would not have been
possible. We would like to extend our great gratitude to Dipl Ing. Ilka Sedlacek,
Dr. Olaf Goebel, Dipl Öko. Rosa Mari Tarragó, MSc Richard Lawless and Dr
Ing. Eckhard Lüpfert for their valuable text contributions and their helpful
support. We also would like to thank very much Zandia Viebahn for the English
translation. Additionally we would like to express our sincerest thanks to Barbara
Eckhardt, Petra Bezdiak and Alexandra Mohr who assisted in the layout of this
book. However, there are many more persons, not forgetting the publisher, whom
we need to thank for their cooperative and fruitful cooperation and assistance.
Finally, and most importantly, we owe the most to the highly committed and
collaborative authors.


Hamburg/Leipzig, Graz, Frankfurt, January, 2007



Martin Kaltschmitt, Wolfgang Streicher and Andreas Wiese

List of Authors
Dipl Ing. Stephanie Frick
Institute for Energy and Environment (IE) gGmbH, Leipzig, Germany
Dr. Ernst Huenges
GeoForschungsZentrum (GFZ), Potsdam, Germany
Prof. Dr Ing. Klaus Jorde
Center for Ecohydraulics Research, University of Idaho, Boise (ID), USA
Dr. Reinhard Jung
GGA-Institute, Hannover, Germany
Dr Ing. Frank Kabus
Geothermie Neubrandenburg GmbH, Neubrandenburg, Germany
Prof. Dr Ing. Martin Kaltschmitt
Institute of Environmental Technology and Energy Economics, Hamburg
University of Technology, Germany
Institute for Energy and Environment (IE) gGmbH, Leipzig, Germany
Prof. Dr. Klaus Kehl
University of Applied Science Oldenburg/Ostfriesland/Wilhelmshaven,
Emden, Germany
Dipl Ing. Dörte Laing
German Aerospace Centre; Institute of Technical Thermodynamics, Stutt-
gart, Germany
Dr. Iris Lewandowski
Copernicus Institute for Sustainable Development and Innovation, De-
partment of Science, Technology and Society, Utrecht University, The
Netherlands (presently working at: Shell Global Solutions International
BV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands)
Dipl Ing. Winfried Ortmanns
SunTechnics GmbH, Hamburg, Germany
Dr. habil. Uwe Rau
Institute of Physical Electronics, University Stuttgart, Germany

Dr. Burkhard Sanner
UBeG GbR, Wetzlar, Germany
Prof. Dr. Dirk Uwe Sauer
Electrochemical Energy Conversion and Storage Systems Group, Institute
for Power Electronics and Electrical Drives, RWTH Aachen University,
Germany
VIII
Dipl Ing. Sven Schneider
Institute for Energy and Environment (IE) gGmbH, Leipzig, Germany
Dipl Ing. Gerd Schröder
Institute for Energy and Environment (IE) gGmbH, Leipzig, Germany
Dr Ing. Peter Seibt
Geothermie Neubrandenburg GmbH, Neubrandenburg, Germany
Dr Ing. Martin Skiba
REpower Systems AG, Hamburg, Germany
Ao. Univ Prof. Dipl Ing. Dr. techn. Wolfgang Streicher
Institute of Thermal Engineering, Graz University of Technology, Austria
Dr Ing. Gerhard Weinrebe
Schlaich Bergermann und Partner, Structural Consulting Engineers, Stutt-
gart, Germany
Dr Ing. Andreas Wiese
Lahmeyer International GmbH, Bad Vilbel, Germany


List of Authors
Summary of Contents
1 Introduction and Structure 1
1.1 Energy system 1
1.2 Applications of renewable energies 7
1.3 Structure and procedure 9

1.4 Conventional energy provision systems 14

2 Basics of Renewable Energy Supply 23
2.1 Energy balance of the earth 23
2.2 Solar radiation 32
2.3 Wind energy 49
2.4 Run-of-river and reservoir water supply 66
2.5 Photosynthetically fixed energy 80
2.6 Geothermal energy 90

3 Utilisation of Passive Solar Energy 103
3.1 Principles 103
3.2 Technical description 104

4 Solar Thermal Heat Utilisation 123
4.1 Principles 123
4.2 Technical description 129
4.3 Economic and environmental analysis 160

