Gerneral of Chemistry

General Chemistry

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General Chemistry
E IG HTH E D I T ION, MEDIA ENHANCED EDITION

Darrell D. Ebbing
WAYNE STATE UNIVERSITY, EMERITUS

Steven D. Gammon
WESTERN WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY

HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY

NEW YORK

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BOSTON


Publisher: Charles Hartford
Senior Marketing Manager: Laura McGinn

Marketing Assistant: Kris Bishop
Development Editor: Kate Heinle
Editorial Assistant: Amy Galvin
Project Editor: Nan Lewis-Schulz
Editorial Assistant: Katherine Roz
Senior Production/Design Coordinator: Jill Haber
Cover Design Director: Tony Saizon
Composition Buyer: Chuck Dutton

Warning: This book contains descriptions of chemical reactions and photographs of
experiments that are potentially dangerous and harmful if undertaken without proper
supervision, equipment, and safety precautions. DO NOT attempt to perform these experiments
relying solely on the information presented in this text.
Photo credits: A list of credits precedes the index.
Cover image: White water rafting, Snake River, Jackson WY. Duomo Photography.

Copyright © 2008 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval
system without the prior written permission of Houghton Mifflin Company unless such copying
is expressly permitted by federal copyright law. Address inquiries to College Permissions,
Houghton Mifflin Company, 222 Berkeley Street, Boston, MA 02116-3764.
Printed in the U.S.A.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2006935159
Student Edition ISBN: 0-618-73879-7
Instructor’s Annotated Edition ISBN: 0-618-74271-9
123456789-VH-11-10-09-08-07

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Contents in Brief
■ Basics of Chemistry

1
2
3
4
5
6

Chemistry and Measurement 1
Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 41
Calculations with Chemical Formulas and Equations
Chemical Reactions 123
The Gaseous State 175
Thermochemistry 224

86

■ Atomic and Molecular Structure
7
8
9
10

Quantum Theory of the Atom 264
Electron Configurations and Periodicity 294
Ionic and Covalent Bonding 328
Molecular Geometry and Chemical Bonding Theory 372

■ States of Matter and Solutions

11 States of Matter; Liquids and Solids 418
12 Solutions 478
13 Materials of Technology 523

■ Chemical Reactions and Equilibrium
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Rates of Reaction 558
Chemical Equilibrium 617
Acids and Bases 659
Acid–Base Equilibria 690
Solubility and Complex-Ion Equilibria 734
Thermodynamics and Equilibrium 764
Electrochemistry 802

21
22
23
24
25

Nuclear Chemistry 854
Chemistry of the Main-Group Elements 900
The Transition Elements and Coordination Compounds 958
Organic Chemistry 998
Polymer Materials: Synthetic and Biological 1036

■ Nuclear Chemistry and Chemistry of the Elements

v
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Contents
Essays xxi
Preface xxiii

1

Chemistry and Measurement

1

An Introduction to Chemistry 2
1.1
1.2

Modern Chemistry: A Brief Glimpse
Experiment and Explanation 4

2

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT The Birth of the Post-it Note®

1.3
1.4

5

Law of Conservation of Mass 6
Matter: Physical State and Chemical Constitution 9

■ INSTRUMENTAL METHODS Separation of Mixtures by

Chromatography 14

Physical Measurements
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8

16

Measurement and Significant Figures 16
SI Units 20

Derived Units 24
Units and Dimensional Analysis (Factor-Label Method)

27

A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 31

2

Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

41

Atomic Theory and Atomic Structure 42
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5

Atomic Theory of Matter 42
The Structure of the Atom 45
Nuclear Structure; Isotopes 48
Atomic Weights 50
Periodic Table of the Elements 53

Chemical Substances: Formulas and Names
2.6

55

Chemical Formulas; Molecular and Ionic Substances

55

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Thirty Seconds on the Island of Stability

2.7
2.8

56

Organic Compounds 61
Naming Simple Compounds 62
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Contents

