Principles of
GENERAL CHEMISTRY


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Martin S. Silberberg

Principles of
GENERAL CHEMISTRY

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PRINCIPLES OF GENERAL CHEMISTRY
Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the
Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2007 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights
reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means,
or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or
transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.
Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers
outside the United States.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 DOW/DOW 0 9 8 7 6
ISBN-13 978-0-07-310720-2

ISBN-10 0-07-310720-4
Publisher: Thomas D. Timp
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The credits section for this book begins on page C-1 and is considered an extension of the
copyright page.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Silberberg, Martin S. (Martin Stuart), 1945–
Principles of general chemistry / Martin S. Silberberg. — 1st ed.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-07-310720-2 — 0-07-310720-4 (acid-free paper)
1. Chemistry—Textbooks. I. Title.
QD31.3.S55 2007
540—dc22

2005054377
CIP

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To Ruth and Daniel, with all my love.
I can’t even imagine doing this without
the two of you behind me.

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Brief Contents
1
2
3

Keys to the Study of Chemistry 1

4
5

The Major Classes of Chemical Reactions 108

6
7
8
9
10
11

The Components of Matter 31
Stoichiometry of Formulas and Equations 69
Gases and the Kinetic-Molecular Theory 138
Thermochemistry: Energy Flow and Chemical Change 177
Quantum Theory and Atomic Structure 205
Electron Configuration and Chemical Periodicity 235
Models of Chemical Bonding 268
The Shapes of Molecules 296
Theories of Covalent Bonding 323

12
13

The Properties of Solutions 389

14

The Main-Group Elements: Applying Principles of Bonding and Structure 423

15

Organic Compounds and the Atomic Properties of Carbon 457

16

Kinetics: Rates and Mechanisms of Chemical Reactions 498

17
18

Acid-Base Equilibria 577

19

Ionic Equilibria in Aqueous Systems 615

20

Thermodynamics: Entropy, Free Energy, and the Direction of Chemical Reactions 650

21
22

The Transition Elements and Their Coordination Compounds 734

23

Nuclear Reactions and Their Applications 762

Intermolecular Forces: Liquids, Solids, and Phase Changes 347

Equilibrium: The Extent of Chemical Reactions 540

Electrochemistry: Chemical Change and Electrical Work 681

Appendix A Common Mathematical Operations in Chemistry A-1
Appendix B Standard Thermodynamic Values for Selected Substances at 298 K A-5
Appendix C Equilibrium Constants at 298 K A-8
Appendix D Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentials at 298 K A-14
Appendix E Answers to Selected Problems A-15

vii

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Contents

1

C H A P T E R

Keys to the Study of Chemistry 1
1.1

Some Fundamental Definitions 2
The
The
The
The

1.2

1.3

1.5

Properties of Matter 2
Three States of Matter 3
Central Theme in Chemistry 5
Importance of Energy in the Study of Matter 5

Determining Which Digits Are
Significant 22
Significant Figures in Calculations 22
Precision, Accuracy, and Instrument
Calibration 24

The Scientific Approach: Developing a Model 7
Chemical Problem Solving 9

For Review and Reference 25
Problems 27

Units and Conversion Factors in Calculations 9
A Systematic Approach to Solving Chemistry Problems 11

1.4

Uncertainty in Measurement:
Significant Figures 21

Measurement in Scientific Study 13

General Features of SI Units 13
Some Important SI Units in Chemistry 14

2

C H A P T E R

The Components of Matter 31
2.1
2.2

Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures: An Atomic Overview 32
The Observations That Led to an Atomic View of Matter 34
Mass Conservation 34
Definite Composition 34
Multiple Proportions 35

2.3

2.6

2.7

The Formation of Ionic Compounds 48
The Formation of Covalent Compounds 50

2.8

Dalton’s Atomic Theory 36
The Observations That Led to the Nuclear Atom Model 37

Discovery of the Electron and Its Properties 37
Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus 39

2.5

2.9

The Atomic Theory Today 41

Classification of Mixtures 60
For Review and Reference 62
Problems 63

Structure of the Atom 41
Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Atomic Symbol 42
Isotopes and Atomic Masses of the Elements 42

3

Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Masses 51
Types of Chemical Formulas 51
Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds 52
Names and Formulas of Binary Covalent Compounds 57
Naming Alkanes 58
Molecular Masses from Chemical Formulas 58
Picturing Molecules 60

Postulates of the Atomic Theory 36
How the Theory Explains the Mass Laws 37

2.4

Elements: A First Look at the Periodic Table 45
Compounds: Introduction to Bonding 47

C H A P T E R

Stoichiometry of Formulas and Equations 69
3.1

The Mole 70
Defining the Mole 70
Molar Mass 72
Interconverting Moles, Mass, and Number of Chemical Entities 73
Mass Percent from the Chemical Formula 75

3.2

Determining the Formula of an Unknown Compound 77
Empirical Formulas 77
Molecular Formulas 78

3.3
3.4

Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations 82
Calculating Amounts of Reactant and Product 87
Stoichiometrically Equivalent Molar Ratios from the
Balanced Equation 87
Chemical Reactions That Involve a Limiting Reactant 90

Chemical Reactions in Practice: Theoretical, Actual, and
Percent Yields 93

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CONTENTS

3.5

Dilution of Molar Solutions 96
Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions in Solution 98

Fundamentals of Solution Stoichiometry 95
Expressing Concentration in Terms of Molarity 95
Mole-Mass-Number Conversions Involving
Solutions 95

4

ix

For Review and Reference 100
Problems 102

C H A P T E R

The Major Classes of Chemical Reactions 108

4.1

The Role of Water as a Solvent 109

4.5

The Polar Nature of Water 109
Ionic Compounds in Water 109
Covalent Compounds in Water 112