5 Solar Thermal Power Plants 171
5.1 Principles 172
5.2 Solar tower power stations 181
5.3 Parabolic trough power plants 194
5.4 Dish/Stirling systems 203
5.5 Solar updraft tower power plant 212
5.6 Solar pond power plants 224

6 Photovoltaic Power Generation 229
6.1 Principles 229
6.2 Technical description 238

6.3 Economic and environmental analysis 287

X Summary of Contents
7 Wind Power Generation 295
7.1 Principles 295
7.2 Technical description 308
7.3 Economic and environmental analysis 339

8 Hydroelectric Power Generation 349
8.1 Principles 349
8.2 Technical description 352
8.3 Economic and environmental analysis 373

9 Utilisation of Ambient Air and Shallow Geothermal Energy 385
9.1 Principles 387
9.2 Technical description 393
9.3 Economic and environmental analysis 425

10 Utilisation of Geothermal Energy 437
10.1 Heat supply by hydro-geothermal systems 437
10.2 Heat supply by deep wells 463
10.3 Geothermal power generation 469


Annex A: Harnessing Ocean Energy 497

Annex B: Energetic Use of Biomass 511

Annex C: Energy Units 517

References 519

Index 535


Table of Contents
1 Introduction and Structure 1
1.1 Energy system 1

MARTIN KALTSCHMITT
1.1.1 Energy terms 2
1.1.2 Energy consumption 4
1.2 Applications of renewable energies .7

MARTIN KALTSCHMITT
1.2.1 Renewable energies 7
1.2.2 Investigated possibilities 9
1.3 Structure and procedure 9

MARTIN KALTSCHMITT
1.3.1 Principles 10
1.3.2 Technical description 10
1.3.3 Economic and environmental analysis 11
Definition of reference plants 11 (Heat provision 11, Electricity
provision 12); Economic analysis 12; Environmental analysis 14
1.4 Conventional energy provision systems 14
WOLFGANG STREICHER, MARTIN KALTSCHMITT
1.4.1 Boundary conditions 14
1.4.2 Power generation technologies 15

Economic analysis 15 (Investments and operation costs 17, Elec-
tricity generation costs 17); Environmental analysis 18
1.4.3 Heat provision technologies 19
Economic analysis 19 (Investments and operation costs 21, Heat
generation costs 22); Environmental analysis 22


2 Basics of Renewable Energy Supply 23
2.1 Energy balance of the earth 23
MARTIN KALTSCHMITT, ANDREAS WIESE
2.1.1 Renewable energy sources 23
Solar energy 23; Geothermal energy 26; Energy from planetary
gravitation and planetary motion 27
2.1.2 Atmosphere 28
2.1.3 Balance of energy flows 29


XII Table of Contents
2.2 Solar radiation 32
MARTIN KALTSCHMITT, WOLFGANG STREICHER
2.2.1 Principles 32
Optical windows 32; Weakening of radiation 32; Spectral range 33;
Direct, diffuse and global radiation 34; Direct radiation on tilted,
aligned surfaces 35; Diffuse radiation on tilted, aligned surfaces 37;
Reflection radiation on tilted, aligned surfaces 38; Global radiation
on tilted, aligned surfaces 38
2.2.2 Supply characteristics 38
Measuring radiation 38; Distribution of radiation 39; Time
variations 40

2.3 Wind energy 49
MARTIN KALTSCHMITT, ANDREAS WIESE
2.3.1 Principles 49
Mechanisms 49; Global air circulation systems 51; Local air
circulation systems 52; Influence of topography 55; Wind power 57
2.3.2 Supply characteristics 57
Measuring wind direction and wind speed 57; Wind distribution 58;
Time variations 60; Frequency distribution 65
2.4 Run-of-river and reservoir water supply 66
MARTIN KALTSCHMITT, KLAUS JORDE
2.4.1 Principles 67
Water reserves of the earth 67; Water cycle 67; Precipitation 68;
From precipitation to flow 69; Power and work capacity of water 71
2.4.2 Supply characteristics 72
Measuring water-technical parameters 72 (Measuring precipitation
72, Runoff measurement 72, Flow measurement 73); Distribution
and variations of precipitation 74; River systems, runoff and runoff
characteristic 77; Reservoirs 79
2.5 Photosynthetically fixed energy 80
IRIS LEWANDOWSKI
2.5.1 Principles 81
Structure and composition of plants 81; Photosynthesis 81;
Influence of various growth factors 84 (Irradiation 84, Water 85,
Temperature 85, Soil and nutrients 86, Plant cultivation measures
87)
2.5.2 Supply characteristics 88
Spatial supply characteristics 88; Temporal supply characteristics 89
2.6 Geothermal energy 90
ERNST HUENGES, MARTIN KALTSCHMITT
2.6.1 Principles 90