Chemical Reactions: Equations 73
2.9 Writing Chemical Equations 73
2.10 Balancing Chemical Equations 74
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 77

3

Calculations with Chemical Formulas and
Equations 86
Mass and Moles of Substance 87
3.1
3.2

Molecular Weight and Formula Weight
The Mole Concept 89

87

Determining Chemical Formulas 93
3.3
3.4
3.5

Mass Percentages from the Formula 93
Elemental Analysis: Percentages of Carbon, Hydrogen, and
Oxygen 95
Determining Formulas 97

■ INSTRUMENTAL METHODS Mass Spectrometry and

Molecular Formula 98

Stoichiometry: Quantitative Relations in Chemical Reactions
3.6

3.7
3.8

Molar Interpretation of a Chemical Equation 103
Amounts of Substances in a Chemical Reaction 104
Limiting Reactant; Theoretical and Percentage Yields 107

A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 113

4

Chemical Reactions

123

Ions in Aqueous Solution 124
4.1
4.2

Ionic Theory of Solutions and Solubility Rules
Molecular and Ionic Equations 129

Types of Chemical Reactions
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6

124

133

Precipitation Reactions 133
Acid–Base Reactions 136
Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 144
Balancing Simple Oxidation–Reduction Equations 152

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ix

Contents

Working with Solutions
4.7
4.8

155

Molar Concentration 155
Diluting Solutions 157

Quantitative Analysis

159

4.9 Gravimetric Analysis 159
4.10 Volumetric Analysis 161
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 164

5

The Gaseous State

175

Gas Laws 176
5.1
5.2
5.3

Gas Pressure and Its Measurement 176
Empirical Gas Laws 178
The Ideal Gas Law 187

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Nitric Oxide Gas and Biological Signaling

5.4
5.5

Stoichiometry Problems Involving Gas Volumes 194
Gas Mixtures; Law of Partial Pressures 196

Kinetic-Molecular Theory 200
5.6
5.7
5.8

Kinetic Theory of an Ideal Gas 201
Molecular Speeds; Diffusion and Effusion
Real Gases 209

204

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Carbon Dioxide Gas and the

Greenhouse Effect 213
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 215

6

Thermochemistry

224

Understanding Heats of Reaction 225
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4

Energy and Its Units 225
Heat of Reaction 228
Enthalpy and Enthalpy Change 231
Thermochemical Equations 234

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Lucifers and Other Matches

6.5
6.6

Applying Stoichiometry to Heats of Reaction
Measuring Heats of Reaction 238

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237

188


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Contents

Using Heats of Reaction
6.7
6.8
6.9

242

Hess’s Law 242
Standard Enthalpies of Formation 246
Fuels—Foods, Commercial Fuels, and Rocket Fuels

251

A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 254

7

Quantum Theory of the Atom
Light Waves, Photons, and the Bohr Theory
7.1
7.2

264

265

The Wave Nature of Light 265
Quantum Effects and Photons 269

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Zapping Hamburger with Gamma Rays

7.3

The Bohr Theory of the Hydrogen Atom

271

271

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Lasers and Compact Disc Players

276

Quantum Mechanics and Quantum Numbers 278
7.4

Quantum Mechanics 278

■ INSTRUMENTAL METHODS Scanning Tunneling Microscopy

7.5

Quantum Numbers and Atomic Orbitals

282

282

A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 288

8

Electron Configurations and Periodicity

294

Electronic Structure of Atoms 295
8.1

Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle 295

■ INSTRUMENTAL METHODS Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)

8.2

298

Building-Up Principle and the Periodic Table 300

■ INSTRUMENTAL METHODS X Rays, Atomic Numbers, and Orbital Structure

(Photoelectron Spectroscopy) 305

8.3
8.4

Writing Electron Configurations Using the Periodic Table 306
Orbital Diagrams of Atoms; Hund’s Rule 309