4.2

4.3

4.4

4.6

Elements in Redox Reactions 126
Combining Two Elements 127
Combining Compound and Element 127
Decomposing Compounds into Elements 127
Displacing One Element by Another; Activity Series 128
Combustion Reactions 130

Acid-Base Reactions 117
The Key Event: Formation of H2O from H and OH
Acid-Base Titrations 119
Proton Transfer: A Closer Look at Acid-Base
Reactions 121

5

The Key Event: Movement of Electrons
Between Reactants 123
Some Essential Redox Terminology 124
Using Oxidation Numbers to Monitor the
Movement of Electron Charge 124

Writing Equations for Aqueous Ionic Reactions 113
Precipitation Reactions 115
The Key Event: Formation of a Solid from
Dissolved Ions 115
Predicting Whether a Precipitate Will Form 116

Oxidation-Reduction (Redox)
Reactions 123

118

For Review and Reference 131
Problems 132

C H A P T E R

Gases and the Kinetic-Molecular Theory 138
5.1
5.2

An Overview of the Physical States of Matter 139

Gas Pressure and Its Measurement 140

5.4

The Density of a Gas 153
The Molar Mass of a Gas 154
The Partial Pressure of a Gas in a Mixture of Gases 155

Measuring Atmospheric Pressure 141
Units of Pressure 141

5.3

The Gas Laws and Their Experimental Foundations 143
The Relationship Between Volume and Pressure:
Boyle’s Law 143
The Relationship Between Volume and Temperature:
Charles’s Law 144
The Relationship Between Volume and Amount:
Avogadro’s Law 146
Gas Behavior at Standard Conditions 147
The Ideal Gas Law 148
Solving Gas Law Problems 149

6

Further Applications of the Ideal Gas Law 152

5.5
5.6

The Ideal Gas Law and Reaction Stoichiometry 158
The Kinetic-Molecular Theory: A Model for Gas Behavior 160
How the Kinetic-Molecular Theory Explains the Gas Laws 160
Effusion and Diffusion 164

5.7

Real Gases: Deviations from Ideal Behavior 165
Effects of Extreme Conditions on Gas Behavior 166
The van der Waals Equation: The Ideal Gas Law Redesigned 168
For Review and Reference 168
Problems 170

C H A P T E R

Thermochemistry: Energy Flow and Chemical Change 177
6.1

Forms of Energy and Their Interconversion 178

6.4
6.5
6.6

The System and Its Surroundings 178
Energy Flow to and from a System 178
Heat and Work: Two Forms of Energy Transfer 179
The Law of Energy Conservation 181
Units of Energy 182

State Functions and the Path Independence of the
Energy Change 183

6.2

Enthalpy: Heats of Reaction and Chemical Change 184
The Meaning of Enthalpy 185
Exothermic and Endothermic Processes 185

6.3

Calorimetry: Laboratory Measurement of Heats of Reaction 187
Specific Heat Capacity 187
The Practice of Calorimetry 188

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Stoichiometry of Thermochemical Equations 191
Hess’s Law of Heat Summation 192
Standard Heats of Reaction ( H rxn) 194
Formation Equations and Their Standard Enthalpy
Changes 194
Determining H rxn from H f Values of Reactants and
Products 195
Fossil Fuels and Climate Change 197
For Review and Reference 198
Problems 200


x

CONTENTS

7

C H A P T E R

Quantum Theory and Atomic Structure 205
7.1

The Nature of Light 206

7.4

The Wave Nature of Light 206
The Particle Nature of Light 210

7.2

The Atomic Orbital and the Probable
Location of the Electron 221
Quantum Numbers of an Atomic
Orbital 223
Shapes of Atomic Orbitals 226
The Special Case of the Hydrogen Atom 230

Atomic Spectra 212
The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom 213
The Energy States of the Hydrogen Atom 215
Spectral Analysis in the Laboratory 216

7.3

The Wave-Particle Duality of Matter and Energy 218

For Review and Reference 230
Problems 231

The Wave Nature of Electrons and the Particle
Nature of Photons 218
The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle 221

8

The Quantum-Mechanical Model
of the Atom 221

C H A P T E R

Electron Configuration and Chemical Periodicity 235
8.1
8.2

Development of the Periodic Table 236
Characteristics of Many-Electron Atoms 236

8.4

Trends in Atomic Size 249
Trends in Ionization Energy 252

Trends in Electron Affinity 255

The Electron-Spin Quantum Number 237
The Exclusion Principle 237
Electrostatic Effects and Energy-Level Splitting 238

8.3

8.5

Atomic Structure and Chemical Reactivity 257
Trends in Metallic Behavior 257
Properties of Monatomic Ions 258

The Quantum-Mechanical Model and the Periodic Table 240
Building Up Periods 1 and 2 240
Building Up Period 3 242
Electron Configurations Within Groups 243
The First d-Orbital Transition Series: Building Up Period 4 244
General Principles of Electron Configurations 245
Unusual Configurations: Transition and Inner Transition Elements 247

9

Trends in Three Key Atomic Properties 249

For Review and Reference 264
Problems 265

C H A P T E R

Models of Chemical Bonding 268
9.1

Atomic Properties and Chemical Bonds 269

9.4

The Three Types of Chemical Bonding 269
Lewis Electron-Dot Symbols: Depicting Atoms in
Chemical Bonding 271

9.2

9.3

Bond Energy and Chemical Change 283
Changes in Bond Strength: Where Does H rxn Come From? 283
Using Bond Energies to Calculate H rxn 283
Relative Bond Strengths in Fuels and Foods 286