Structure of the earth 90; Temperature gradient 91; Heat content and
distribution of sources 92; Terrestrial heat flow density 93; Heat
balance at the surface of the earth 94; Geothermal systems and
resources 95
2.6.2 Supply characteristics 97
Shallow underground 97; Deep underground 99
Table of Contents XIII
3 Utilisation of Passive Solar Energy 103
WOLFGANG STREICHER
3.1 Principles 103
3.2 Technical description 104
3.2.1 Definitions 105
Terms 105; Key figures 105 (Transmission coefficient 105,
Secondary heat flow 105, Energy transmittance factor (g-value)
105, Diffuse energy transmittance factor (diffuse g-value) 106,
Thermal transmittance coefficient (U-value) 106, Equivalent
thermal transmittance coefficient (equivalent U-value) 106,
Transmission losses 106)
3.2.2 System components 107
Transparent covers 107; Shading devices 110; Absorber and heat
storage 113
3.2.3 Functional systems 115
Direct gain systems 115; Indirect gain systems 116 (Transparent
thermal insulation 117, Solar systems with convective heat flow
119); Decoupled systems 119; Sunspaces 120


4 Solar Thermal Heat Utilisation 123
4.1 Principles 123
WOLFGANG STREICHER

4.1.1 Absorption, emission and transmission 123
4.1.2 Optical features of absorbers 124
4.1.3 Optical features of covers 125
4.1.4 Energy balance 126
General energy balance 126; Energy balance of the collector 126
4.1.5 Efficiency and solar fractional savings 128
4.2 Technical description 129
WOLFGANG STREICHER
4.2.1 Collectors 130
Collector components 130 (Absorber 130, Cover 131, Collector box
131, Other components 132); Installation 132; Collector designs and
practical applications 132 (Non-concentrating swimming pool
liquid-type collectors 133, Non-concentrating glazed flat-plate
liquid-type collectors 133, Non-concentrating air collectors 135,
Concentrating liquid-type or air collectors 135); Data and
characteristic curves 136; Collector circuit 138
4.2.2 Further system elements 139
Heat store 139 (Liquid storage (Water storage) 139, Solid storage
141, Latent heat store 142, Duration of storage 143); Sensors and
control systems 143; Heat transfer medium 145; Pipes 146; Heat
exchanger 146; Pumps 147
4.2.3 Energy conversion chain and losses 148
Energy conversion chain 148; Losses 148
XIV Table of Contents
4.2.4 System design concepts 149
Systems without circulation 150; Open natural circulation systems
150; Closed natural circulation systems 150; Open forced
circulation systems 151; Closed forced circulation systems 151
4.2.5 Applications 152
Solar heating of open-air swimming pools 152; Small systems 153

(DHW system with closed forced circulation 154, DHW systems
with closed natural circulation 155, Solar combined systems
(combisystems) 155); Solar-supported district heating systems 157;
Further applications 159
4.3 Economic and environmental analysis 160
WOLFGANG STREICHER, MARTIN KALTSCHMITT
4.3.1 Economic analysis 160
Investments 162 (Collector 163; Storage 163; Other system
components 163, Installation
4.3.2 Environmental analysis 168
Construction 168; Normal operation 169; Malfunction 169; End of
operation 170