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Levitating Frogs and People

Periodicity of the Elements
8.5
8.6
8.7

311

312

Mendeleev’s Predictions from the Periodic Table
Some Periodic Properties 313
Periodicity in the Main-Group Elements 320

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xi

Contents
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 323

9

Ionic and Covalent Bonding
Ionic Bonds

9.1
9.2

328

329

Describing Ionic Bonds 329
Electron Configurations of Ions

334

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Ionic Liquids and Green Chemistry

9.3

Covalent Bonds
9.4

341

Describing Covalent Bonds

341

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Chemical Bonds in Nitroglycerin

9.5
9.6
9.7

9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11

335

Ionic Radii 339

344

Polar Covalent Bonds; Electronegativity 345
Writing Lewis Electron-Dot Formulas 347
Delocalized Bonding: Resonance 350
Exceptions to the Octet Rule 352
Formal Charge and Lewis Formulas 355
Bond Length and Bond Order 358
Bond Energy 359

■ INSTRUMENTAL METHODS Infrared Spectroscopy and Vibrations

of Chemical Bonds 363
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 365

10

Molecular Geometry and Chemical Bonding
Theory 372

Molecular Geometry and Directional Bonding
10.1

374

The Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Model

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Left-Handed and Right-Handed Molecules

10.2
10.3
10.4

Dipole Moment and Molecular Geometry
Valence Bond Theory 388
Description of Multiple Bonding 395

385

Molecular Orbital Theory 400
10.5
10.6

Principles of Molecular Orbital Theory 400
Electron Configurations of Diatomic Molecules of the
Second-Period Elements 403

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Contents

10.7

Molecular Orbitals and Delocalized Bonding 407

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Human Vision

409
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Stratospheric Ozone (An Absorber
of Ultraviolet Rays) 410
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 410

11

States of Matter; Liquids and Solids
11.1

418

Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids 419

Changes of State 420

11.2
11.3

Phase Transitions 420
Phase Diagrams 430

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Removing Caffeine from Coffee

433

Liquid State 434
11.4
11.5

Properties of Liquids: Surface Tension and Viscosity 434
Intermolecular Forces; Explaining Liquid Properties 436

Solid State
11.6
11.7
11.8

444

Classification of Solids by Type of Attraction of Units 444
Crystalline Solids; Crystal Lattices and Unit Cells 448
Structures of Some Crystalline Solids 452

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Liquid-Crystal Displays

453

11.9 Calculations Involving Unit-Cell Dimensions 460
11.10 Determining Crystal Structure by X-Ray Diffraction
■ INSTRUMENTAL METHODS Automated X-Ray Diffractometry

462
464

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Water (A Special Substance for Planet Earth)

A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 467

12

Solutions

478

Solution Formation 479
12.1
12.2

Types of Solutions 479
Solubility and the Solution Process

481

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Hemoglobin Solubility and

Sickle-Cell Anemia

12.3

486

Effects of Temperature and Pressure on Solubility 487

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Contents

Colligative Properties
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8

xiii

490

Ways of Expressing Concentration 490
Vapor Pressure of a Solution 496

Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point Depression 500
Osmosis 504
Colligative Properties of Ionic Solutions 508

Colloid Formation 509
12.9

Colloids

509

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT The World’s Smallest Test Tubes

514
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 514

13

Materials of Technology

523

Metals and Metallurgy 524
13.1
13.2
13.3

Natural Sources of the Metallic Elements

Metallurgy 527
Bonding in Metals 534

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Superconductivity

525

537

Nonmetallic Materials 537
13.4

Diamond, Graphite, the Fullerenes, and Nanotechnology 538

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Buckminsterfullerene—A Third

Form of Carbon 542

13.5
13.6

Semiconductors 542
Silicon, Silica, and Silicates

546

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Silica Aerogels, the Lightest “Solids”

13.7
13.8

550

Ceramics 550
Composites 552

A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Online Study Center Media Summary 553