The Ionic Bonding Model 272

9.5

Between the Extremes: Electronegativity and Bond Polarity 287

Energy Considerations in Ionic Bonding: The Importance of
Lattice Energy 273
Periodic Trends in Lattice Energy 274

How the Model Explains the Properties of Ionic Compounds 275

Electronegativity 287
Polar Covalent Bonds and Bond Polarity 288
The Partial Ionic Character of Polar Covalent Bonds 289
The Continuum of Bonding Across a Period 290

The Covalent Bonding Model 277

For Review and Reference 291
Problems 292

The Formation of a Covalent Bond 277
Properties of a Covalent Bond: Bond Energy and Bond Length 279
How the Model Explains the Properties of Covalent Substances 281

10

C H A P T E R

The Shapes of Molecules 296
10.1 Depicting Molecules and Ions with Lewis Structures 297
Using the Octet Rule to Write Lewis Structures 297
Resonance: Delocalized Electron-Pair Bonding 300

Formal Charge: Selecting the Most Important Resonance
Structure 302
Lewis Structures for Exceptions to the Octet Rule 303

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CONTENTS
Molecular Shapes with Five Electron Groups (Trigonal Bipyramidal
Arrangement) 311
Molecular Shapes with Six Electron Groups (Octahedral
Arrangement) 312
Using VSEPR Theory to Determine Molecular Shape 312
Molecular Shapes with More Than One Central Atom 314

10.2 Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory and

Molecular Shape 306

Electron-Group Arrangements and Molecular Shapes 307
The Molecular Shape with Two Electron Groups (Linear
Arrangement) 308
Molecular Shapes with Three Electron Groups (Trigonal Planar
Arrangement) 308
Molecular Shapes with Four Electron Groups (Tetrahedral
Arrangement) 309

11

10.3 Molecular Shape and Molecular Polarity 315
For Review and Reference 317
Problems 319

C H A P T E R

Theories of Covalent Bonding 323
11.1 Valence Bond (VB) Theory and Orbital Hybridization 324

11.3 Molecular Orbital (MO) Theory and

Electron Delocalization 334

The Central Themes of VB Theory 324
Types of Hybrid Orbitals 325

The Central Themes of MO Theory 335
Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules
of the Period 2 Elements 337

11.2 The Mode of Orbital Overlap and the Types of

Covalent Bonds 331

For Review and Reference 342
Problems 344

Orbital Overlap in Single and Multiple Bonds 331
Mode of Overlap and Molecular Properties 332

12

C H A P T E R

Intermolecular Forces: Liquids, Solids, and Phase Changes 347
12.1 An Overview of Physical States and Phase Changes 348

12.5 The Uniqueness of Water 367
Solvent Properties of Water 368
Thermal Properties of Water 368
Surface Properties of Water 368
The Density of Solid and Liquid Water 368

12.2 Quantitative Aspects of Phase Changes 351
Heat Involved in Phase Changes: A Kinetic-Molecular Approach 351
The Equilibrium Nature of Phase Changes 353
Phase Diagrams: Effect of Pressure and Temperature on
Physical State 356

12.6 The Solid State: Structure, Properties, and Bonding 369
Structural Features of Solids 369
Types and Properties of Crystalline Solids 376
Amorphous Solids 379
Bonding in Solids 380

12.3 Types of Intermolecular Forces 358
Ion-Dipole Forces 360
Dipole-Dipole Forces 360
The Hydrogen Bond 361
Polarizability and Charge-Induced Dipole Forces 362
Dispersion (London) Forces 363

For Review and Reference 383
Problems 384

12.4 Properties of the Liquid State 365

Surface Tension 365
Capillarity 366
Viscosity 367

13

C H A P T E R

The Properties of Solutions 389
13.1 Types of Solutions: Intermolecular Forces and

13.4 Quantitative Ways of Expressing Concentration 402

Predicting Solubility 390

Molarity and Molality 402
Parts of Solute by Parts of Solution 404
Interconverting Concentration Terms 405

Intermolecular Forces in Solution 391
Liquid Solutions and the Role of Molecular Polarity 392
Gas Solutions and Solid Solutions 395

13.2 Why Substances Dissolve: Understanding the Solution

13.5 Colligative Properties of Solutions 407

Process 395

Heats of Solution and Solution Cycles 396

Heats of Hydration: Ionic Solids in Water 397
The Solution Process and the Change in Entropy 398

Colligative Properties of Nonvolatile Nonelectrolyte Solutions 407
Using Colligative Properties to Find Solute Molar Mass 412
Colligative Properties of Volatile Nonelectrolyte Solutions 413
Colligative Properties of Strong Electrolyte Solutions 414
For Review and Reference 416
Problems 418

13.3 Solubility as an Equilibrium Process 399
Effect of Temperature on Solubility 400
Effect of Pressure on Solubility 401

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xii

CONTENTS

14

C H A P T E R

The Main-Group Elements: Applying Principles of Bonding
and Structure 423
14.1 Hydrogen, the Simplest Atom 424

Highlights of Hydrogen Chemistry 424

14.2 Group 1A(1): The Alkali Metals 425
The Unusual Physical Properties of the Alkali Metals 425
The High Reactivity of the Alkali Metals 425
The Anomalous Behavior of Period 2 Members 427

14.3 Group 2A(2): The Alkaline Earth Metals 428
How Do the Physical Properties of the Alkaline Earth
and Alkali Metals Compare? 428
How Do the Chemical Properties of the Alkaline Earth and
Alkali Metals Compare? 428
Diagonal Relationships 428
Looking Backward and Forward: Groups 1A(1), 2A(2),
and 3A(13) 430