5 Solar Thermal Power Plants 171
5.1 Principles 172
GERHARD WEINREBE, WINFRIED ORTMANNS
5.1.1 Radiation concentration 172
5.1.2 Radiation absorption 176
5.1.3 High-temperature heat storage 177
5.1.4 Thermodynamic cycles 178
5.2 Solar tower power stations 181
GERHARD WEINREBE
5.2.1 Technical description 181
5.2.1.1 System components 181
Heliostats 181 (Faceted heliostats 182, Membrane helio-
stats 183); Heliostat fields and tower 183; Receiver 184
(Water/steam receiver 184, Salt receiver 184, Open volu-
metric air receiver 185, Closed (pressurised) air receivers
186); Power plant cycles 187

5.2.1.2 System concepts 187
Solar One 187; Solar Two 188; Phoebus/TSA/Solair 189;
PS10 189; Solar Tres 190; Solgate 190
5.2.2 Economic and environmental analysis 190
Economic analysis 190 (Investments 191, Operation costs 191,
Electricity generation costs 192); Environmental analysis 192
(Construction 192, Normal operation 193, Malfunction 194, End of
operation 194)

and operation 164, Total investments
164); Operation costs 165; Heat generation costs 166
Table of Contents XV

5.3 Parabolic trough power plants 194
GERHARD WEINREBE
5.3.1 Technical description 195
5.3.1.1 System components 195
Collectors 195 (Parabolic trough collectors 195, Fresnel
collectors 196); Absorber/Heat Collecting Element (HCE)
197; Heat transfer medium 198; Collector fields 198
5.3.1.2 Plant concepts 199
SEGS plants 199; Integrated Solar Combined Cycle
System (ISCCS) 201; Integration into conventional power
plants 201
5.3.2 Economic and environmental analysis 201
Economic analysis 202 (Investments 202, Operation costs 202,
Electricity generation costs 202); Environmental analysis 203
5.4 Dish/Stirling systems 203
DÖRTE LAING, GERHARD WEINREBE
5.4.1 Technical description 204

5.4.1.1 System components 204
Parabolic concentrator (dish) 204; Mounting structure
205; Solar tracking system 205; Receiver 205 (Tube
receiver 206, Heat pipe receiver 206); Stirling motor 206
5.4.1.2 Plant concepts 208
5.4.2 Economic and environmental analysis 210
Economic analysis 210 (Investments 210, Operation costs 211,
Electricity generation costs 211); Environmental analysis 212
5.5 Solar updraft tower power plant 212
GERHARD WEINREBE
5.5.1 Technical description 216
5.5.1.1 System components 216
Collector 216; Storage 217; Tower 217; Turbines 218
5.5.1.2 Plant concepts 219
Prototype located in the vicinity of Manzanares, Spain
219; Large solar updraft tower power plants 221
5.5.2 Economic and environmental analysis 222
Economic analysis 222 (Investments 223, Operation costs 223,
Electricity generation costs 223); Environmental analysis 224
5.6 Solar pond power plants 224
GERHARD WEINREBE, MARTIN KALTSCHMITT
5.6.1 Technical description 224
5.6.1.1 System components 224
Pond collector 224; Heat exchangers 225; Thermal engine
226
5.6.1.2 Plant concepts 226
5.6.2 Economic and environmental analysis 227
Economic analysis 227 (Investment costs 227, Operation costs 228,
Electricity generation costs 228); Environmental analysis 228
XVI Table of Contents

6 Photovoltaic Power Generation 229
6.1 Principles 229
MARTIN KALTSCHMITT, UWE RAU
6.1.1 Energy gap model 229
6.1.2 Conductors, semiconductors and insulators 230

Conductors 230; Insulators 231; Semiconductors 231
6.1.3 Conduction mechanisms of semiconductors 231
Intrinsic conductivity 231; Extrinsic conduction 232
6.1.4 Photo effect 234
External photo effect 234; Internal photo effect 235
6.1.5 P-n-junction 235
6.1.6 Photovoltaic effect 237
6.2 Technical description 238
DIRK UWE SAUER, UWE RAU, MARTIN KALTSCHMITT
6.2.1 Photovoltaic cell and module 238
Structure 238; Current-voltage characteristic and equivalent circuit
238; Efficiencies and losses 241; Cell types 244 (Solar cells from
crystalline silicon 245, Thin-layer amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) solar
cells 249, Thin film solar cells based on chalcogenides and
chalcopyrits, particularly CdTe and CuInSe (“CIS”) 251, Thin film
solar cells made of crystalline silicon 254, Thin film solar cells with
integrated serial circuit 254, Solar cells for concentrating photo-
voltaic systems 256, Dye solar cells made of nano-porous titan
oxide (TiO
2
) 256); Solar module 258
6.2.2 Further system components 260
Inverters 260 (Island inverters 261, Grid-connected inverters 265);
Mounting systems 269; Batteries and charge controllers 271;