14

Rates of Reaction

558

Reaction Rates 559
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4

Definition of Reaction Rate 560
Experimental Determination of Rate 564
Dependence of Rate on Concentration 566
Change of Concentration with Time 572

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Contents

14.5
14.6

Temperature and Rate; Collision and Transition-State
Theories 581
Arrhenius Equation 585

Reaction Mechanisms
14.7
14.8
14.9

588

Elementary Reactions 588
The Rate Law and the Mechanism 592
Catalysis 597

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Seeing Molecules React

602
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 602

15

Chemical Equilibrium

617

Describing Chemical Equilibrium 618
15.1
15.2
15.3

Chemical Equilibrium—A Dynamic Equilibrium 618
The Equilibrium Constant 621
Heterogeneous Equilibria; Solvents in Homogeneous
Equilibria 628

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Slime Molds and Leopards’ Spots

Using the Equilibrium Constant
15.4
15.5
15.6

629

631

Qualitatively Interpreting the Equilibrium Constant
Predicting the Direction of Reaction 632
Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations 634

631

Changing the Reaction Conditions; Le Chatelier’s Principle
15.7
15.8
15.9

Removing Products or Adding Reactants 639
Changing the Pressure and Temperature 642
Effect of a Catalyst 647

A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 649

16

Acids and Bases
Acid–Base Concepts
16.1
16.2
16.3

659

660

Arrhenius Concept of Acids and Bases 660
Brønsted–Lowry Concept of Acids and Bases
Lewis Concept of Acids and Bases 664

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xv

Contents

Acid and Base Strengths 666
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Taking Your Medicine

16.4
16.5

667

Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases 667
Molecular Structure and Acid Strength 670

Self-Ionization of Water and pH 673
16.6
16.7
16.8

Self-Ionization of Water 673
Solutions of a Strong Acid or Base
The pH of a Solution 677

674

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Unclogging the Sink and Other Chores

682

A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 682

17

Acid–Base Equilibria

690

Solutions of a Weak Acid or Base

691

17.1
17.2

Acid-Ionization Equilibria 691
Polyprotic Acids 698

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Acid Rain

17.3

17.4

700

Base-Ionization Equilibria 702
Acid–Base Properties of Salt Solutions

705

Solutions of a Weak Acid or Base with Another Solute
17.5
17.6
17.7

Common-Ion Effect 710
Buffers 713
Acid–Base Titration Curves

710

720

A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 724

18

Solubility and Complex-Ion Equilibria
Solubility Equilibria

18.1
18.2
18.3
18.4

735

The Solubility Product Constant 735
Solubility and the Common-Ion Effect
Precipitation Calculations 742
Effect of pH on Solubility 746

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Limestone Caves

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739

734


xvi

Contents

Complex-Ion Equilibria
18.5
18.6

749

Complex-Ion Formation 749
Complex Ions and Solubility 752

An Application of Solubility Equilibria 754
18.7

Qualitative Analysis of Metal Ions

754

A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 757

19

Thermodynamics and Equilibrium
19.1

764

First Law of Thermodynamics; Enthalpy 765

Spontaneous Processes and Entropy 768
19.2
19.3

Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 769
Standard Entropies and the Third Law of Thermodynamics 775

Free-Energy Concept
19.4

779

Free Energy and Spontaneity 779

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Coupling of Reactions

19.5

784

Interpretation of Free Energy 784

Free Energy and Equilibrium Constants 786
19.6
19.7

Relating ⌬GЊ to the Equilibrium Constant 786
Change of Free Energy with Temperature 790

A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 793

20

Electrochemistry
Half-Reactions
20.1

803

Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Reactions in Acidic and
Basic Solutions 803

Voltaic Cells
20.2
20.3
20.4
20.5
20.6

802

808

Construction of Voltaic Cells 808
Notation for Voltaic Cells 811
Electromotive Force 813
Standard Cell emfs and Standard Electrode Potentials 815
Equilibrium Constants from emfs 823