14.4 Group 3A(13): The Boron Family 430
How Do Transition Elements Influence Group 3A(13)
Properties? 430
What New Features Appear in the Chemical Properties of
Group 3A(13)? 430
Highlights of Boron Chemistry 432

14.5 Group 4A(14): The Carbon Family 433
How Does the Bonding in an Element Affect Physical
Properties? 433
How Does the Type of Bonding Change in Group 4A(14)
Compounds? 435
Highlights of Carbon Chemistry 436
Highlights of Silicon Chemistry 437

Looking Backward and Forward: Groups 3A(13), 4A(14),
and 5A(15) 438

15

14.6 Group 5A(15): The Nitrogen

Family 438

The Wide Range of Physical and
Chemical Behavior in
Group 5A(15) 438
Highlights of Nitrogen Chemistry 440
Highlights of Phosphorus Chemistry: Oxides and Oxoacids 443

14.7 Group 6A(16): The Oxygen Family 443
How Do the Oxygen and Nitrogen Families
Compare Physically? 445
How Do the Oxygen and Nitrogen Families
Compare Chemically? 445
Highlights of Oxygen Chemistry 446
Highlights of Sulfur Chemistry: Oxides and Oxoacids 446
Looking Backward and Forward: Groups 5A(15), 6A(16),
and 7A(17) 447

14.8 Group 7A(17): The Halogens 447
What Accounts for the Regular Changes in the Halogens’
Physical Properties? 447
Why Are the Halogens So Reactive? 447
Highlights of Halogen Chemistry 449

14.9 Group 8A(18): The Noble Gases 450
How Can Noble Gases Form Compounds? 450
Looking Backward and Forward: Groups 7A(17), 8A(18),
and 1A(1) 452
For Review and Reference 452
Problems 453

C H A P T E R

Organic Compounds and the Atomic Properties of Carbon 457
15.1 The Special Nature of Carbon and the Characteristics of

Organic Molecules 458

The Structural Complexity of Organic Molecules 458
The Chemical Diversity of Organic Molecules 459

15.2 The Structures and Classes of Hydrocarbons 460
Carbon Skeletons and Hydrogen Skins 460
Alkanes: Hydrocarbons with Only Single Bonds 463
Constitutional Isomerism and the Physical Properties
of Alkanes 465
Chiral Molecules and Optical Isomerism 467
Alkenes: Hydrocarbons with Double Bonds 468
Alkynes: Hydrocarbons with Triple Bonds 469
Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Cyclic Molecules with
Delocalized Electrons 471

15.5 The Monomer-Polymer Theme I: Synthetic

Macromolecules 483

Addition Polymers 483
Condensation Polymers 485

15.6 The Monomer-Polymer Theme II:

Biological Macromolecules 486

Sugars and Polysaccharides 486
Amino Acids and Proteins 487
Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids 490
For Review and Reference 492
Problems 493

15.3 Some Important Classes of Organic Reactions 472

15.4 Properties and Reactivities of Common

Functional Groups 473
Functional
Functional
Functional
Functional

Groups
Groups
Groups
Groups

with
with
with
with

Only Single Bonds 475
Double Bonds 478
Both Single and Double Bonds 479
Triple Bonds 482

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CONTENTS

16

xiii

C H A P T E R

Kinetics: Rates and Mechanisms of Chemical Reactions 498
16.1 Factors That Influence Reaction Rate 499

16.6 Explaining the Effects of

Concentration and Temperature 518

16.2 Expressing the Reaction Rate 500

Collision Theory: Basis of the
Rate Law 518
Transition State Theory: Molecular
Nature of the Activated Complex 520

Average, Instantaneous, and Initial Reaction Rates 501
Expressing Rate in Terms of Reactant and Product
Concentrations 503

16.3 The Rate Law and Its Components 505

16.7 Reaction Mechanisms: Steps in the Overall Reaction 523

Reaction Order Terminology 506
Determining Reaction Orders Experimentally 507
Determining the Rate Constant 509

16.4 Integrated Rate Laws: Concentration Changes over Time 510
Integrated Rate Laws for First-, Second-, and Zero-Order
Reactions 510
Determining the Reaction Order from the Integrated Rate Law 512
Reaction Half-Life 513

Elementary Reactions and Molecularity 524
The Rate-Determining Step of a Reaction Mechanism 525
Correlating the Mechanism with the Rate Law 526

16.8 Catalysis: Speeding Up a Chemical Reaction 529
Homogeneous Catalysis 530

Heterogeneous Catalysis 530
Catalysis in Nature 531
For Review and Reference 533
Problems 535

16.5 The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate 516

17

C H A P T E R

Equilibrium: The Extent of Chemical Reactions 540
17.1 The Equilibrium State and the Equilibrium Constant 541
17.2 The Reaction Quotient and the Equilibrium Constant 543

17.6 Reaction Conditions and the Equilibrium State:

Le Châtelier’s Principle 561
The
The
The
The
The

Writing the Reaction Quotient 545
Variations in the Form of the Reaction Quotient 546

17.3 Expressing Equilibria with Pressure Terms: Relation Between

Kc and Kp 549

17.4 Reaction Direction: Comparing Q and K 550
17.5 How to Solve Equilibrium Problems 551

Effect of a Change in Concentration 561
Effect of a Change in Pressure (Volume) 564
Effect of a Change in Temperature 566
Lack of Effect of a Catalyst 567
Industrial Production of Ammonia 569

For Review and Reference 570
Problems 571

Using Quantities to Determine the Equilibrium Constant 552
Using the Equilibrium Constant to Determine Quantities 554
Mixtures of Reactants and Products: Determining Reaction
Direction 559