Further system components 277
6.2.3 Grid-independent systems 277
System concepts 278; Examples 280
6.2.4 Grid-connected systems 283
6.2.5 Energy conversion chain, losses and characteristic
power curve 284
Energy conversion chain 284; Losses 285; characteristic Power c urve
2

86

6.3 Economic and environmental analysis 287
MARTIN KALTSCHMITT, GERD SCHRÖDER, SVEN SCHNEIDER
6.3.1 Economic analysis 287
Investments 288; Operation costs 290; Electricity generation costs
290
6.3.2 Environmental analysis 292
Construction 292; Normal operation 293; Malfunction 293; End of
operation 294





2
Table of Contents XVII
7 Wind Power Generation 295
7.1 Principles 295
KLAUS KEHL, MARTIN KALTSCHMITT, WOLFGANG STREICHER
7.1.1 Idealised wind energy converter 296

7.1.2 Drag and lift principles 301
Lift principle 301; Drag principle 306
7.2 Technical description 308
MARTIN KALTSCHMITT, MARTIN SKIBA, ANDREAS WIESE
7.2.1 Wind turbine design 308
7.2.2 System elements 309
Rotor 309 (Rotor blades 311, Rotor hub 312, Blade adjustment
mechanism 312); Gearbox 313; Generator 314 (Synchronous
generator 314, Asynchronous generator 315); Wind direction yaw
mechanism 316; Tower 317; Foundations 318 (Gravity foundation
318, Monopile foundation 319, Tripod foundation 319); Grid
connection 320; System aspects of offshore installation 321
7.2.3 Energy conversion chain, losses and characteristic
power curve 323
Energy conversion chain 323; Losses 323; characteristic Power
curve 325
7.2.4 Power control 328
Stall control 328; Pitch control 330
7.2.5 Wind parks 331
Wind park design 331; Grid connection 334
7.2.6 Grid-independent applications 335
Wind-battery systems 335; Wind pumps 336; Wind-diesel systems
337; Wind-sea water desalination 338
7.3 Economic and environmental analysis 339
MARTIN KALTSCHMITT, GERD SCHRÖDER, SVEN SCHNEIDER
7.3.1 Economic analysis 339
Investments 340; Operation costs 342; Electricity generation costs
342
7.3.2 Environmental analysis 343
Construction 343; Normal operation 344 (Audible sound 344,

Infrasonic sounds 344, Disco effect 345, Shadow impact 345, Ice
throw 345, Natural scenery 346, Preservation of bird-life 346,
Further effects on fauna 347, Space consumption 347, Offshore
wind power utilisation 347, Acceptance 347); Malfunction 347; End
of operation 348


8 Hydroelectric Power Generation 349
8.1 Principles 349
KLAUS JORDE, MARTIN KALTSCHMITT
System setup 349; Intake 350; Penstock 351; Turbine 351; Outlet 352;
Overall system 352
XVIII Table of Contents
8.2 Technical description 352
KLAUS JORDE, MARTIN KALTSCHMITT
8.2.1 Schematic layout 353
8.2.2 Categorisation and construction types 353
Low-head plants 355 (Diversion-type plants 355, Run-of-river
Auxiliary plants 358
8.2.3 System components 359
Dam, weir or barrage 359; Reservoir 360; Intake 361; Headrace/
Penstock 361; Powerhouse 361; Turbines 361 (Kaplan, propeller,
bulb, bevel gear, S and Straflo-turbines 363, Francis turbines 364,
Pelton turbines 365, Cross-flow turbines 366, Water wheels 367);
Outflow and tailrace 368; Shaft coupling and transmission 368;
Generator 368; Transformer 369; Regulation 369
8.2.4 Isolated and grid operation 369
8.2.5 Energy conversion chain, losses, and power curve 370
Energy conversion chain 370; Losses 371; Operation behaviour and
power curve 372