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Contents

20.7
20.8

Dependence of emf on Concentration
Some Commercial Voltaic Cells 830

Electrolytic Cells

826

834

20.9 Electrolysis of Molten Salts 834
20.10 Aqueous Electrolysis 836
20.11 Stoichiometry of Electrolysis 841
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 843

21

Nuclear Chemistry

854

Radioactivity and Nuclear Bombardment Reactions

21.1
21.2
21.3
21.4
21.5

855

Radioactivity 855
Nuclear Bombardment Reactions 864
Radiations and Matter: Detection and Biological Effects
Rate of Radioactive Decay 871
Applications of Radioactive Isotopes 878

Energy of Nuclear Reactions

882

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

21.6
21.7

869

883

Mass–Energy Calculations 884
Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion 888

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT The Chernobyl Nuclear Accident

892
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 892

22

Chemistry of the Main-Group Elements
22.1

General Observations About the Main-Group Elements

Chemistry of the Main-Group Metals
22.2
22.3
22.4

903

Group IA: The Alkali Metals 904
Group IIA: The Alkaline Earth Metals 910
Group IIIA and Group IVA Metals 916

Chemistry of the Nonmetals 920
22.5
22.6
22.7
22.8

Hydrogen 921
Group IVA: The Carbon Family 924
Group VA: Nitrogen and the Phosphorus Family 929
Group VIA: Oxygen and the Sulfur Family 937

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901


xviii

Contents

22.9 Group VIIA: The Halogens 943
22.10 Group VIIIA: The Noble Gases 947
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Online Study Center Media Summary 949

23

The Transition Elements and Coordination
Compounds 958
Properties of the Transition Elements
23.1
23.2

959

Periodic Trends in the Transition Elements 959
The Chemistry of Two Transition Elements 964

Complex Ions and Coordination Compounds
23.3
23.4

967

Formation and Structure of Complexes 968
Naming Coordination Compounds 972

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Salad Dressing and Chelate Stability

23.5
23.6
23.7

973

Structure and Isomerism in Coordination Compounds
Valence Bond Theory of Complexes 984
Crystal Field Theory 985

976

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT The Cooperative Release of Oxygen from

Oxyhemoglobin 992

A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Online Study Center Media Summary 993

24

Organic Chemistry
24.1

The Bonding of Carbon

Hydrocarbons
24.2
24.3
24.4
24.5

999

999

Alkanes and Cycloalkanes 1000
Alkenes and Alkynes 1008
Aromatic Hydrocarbons 1012
Naming Hydrocarbons 1015

Derivatives of Hydrocarbons
24.6
24.7

998

1022

Organic Compounds Containing Oxygen 1022
Organic Compounds Containing Nitrogen 1027

A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Online Study Center Media Summary 1029

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Contents

25

xix

Polymer Materials: Synthetic
and Biological 1036
Synthetic Polymers 1037
25.1

Synthesis of Organic Polymers 1037

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT The Discovery of Nylon

25.2

Electrically Conducting Polymers

Biological Polymers
25.3
25.4

1040

1042

1044

Proteins 1044
Nucleic Acids 1049

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Tobacco Mosaic Virus and Atomic

Force Microscopy 1058
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Online Study Center Media Summary 1059

Appendices

A-1
A. Mathematical Skills A-1
B. Vapor Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures A-8
C. Thermodynamic Quantities for Substances and Ions at 25ЊC A-8
D. Electron Configurations of Atoms in the Ground State A-13
E. Acid-Ionization Constants at 25ЊC A-15
F. Base-Ionization Constants at 25ЊC A-16
G. Solubility Product Constants at 25ЊC A-16

H. Formation Constants of Complex Ions at 25ЊC A-17
I. Standard Electrode (Reduction) Potentials in
Aqueous Solution at 25ЊC A-18