18

C H A P T E R

Acid-Base Equilibria 577
18.1 Acids and Bases in Water 578

18.5 Weak Bases and Their Relation to Weak Acids 596

Release of H or OH and the Classical Acid-Base Definition 578
Variation in Acid Strength: The Acid-Dissociation Constant (Ka) 579
Classifying the Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases 581

Molecules as Weak Bases: Ammonia and the Amines 596
Anions of Weak Acids as Weak Bases 598
The Relation Between Ka and Kb of a Conjugate Acid-Base Pair 599

18.6 Molecular Properties and Acid Strength 600

18.2 Autoionization of Water and the pH Scale 583

Trends in Acid Strength of Nonmetal Hydrides 600
Trends in Acid Strength of Oxoacids 601
Acidity of Hydrated Metal Ions 602

The Equilibrium Nature of Autoionization: The Ion-Product Constant
for Water (Kw) 583
Expressing the Hydronium Ion Concentration: The pH Scale 584

18.7 Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions 603

18.3 Proton Transfer and the Brønsted-Lowry Acid-Base

Definition 587

Salts
Salts
Salts
Salts

The Conjugate Acid-Base Pair 588
Relative Acid-Base Strength and the Net Direction of

Reaction 590

18.4 Solving Problems Involving Weak-Acid Equilibria 591

That Yield
That Yield
That Yield
of Weakly

Neutral Solutions 603
Acidic Solutions 603
Basic Solutions 604
Acidic Cations and Weakly Basic Anions 605

18.8 Electron-Pair Donation and the Lewis Acid-Base Definition 606

Finding Ka Given Concentrations 592
Finding Concentrations Given Ka 594
The Effect of Concentration on the Extent of Acid Dissociation 595
The Behavior of Polyprotic Acids 595

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Molecules as Lewis Acids 607
Metal Cations as Lewis Acids 607
For Review and Reference 609
Problems 610


xiv

CONTENTS

19

C H A P T E R

Ionic Equilibria in Aqueous Systems 615
19.1 Equilibria of Acid-Base Buffer Systems 616

The Effect of a Common Ion on
Solubility 636
The Effect of pH on Solubility 637
Predicting the Formation of a
Precipitate: Qsp vs. Ksp 638
Applying Ionic Equilibria to the
Acid-Rain Problem 639

How a Buffer Works: The Common-Ion Effect 617
The Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation 621
Buffer Capacity and Buffer Range 621
Preparing a Buffer 623

19.2 Acid-Base Titration Curves 624
Monitoring pH with Acid-Base Indicators 624
Strong Acid–Strong Base Titration Curves 626
Weak Acid–Strong Base Titration Curves 628
Weak Base–Strong Acid Titration Curves 631

19.4 Equilibria Involving Complex Ions 641

Formation of Complex Ions 641
Complex Ions and the Solubility of Precipitates 643
For Review and Reference 644
Problems 646

19.3 Equilibria of Slightly Soluble Ionic Compounds 632
The Ion-Product Expression (Qsp) and the Solubility-Product
Constant (Ksp) 632
Calculations Involving the Solubility-Product Constant 634

20

C H A P T E R

Thermodynamics: Entropy, Free Energy, and the Direction
of Chemical Reactions 650
20.1 The Second Law of Thermodynamics:

20.3 Entropy, Free Energy, and Work 666

Predicting Spontaneous Change 651

Limitations of the First Law of Thermodynamics 651
The Sign of H Cannot Predict Spontaneous Change 652
Freedom of Particle Motion and Dispersal of Particle Energy 653
Entropy and the Number of Microstates 653
Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 656
Standard Molar Entropies and the Third Law 657

20.2 Calculating the Change in Entropy of a Reaction 661

Entropy Changes in the System: Standard Entropy of
Reaction ( S rxn) 661
Entropy Changes in the Surroundings: The Other Part
of the Total 662
The Entropy Change and the Equilibrium State 664
Spontaneous Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions:
A Summary 665

21

Free Energy Change and Reaction Spontaneity 666
Calculating Standard Free Energy Changes 667
G and the Work a System Can Do 668
The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Spontaneity 669
Coupling of Reactions to Drive a Nonspontaneous Change 671

20.4 Free Energy, Equilibrium, and Reaction Direction 672
For Review and Reference 676
Problems 677

C H A P T E R

Electrochemistry: Chemical Change and Electrical Work 681
21.1 Redox Reactions and Electrochemical Cells 682
A Quick Review of Oxidation-Reduction Concepts 682
Half-Reaction Method for Balancing Redox Reactions 683
An Overview of Electrochemical Cells 686

21.2 Voltaic Cells: Using Spontaneous Reactions to Generate

Electrical Energy 687

Construction and Operation of a Voltaic Cell 688
Notation for a Voltaic Cell 690

21.3 Cell Potential: Output of a Voltaic Cell 692
Standard Cell Potentials 692
Relative Strengths of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents 695

21.4 Free Energy and Electrical Work 700
Standard Cell Potential and the Equilibrium Constant 700
The Effect of Concentration on Cell Potential 703
Changes in Potential During Cell Operation 704
Concentration Cells 705

21.5 Electrochemical Processes in Batteries 708
Primary (Nonrechargeable) Batteries 709
Secondary (Rechargeable) Batteries 710
Fuel Cells 711

21.6 Corrosion: A Case of Environmental Electrochemistry 713
The Corrosion of Iron 713
Protecting Against the Corrosion of Iron 714

21.7 Electrolytic Cells: Using Electrical Energy to Drive

Nonspontaneous Reactions 715

Construction and Operation of an Electrolytic Cell 716
Predicting the Products of Electrolysis 717