8.3 Economic and environmental analysis 373
MARTIN KALTSCHMITT, KLAUS JORDE
8.3.1 Economic analysis 374

Investments 375; Operation costs 376; Electricity generation costs
376
8.3.2 Environmental analysis 378
Construction 378; Normal operation 379 (Impoundments
379, Barrier effect of dam and power house 380, Diverted
reaches 381); Malfunction 382; End of operation 383


9 Utilisation of Ambient Air and Shallow Geothermal Energy 385
9.1 Principles 387
WOLFGANG STREICHER, MARTIN KALTSCHMITT
Heat pump principle 388 (Compression heat pumps 388, Sorption heat
pumps 389); Parameters 391 (Coefficient of performance (COP) 392, Work
rate 393, Heate rate 393)
9.2 Technical description 393
BURKHARD SANNER, WOLFGANG STREICHER, MARTIN KALTSCHMITT
9.2.1 Heat source systems for ambient air utilisation 394
9.2.2 Heat source systems for shallow geothermal energy utilisation 397
Closed systems 398 (Horizontally installed ground-coupled heat
exchangers 398, Vertically installed ground-coupled heat
exchangers 400, Components with earth contract (energy piles, slot-
die walls) 404); Open systems 405; Other Systems 406 (Coaxial
wells 406, Cavity and tunnel water 407, Preheating/precooling of air
407)

Plants 355); Medium-head plants 357; High-head Plants 355;

Table of Contents XIX

9.2.3 Heat pump 408
Heat exchangers 408, Compressors 410; Expansion valves 411;
Lubricants 412; Working media (refrigerants) 413
9.2.4 Overall systems 415
System configurations 415 (Heating systems with exhaust-air to
inlet-air heat pump 415, Heating systems with ground-coupled heat
pumps 416, Heat pump systems for heating and cooling purposes
417, Split system air conditioners for space heating and cooling
418); System aspects 420 (Types of operation 420, Areas of
application 421, COP characteristics 423, Heat regime in near-
surface ground 424)
9.3 Economic and environmental analysis 425
MARTIN KALTSCHMITT, GERD SCHRÖDER, WOLFGANG STREICHER
9.3.1 Economic analysis 425
Investments 427; Operation costs 429; Heat generation costs 430
9.3.2 Environmental analysis 431
Construction 432; Normal operation 432 (Environmental effects of
heat pump working media 432, Thermal effects on the soil, the
groundwater and the atmosphere 433, Hydraulic changes in the sub-
soil caused by groundwater withdrawal 434, Noise effects 434,
Effects caused by boreholes 434); Malfunction 434; End of
operation 435


10 Utilisation of Geothermal Energy 437
10.1 Heat supply by hydro-geothermal systems 437
PETER SEIBT, FRANK KABUS, MARTIN KALTSCHMITT, STEPHANIE FRICK
10.1.1 Technical description 437

Geothermal well drilling 437 (Drilling technique 438, Well com-
pletion 440); Downhole part 442 (Well completion 442, Testing and
modelling 443, Design of the downhole system 444); Uphole part
445 (Production of geothermal fluid 445, Quality assurance of re-
injected water 447, Heat transfer 448, Corrosion prevention and
suitable materials 449, Leakage monitoring 449, Slop system 450,
Re-injection of geothermal fluid 450); District heating systems 450;
Overall system layout 452
10.1.2 Economic and environmental analysis 454
Economic analysis 454 (Investments 456, Operation costs 457, Heat
generation costs 457); Environmental analysis 460 (Construction
460, Normal operation 460, Malfunction 462, End of operation 462)
10.2 Heat supply by deep wells 463
MARTIN KALTSCHMITT, STEPHANIE FRICK
10.2.1 Technical description 463