Answers to Exercises

A-20

Answers to Concept Checks

A-24

Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems
Glossary A-44
Photo Credits A-62
Index A-64

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Essays
A C H E M I S T L O O K S AT
LIFE SCIENC E

L IFE S CIENCE

Nitric Oxide Gas and Biological Signaling 188
Human Vision 409
Hemoglobin Solubility and Sickle-Cell Anemia 486
Taking Your Medicine 667
Coupling of Reactions 784
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) 883
The Cooperative Release of Oxygen from Oxyhemoglobin 992
Tobacco Mosaic Virus and Atomic Force Microscopy 1058

M ATER IALS

M ATERIALS

Lasers and Compact Disc Players 276
Superconductivity 537
Buckminsterfullerene—A Third Form of Carbon 542
Silica Aerogels, the Lightest “Solids” 550
The Discovery of Nylon 1040

ENVIRONMENT

E NVIRONMENT

Carbon Dioxide Gas and the Greenhouse Effect 213
Stratospheric Ozone (An Absorber of Ultraviolet Rays)
Water (A Special Substance for Planet Earth) 465
Acid Rain 700

Limestone Caves 748
The Chernobyl Nuclear Accident 892

410

FRONTIERS

F RONTIERS

Thirty Seconds on the Island of Stability 56
Levitating Frogs and People 311
Ionic Liquids and Green Chemistry 335
The World’s Smallest Test Tubes 514
Seeing Molecules React 602

E V E RY D AY L I F E

EVERYDAY L IFE

The Birth of the Post-it Note® 5
Lucifers and Other Matches 236
Zapping Hamburger with Gamma Rays 271
Chemical Bonds in Nitroglycerin 344
Left-Handed and Right-Handed Molecules 384
Removing Caffeine from Coffee 433
Liquid-Crystal Displays 453
Slime Molds and Leopards’ Spots 629
Unclogging the Sink and Other Chores 682
Salad Dressing and Chelate Stability 973
xxi

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xxii

Essays

I N S T R U M E N TA L M E T H O D S
Separation of Mixtures by Chromatography 14
Mass Spectrometry and Molecular Formula 98
Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 282
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) 298
X Rays, Atomic Numbers, and Orbital Structure (Photoelectron
Spectroscopy) 305
Infrared Spectroscopy and Vibrations of Chemical Bonds 363
Automated X-Ray Diffractometry 464

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Preface
To the Instructor
In the preface to the first edition, we wrote, “Scientists delve into the molecular
machinery of the biological cell and examine bits of material from the planets of the
solar system. The challenge for the instructors of introductory chemistry is to capture
the excitement of these discoveries [of chemistry] while giving students a solid understanding of the basic principles and facts. The challenge for the students is to be receptive to a new way of thinking, which will allow them to be caught up in the excitement of discovery.” From the very first edition of this text, our aims have always been
to help instructors capture the excitement of chemistry and to teach students to “think
chemistry.” Here are some of the features of the text that we feel are especially important in achieving these goals.
Clear, Lucid Explanations of Chemical Concepts From the first edition, we have
always placed the highest priority on writing clear, lucid explanations of chemical