Industrial Electrochemistry: Purifying Copper and Isolating
Aluminum 721
The Stoichiometry of Electrolysis: The Relation Between Amounts of
Charge and Product 724
For Review and Reference 726
Problems 728

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CONTENTS

22

C H A P T E R

The Transition Elements and Their Coordination Compounds 734
22.1 Properties of the Transition Elements 735

22.3 Theoretical Basis for the Bonding

and Properties of Complexes 748

Electron Configurations of the Transition Metals and Their Ions 736
Atomic and Physical Properties of the Transition Elements 737
Chemical Properties of the Transition Metals 739

Application of Valence Bond Theory to
Complex Ions 748
Crystal Field Theory 750

Transition Metal Complexes in
Biological Systems 756

22.2 Coordination Compounds 741
Complex Ions: Coordination Numbers, Geometries,
and Ligands 742
Formulas and Names of Coordination Compounds 743
Isomerism in Coordination Compounds 745

23

For Review and Reference 758
Problems 759

C H A P T E R

Nuclear Reactions and Their Applications 762
23.1 Radioactive Decay and Nuclear Stability 763

23.5 Applications of Radioisotopes 779

The Components of the Nucleus: Terms and Notation 763
Types of Radioactive Emissions and Decay; Balancing
Nuclear Equations 764
Nuclear Stability and the Mode of Decay 767

Radioactive Tracers: Applications of Nonionizing Radiation 779
Applications of Ionizing Radiation 780

23.6 The Interconversion of Mass and Energy 781

The Mass Defect 782
Nuclear Binding Energy 783

23.2 The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay 770
The Rate of Radioactive Decay 770
Radioisotopic Dating 773

23.7 Applications of Fission and Fusion 785
The Process of Nuclear Fission 785
The Promise of Nuclear Fusion 788

24.3 Nuclear Transmutation: Induced Changes in Nuclei 774
23.4 The Effects of Nuclear Radiation on Matter 776

For Review and Reference 788
Problems 790

The Effects of Radioactive Emissions: Excitation and
Ionization 776
Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Living Matter 777

Formation Constants (Kf) of Some Complex Ions A-12
Solubility Product Constants (Ksp) of Slightly Soluble Ionic
Compounds A-13

Appendix A Common Mathematical Operations in Chemistry A-1
Manipulating Logarithms A-1
Using Exponential (Scientific) Notation A-2
Solving Quadratic Equations A-3
Graphing Data in the Form of a Straight Line A-4

Appendix B Standard Thermodynamic Values for Selected
Substances at 298 K A-5
Appendix C Equilibrium Constants at 298 K A-8
Dissociation (Ionization) Constants (Ka) of Selected Acids A-8
Dissociation (Ionization) Constants (Kb) of Selected Amine
Bases A-11
Dissociation (Ionization) Constants (Ka) of Some Hydrated Metal
Ions A-12

Appendix D Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentials
at 298 K A-14
Appendix E Answers to Selected Problems A-15
Glossary G-1
Credits C-1
Index I-1

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About the Author
Martin S. Silberberg received a B.S. in Chemistry from the City University of New
York and a Ph.D. in Chemistry from the University of Oklahoma. He then accepted
a research position in analytical biochemistry at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine in New York City, where he developed advanced methods to study fundamental
brain mechanisms as well as neurotransmitter metabolism in Parkinson’s disease. Following his years in research, Dr. Silberberg joined the faculty of Simon’s Rock College of Bard, a liberal arts college known for excellence in teaching small classes of
highly motivated students. As Head of the Natural Sciences Major and Director of
Premedical Studies, he has taught courses in general chemistry, organic chemistry,
biochemistry, and liberal arts chemistry. The close student contact has afforded him

insights into how students learn chemistry, where they have difficulties, and what
strategies can help them succeed. Dr. Silberberg has applied these insights in a broader
context by establishing a text writing, editing, and consulting company. Before writing his own text, he worked as a consulting and developmental editor on chemistry,
biochemistry, and physics texts for several major college publishers. He resides with
his wife and son in the Pioneer Valley near Amherst, Massachusetts, where he enjoys
the rich cultural and academic life of the area and relaxes by cooking, gardening,
and hiking.

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Preface
CREATING A NEW TEXT
Like the science of chemistry itself, the teaching of chemistry is evolving, and the course texts that professors and
students rely on must do so as well. The large, thousandpage or more books that most courses use provide a complete survey of the field, with a richness of relevance and
content. Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and
Change, the parent of this new text, stands at the forefront
of dynamic, modern texts. Yet, extensive market research
demonstrates that some professors prefer a less expansive
treatment, with coverage confined to the core principles
and skills. Such a text would allow professors to enrich
their course with topics relevant to their own students.
And, most importantly, it would allow the entire book to
be more easily covered in one year—all the essential material a science major needs to go on to other courses in
chemistry and related disciplines.
Sensing the need for a more succinct text, we created Principles of General Chemistry. This new text
retains the molecular artwork, problem-solving approach,
and student-friendly pedagogy so admired in its parent,

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change.
This new text is leaner and more concise, targeting only
the topics that a general chemistry course at this level
should include and that instructors expect to see.
Crafting the content of the new text involved assessing which topics constituted the core of a general chemistry course and distilling them from the parent text. To
confirm my assessment, we invited three professors
to serve as content editors and review my suggested
changes. Using their experience and my detailed outline,
the content editors pruned the parent text to generate a
rough draft, which I then reworked into the final manuscript. It was very gratifying, even remarkable, to find
that the four of us defined the essential content of the
modern general chemistry course in virtually identical
terms.