XX Table of Contents
10.2.2 Economic and environmental analysis 466
10.3 Geothermal power generation 469
REINHARD JUNG, FRANK KABUS, MARTIN KALTSCHMITT , STEPHANIE FRICK
10.3.1 Technical description 474
10.3.1.1 Subsurface system 474
Exploitation schemes 474 (Geothermal fields 474, Hot
water aquifers 475, Fault zones 475, Crystalline bedrock
476); Enhancing the productivity 478 (Acid treatment 478,
Hydraulic fracturing 478, Waterfrac technique 479);
Reservoir evaluation 480 (Borehole measurements 480,
Seismic Fracture Mapping 481)

10.3.1.2 Aboveground system 481
Open systems 482 (Direct steam utilisation 482, Single
flash process without condensation 483, Single flash
process with condensation 483, Double flash process with
condensation 484); Closed systems 485 (Organic Rankine
cycle 485, Kalina cycle 487); Combined systems 488
10.3.2 Economic and environmental analysis 489
Economic analysis 489 (Investments 490, Operation costs 491,
struction 494, Normal operation 494, Malfunction 495, End of
operation 495)


Annex A: Harnessing Ocean Energy 497
MARTIN KALTSCHMITT
A.1 Energy from wave motion 497
A.1.1 TAPCHAN system 498
A.1.2 OWC system 499
OWC buoy 500; OWC breaker-powered generator 500
A.1.3 Further approaches 502
A.2 Energy from tides 503
A.2.1 Tidal power plants 503
A.2.2 Harnessing high and low tide streams 505
A.3 Further possibilities 506
A.3.1 Thermal gradients 506
A.3.2 Ocean currents 508
A.3.3 Salinity gradients 509
A.3.4 Water evaporation 510

Economic analysis 466 (Investment costs 466, Operation costs 466,
Heat production costs 467); Environmental analysis 468 (Construction
468, Operation 468, Malfunction 469, Demolition 469)
Energy generation costs 491); Environmental analysis 494 (Con-
Table of Contents XXI
Annex B: Energetic Use of Biomass 511
MARTIN KALTSCHMITT
B.1 Structure of a typical supply chain 511
B.2 Conversion into final or useful energy 513
B.2.1 Thermo-chemical conversion 513
Gasification 514; Pyrolysis 514; Carbonisation 514
B.2.2 Physical-chemical conversion 514
B.2.3 Bio-chemical conversion 515
Alcohol fermentation 515; Anaerobic digestion 515; Aerobic
fermentation 515


Annex C: Energy Units 517

References 519

Index 535

List of Symbols
a Index
A Scaling factor
A Width of the focal line
A
abs

Absorber surface
A
ap
Solar aperture surface
A
n
Surfaces n of a building
A
G
Albedo
A
WEC
Minimum space required around a wind energy converter

b Profile thickness
B Specific angle

c
d
Drag coefficient
c
d,operation
Drag coefficient at a certain point of operation
c
l
Lift coefficient
c
l,0
Lift coefficient of a vaulted profile shape for an inflow angle of 0°
c

l,operation
Lift coefficient at a certain point of operation
c
p
Coefficient of pressure
c
p
Power coefficient
c
p
Specific thermal (heat) capacity
c
p,ideal
Ideal power coefficient
c
p,max
Maximum power coefficient
c
p,th
Theoretical power coefficient
c
p,Air
Specific thermal (heat) capacity of ambient air
C Capacitor
C Concentration ratio
C
1
Constant 1 for the calculation of the utilisable heat of an absorber
C
2

Constant 2 for the calculation of the utilisable heat of an absorber
C
flux
Concentration ratio defined by the radiation flux density ratio
C
geom
Geometrically determined concentration ratio
C
ideal,2D
Maximum concentration ration for a single-axis concentrator
C
ideal,3D
Maximum concentration ration for a two-axis concentrator
CET Central European Time
COP Coefficient of Performance

d
Rot
Rotor diameter of a wind energy converter
XXIV
d
S
Diameter of the sun
d
T
Diameter of the chimney tube (tower)
D Diode

e
0

Elementary charge
E (Electron) Energy
E Equation of time
E Evaporation
E
g
Energy gap
E
C
Energy level of the conduction band
E
Ocean
Evaporation from the ocean
E
S
Evaporation from a defined surface (S)
E
SC
Solar constant
E
V
Energy level of the valence band
E
Wa
Energy of the water
E
WEC
Energy yield of a wind energy converter
E
Wi