concepts. We have strived to relate abstract concepts to specific real-world events and
have presented topics in a logical, yet flexible, order. With succeeding editions, incorporating suggestions from instructors and students, we have refined the writing.
Coherent Problem-Solving Approach With the first edition, we presented a
coherent problem-solving approach that involved worked-out Examples coupled with
Exercises and corresponding end-of-chapter Problems. This approach received an
enormously positive response. In later editions, while refining the pedagogy of these
examples and problems, we added Problem Strategies to underscore how one thinks
through a problem solution. With this new edition, we have added Answer Checks,
which have been designed to help students learn to evaluate their answers to a problem with a final question: Is this answer reasonable in terms of the general knowledge that I have of the problem? This final phase of problem solving is a critical step
often overlooked by students. By providing Answer Checks throughout the text, we
hope to teach and encourage students to evaluate their answers for reasonableness.
In the sixth edition, we added two new study aids, which met with an enthusiastic response: Concept Checks and Conceptual Problems. We wrote these problems
to force students to think about the chemical concepts involved, rather than focus on
obtaining a numerical result. Since that edition, we have strengthened this feature of
the book. We now cover many more topics, and we have added artwork, including
molecular models, to many of these problems. Since visualization is such a critical
part of learning and understanding chemistry, adding this artwork continues to
strengthen the pedagogical and conceptual elements of the text.
An Illustration Program with an Emphasis on Molecular Concepts Most of us
are strongly visual in our learning. When you see something, you tend to remember
it. As in the previous edition, we went over each piece of art, asking how we might
improve it or where we might add art to improve student comprehension. We continue to focus on the presentation of chemistry at the molecular level. We start building the molecular “story” in Chapter 1, and by Chapter 2 we have developed the molecular view and have integrated it into the problem-solving apparatus as well as into
the text discussions. We continue in the following chapters to use the molecular view
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Preface

as into the text discussions. We continue in the following chapters to use the molecular
view to strengthen chemical concepts. In Chapter 3, on stoichiometry, for example, a
Concept Check asks the student to visualize the concept of limiting reactants in terms
of molecular models.
Media Summaries to Help You Integrate Electronic Resources into Your Course
For the new Media Enhanced Edition, we added Online Study Center Media Summaries to the end of each chapter to facilitate integration of our electronic resources
into your course work and assignments. These summaries provide a complete listing
of all the related media activities available to students at the Online Study Center (student web site) in one convenient location.
Chapter Essays Showcasing Chemistry as a Modern Science With the eighth
edition, we continued our A Chemist Looks At essays which cover up-to-date issues
of science and technology. We have chosen topics that we thought would engage students’ interest while at the same time showcasing the chemistry involved. We also
adopted icons to describe the content area (materials, environment, everyday life, frontiers, and life science) of these essays.
The essays show students that chemistry is a vibrant, constantly changing science
that has relevance for our modern world. The essay, “Removing Caffeine from
Coffee,” for example, describes the removal of caffeine from coffee using supercritical carbon dioxide instead of environmentally problematical organic solvents. Some
other examples are “Nitric Oxide and Biological Signaling,” which describes the
importance of a simple chemical compound in human biology, and “Seeing Molecules
React,” which emphasizes that chemists are more and more able to work with single
molecules.
Also, with the eighth edition, we continue the Instrumental Methods essays. We
included these essays because we have felt that students sometimes come away from
their general chemistry course not realizing that modern chemistry very much
depends on sophisticated instruments. When they do realize this, they often become
quite excited by the subject. Each of the essays in this series focuses on an instrumental method used by research chemists, such as mass spectroscopy or nuclear
magnetic resonance. The essays are short, with just enough detail to pique students’
interest.
Chapters on Materials and Polymers We have two chapters that are explicitly on
the materials of modern technology. One of these is Chapter 13, “Materials of Technology.” This chapter includes material on nonmetals, such as the fullerenes, ceramics, and composites, and nanotechnology. The final chapter of the book, Chapter 25,
“Polymer Materials: Synthetic and Biological,” discusses one of the most important
materials of modern technology. This chapter consists of two parts, one on synthetic

polymers (including a section on conducting polymers) and the other on biological
polymers.
Revision of Material on Thermodynamics and Kinetics For the eighth edition,
we completely revised all the thermodynamics data used in the book, making sure
that it is accurate and up-to-date. Also, the discussion of entropy in Chapter 19 was
rewritten to present entropy as a measure of the dispersal of energy.
In Chapter 14 we have included a more thorough discussion of second-order
reactions, and we have expanded the coverage of integrated rate laws (concentration–
time equations) and reaction half-life to include zero-order reactions. Several new
end-of-chapter Problems covering these topics also have been added.

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