HOW CHEMISTRY AND THE NEW PRINCIPLES
OF GENERAL CHEMISTRY ARE ALIKE
Both Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and
Change and Principles of General Chemistry maintain the
same high standards of accuracy, depth, clarity, and rigor
and have the same three distinguishing hallmarks:
1. Visualizing chemical models. In many discussions, concepts are explained first at the macroscopic level and
then from a molecular point of view. Placed near the

related discussion, the text’s celebrated graphics bring
the point home for today’s visually oriented students—
depicting the change at the observable level in the lab,
at the molecular level, and, when appropriate, at the
symbolic level with the balanced equation.
2. Thinking logically to solve problems. The problemsolving approach, based on a four-step method widely
approved by chemical educators, is introduced in

Chapter 1 and employed consistently throughout the
text. It encourages students to first plan a logical
approach and then proceed to the arithmetic solution.
A check step, universally recommended by instructors,
fosters the habit of considering the reasonableness
and magnitude of the answer. For practice and
reinforcement, each worked problem has a matched
follow-up problem, for which an abbreviated, multistep solution—not just a brief answer—appears at the
end of the chapter.
3. Applying ideas to the real world. For today’s students,
who may enter one of numerous chemistry-related
fields, real-world applications are woven into the
worked in-text sample problems and the chapter problem sets.

HOW CHEMISTRY AND PRINCIPLES OF
GENERAL CHEMISTRY ARE DIFFERENT
Principles of General Chemistry achieves authoritative
topic coverage in 300 fewer pages than its parent text,
thereby appealing to today’s efficiency-minded instructors
and value-conscious students. To accomplish this shortening, most of the material in the boxed applications essays
and margin notes was removed, thereby allowing instructors to include their own favorite examples.
The content editors and I also felt that several other
topics, while constituting important fields of modern
research, were not central to the core subject matter of
general chemistry; these include colloids, green chemistry,
and much of advanced materials. The chapters on descriptive chemistry, organic chemistry, and transition elements
were tightened extensively, and the chapter on the industrial isolation of the elements was removed (except for
a few topics that were blended into the chapter on
electrochemistry).
The new text includes all the worked sample problems

of the parent text but has about one-third fewer end-ofchapter problems. Nevertheless, there are more than
enough representative problems for every topic, and they
are packed with relevance and real-world applications.
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PREFACE

Principles of General Chemistry is a powerhouse of
pedagogy. All the learning aids that students find so useful
in the parent text have been retained—Concepts and Skills
to Review, Section Summaries, Key Terms, Key Equations,
and Brief Solutions to Follow-up Problems. In addition,
two new aids help students further focus their efforts:
1. Key Principles. At the beginning of each chapter, short
paragraphs state the main concepts concisely, using
many of the same phrases and terms that will appear in
the pages that follow. A student can preview these principles before reading the chapter and then review them
afterward.

2. Problem-Based Learning Objectives. At the end of each
chapter, the list of learning objectives now includes the
numbers of homework problems that relate to each
objective. Thus, a student, or an instructor, can select
problems that apply specifically to a given topic.
The new text is a lean and direct introduction to chemistry for science majors. Unlike its parent, which offers

almost any topic that any instructor could want, Principles
of General Chemistry offers every topic that every instructor would need.

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Acknowledgments
of General Chemistry and its author are fortuPracyrinciples
nate to have supplement authors so committed to accuand clarity for student and instructor. Patricia Amateis
of Virginia Tech diligently prepared the Instructors’ Solutions Manual and Student Solutions Manual. Libby
Weberg has prepared the Student Study Guide. S. Walter
Orchard of Tacoma Community College updated the Test
Bank. Christina Bailey of California Polytechnic University provided the excellent PowerPoint Lecture Outlines
that appear on the Digital Content Manager CD.
It was a great pleasure to work closely with the three content editors, Patricia Amateis of Virginia Tech, Ramesh
Arasasingham of the University of California–Irvine, and
Edwin H. Abbott, Montana State
University
James P. Birk, Arizona State University
Bob Blake, Texas Tech University
Jeffrey O. Boles, Tennessee Tech University
Wayne B. Bosma, Bradley University
Brian Buffin, Western Michigan University
Paul Chirik, Cornell University–Ithaca
Ramon Lopez De La Vega, Florida
International University
Milagros Delgado, Florida International
University
Stephen C. Foster, Mississippi State
University

Phil Franklin, Johnson County Community
College
Nancy Gardner, California State
University–Long Beach
Graeme C. Gerrans, University of Virginia

Steven Keller of the University of Missouri–Columbia. All
three are superb professors dedicated to making general
chemistry an enriching experience for their students. Their
help and insight has ensured that this first edition contains
all the essential principles necessary for the science major,
two-semester, general chemistry course.
Special thanks go to Professor Dorothy B. Kurland for
her exceptionally thorough accuracy check of the entire
text. And I extend my gratitude to all the other professors
who reviewed portions of this first edition or participated
in our developmental survey process to assess the content
needs for the text:

Thomas Greenbowe, Iowa State University
Greg Hale, University of Texas at Arlington
C. Alton Hassell, Baylor University
Narayan S. Hosmane, Northern Illinois
University
Andy Jorgenson, University of Toledo
Philip C. Keller, University of Arizona
Laurence Lavelle, UCLA
Michael M. Lerner, Oregon State
University
Rudy L. Luck, Michigan Technological

University
Pamela Marks, Arizona State University
Scott H. Northrup, Tennessee Tech
University
Cortlandt Pierpont, University of
Colorado–Boulder
Helen Place, Washington State University
John R. Pollard, University of Arizona