Energy of the wind

f Arch of a profile
f Frequency of the grid
f/l Relative curvature
F Flow
F Force
F
a,S
Flow above ground from a defined surface (S)
F
b,S
Flow below ground from a defined surface (S)
F
f
Shading factor by side overhangs
F
h
Shading factor by the horizon
F
o
Shading factor by overhangs
F
s
Solar fractional saving
F
C
Reduction factor of the g-value due to flexible shading
F
Centrifugal

Centrifugal force
F
Coriolis
Coriolis force
F
D
Drag force
F
D
Reduction factor of the g-value due to dust on the glass pane
F
D,a
Axial component of the drag force
F
D,t
Tangential component of the drag force
F
F
Reduction factor of the g-value due to the window frame
F
Gradient
Gradient force
F
L
Lifting force
F
L,a
Axial component of the lifting force
F
L,t

Tangential component of the lifting force
F
R
Overall force on the rotor blade
F
S
Reduction factor of the g-value due to fixed shading
F
T
Tangential force
List of Symbols
XXV

F
Wi,slow
Force given by the wind energy converter slowing down the wind flow
F
Wi,WEC
Overall wind force affecting the wind energy converter
FF Fill factor

g Acceleration of gravity
g Energy transmittance factor (g-value)
g
diffuse
Diffuse energy transmittance factor (diffuse g-value)
G
abs
Radiation flux density of the absorber
G

ap
Radiation flux density at the aperture level
G
b
Direct (beam) radiation
G
b,n
Direct (beam) normal radiation
G
b,t,a
Direct (beam) radiation on the tilted, aligned surface
G
d
Diffuse radiation
G
d,t,a
Diffuse radiation on the tilted, aligned surface
G
g
Global radiation
G
.
g
Global radiation incident
G
.
g,abs
Global radiation incident on the absorber surface
G
g,t,a

Global radiation on the tilted, aligned surface
G
r,t,a
Reflected radiation on the tilted, aligned surface
G
.
g,rel
Global radiation on an absorber area of one square metre
GMST Greenwich Mean Summer Time
GMT Greenwich Mean Time

h Altitude
h Enthalpy
h Head
h
1
Geodetic level at reference point 1
h
2
Geodetic level at reference point 2
h
3
Geodetic level at reference point 3
h
4
Geodetic level at reference point 4
h
5
Geodetic level at reference point 5
h

abs
Thermal loss coefficient of a absorber
h
i
Wind occurrence probability within a certain wind speed interval i
h
ref
Reference altitude
h
util
Utilisable head
h
H
Height of a hill above the surroundings
h
HW
Geodetic level of the headwater
h
T
Height of the chimney tube (tower)
h
TW
Geodetic level of the tailwater
H Heat production

i Discount rate
i Reference point within a stream-tube
i Wind speed interval
List of Symbols
XXVI

I Current
I
0
Saturation current
I
10
Ten hour discharge current
I
a
Annual share of the total investment
I
total
Total investment
I
C
Current through the capacitor (C)
I
D
Current through the diode (D)
I
MPP
Current within the maximum power point (MPP)
I
Ph
Photocurrent
I
SC
Short-circuit current

k Boltzmann constant

k Shape parameter
k
A
Distance factor
k
A,x
Distance factor with regard to the main wind direction
k
A,y
Distance factor crosswise to the main wind direction

l Profile length
l
½
Half value length of a hill
L Technical life time
L
ES
Distance between the sun and the earth
LT Local time

m Index
m Mass
m
.
Mass flow
m
.
Air
Mass flow of air

m
.
in
Water circulation in the pool (water-)mass stream
m
.
out
Water circulation from the pool (water-)mass stream
m
Wi
Air mass
m
.
Wi
Air mass flow
m
.
Wi,free
Air mass flow without any energy extraction
m
.
Wi

,i
Air mass flow at reference point i
M Drive torque
M
S
Radiant flux density of the sun

n Day of the year
n Index
n Number of rotor revolutions
n
G
Number of rotor revolutions of the generator

p Pressure
p
0
Initial pressure
p
1
Pressure at site 1 respectively reference point 1
List of Symbols