The superb publishing team at McGraw-Hill Higher
Education has done a terrific job once again in the development and production of this new text, and they have
my deepest appreciation. Heading the team with guidance, friendship, and support were Michael Lange, Vice
President—New Product Launches, Director of Marketing Kent Peterson, and Publisher Thomas Timp. Senior
Developmental Editor Donna Nemmers was in charge
throughout the project overseeing innumerable text and
supplement details; Lead Project Manager Peggy Selle
handled the complex production expertly; Senior Designer
David Hash supervised the modern interior design by freelancer Jamie O’Neal; and Marketing Manager Tami Hodge
applied her enthusiasm and skill to presenting this new
book and its supplements to the academic community.
A wonderful group of expert freelancers made indispensable contributions as well. I never could have finished

Daniel Rabinovich, The University of
North Carolina at Charlotte
Cathrine E. Reck, Indiana University
Barbara Reisner, James Madison University
Suzanne F. Rottman, University of
Maryland–Baltimore County
Jadwiga Sipowska, University of
Michigan–Ann Arbor

Lothar Stahl, University of North Dakota
Alan M. Stolzenberg, West Virginia
University
Thomas D. Tullius, Boston University
Thomas Webb, Auburn University
Steven M. Wietstock, University of Notre
Dame–Notre Dame
Charles A. Wilkie, Marquette University
Frank Woodruff, University of Southern
Mississippi

this project on time without the hard work and remarkable
organizational and personal skills of Freelance Developmental Editor Karen Pluemer. Jane Hoover performed a
masterful copyediting job once again, and Katie Aiken and
Janelle Pregler followed with superb proofreading. Chris
Hammond of Photofind found some striking new photos.
And my friend Michael Goodman created the exciting new
cover.
As always, my wife Ruth was there every step of the
way, from helping to set up the project to checking and
correcting manuscript and proofs. I rely daily on her
devoted support. And my son Daniel not only contributed
his artistic skill in helping to design artwork, but, as a
recent chemistry student, he also provided valuable input
on the clarity of explanations.

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A Guide to Student Success
This guided tour of Principles of General Chemistry will show you how the special features of this text
can help you be successful in this course.

Chapter Opener

Key Principles

The opener provides a thought-provoking figure and legend that
relate to a main topic of the chapter.

The main principles from the chapter are presented in a few sentences so that you can keep them in mind as you study. You can
also use this list for review when you finish the chapter.

Chapter Outline

Concepts and Skills to Review

The outline shows the sequence of topics and subtopics.

This unique feature helps you prepare for the upcoming chapter by referring to key material from earlier chapters that you
should understand before you start reading this one.

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SOLVING PROBLEMS STEP-BY-STEP

Sample Problems
A worked-out problem appears whenever an important
new concept or skill is introduced. The step-by-step
approach is shown consistently for every sample problem in the text.
• Plan analyzes the problem, showing how you can use what

•
•
•

•
•

is known to find what is unknown. This approach develops
the habit of thinking through the solution before performing
calculations.
Problem-solving roadmaps specific to the problem lead
you visually through the calculation steps.
Solution shows the calculation steps in the same order as
they are discussed in the plan and shown in the roadmap.
Check fosters the habit of going over your work quickly to
make sure that the answer is reasonable, both chemically and
mathematically—a great way to avoid careless errors.
Comment provides an additional insight or an alternative
approach or notes a common mistake to avoid.
Follow-up Problem gives you immediate practice by
presenting a similar problem.

Molecular-view Sample Problems unique to Silberberg

texts, conceptual (picture) problems apply this stepwise strategy
to help you interpret molecular scenes and solve problems based
on them.

Brief Solutions to Follow-up
Problems
These provide multistep solutions at the end of each
chapter, not just an answer at the back of the book. This
fuller treatment is an excellent way for you to reinforce
your problem-solving skills.

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VISUALIZING CHEMISTRY
Three-Level Illustrations
A Silberberg hallmark, these illustrations provide macroscopic
and molecular views of a process that help you connect these
two levels of reality with each other and with the chemical equation that describes the process in symbols.

A Simple cubic

B Body-centered cubic

C Face-centered cubic

Cutting-Edge Molecular Models
Author and artist worked side by side and employed the

most advanced computer-graphic software to provide
accurate molecular-scale models and vivid scenes.

Coordination number = 8

Coordination number = 6
1
ñ
8 atom

at 8 corners

at 8 corners

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at 8 corners

1
ñ
2 atom

1 atom
at center

1
Atoms/unit cell = ñ8 x 8 = 1

Coordination number = 12
1
ñ
8 atom

1
ñ
8 atom

at 6 faces

1
Atoms/unit cell = ( ñ8 x 8) + 1 = 2

1

1

Atoms/unit cell = ( ñ8 x 8) + ( ñ2 x 6) = 4


REINFORCING THE LEARNING PROCESS

For Review and Reference
A rich catalog of study aids ends each chapter to help you
review its content:
• Learning Objectives are listed, with section, sample problem,
and end-of-chapter problem numbers, to focus you on key concepts
and skills.
• Key Terms are boldfaced within the chapter and listed here by section (with page numbers); they are defined again in the Glossary.

• Key Equations and Relationships are screened and numbered within the chapter and listed here with page numbers.

End-of-Chapter Problems
The numerous problems that end each chapter are sorted by
section. Many are grouped in similar pairs, and the answer to
one of each pair appears in Appendix E. Following these sectionbased problems is a large group of comprehensive problems,
which are based on concepts and skills from any section
and/or earlier chapter and are filled with applications from related
sciences. Especially challenging problems are indicated with an
asterisk.

Section Summaries
Concise summary paragraphs conclude each section, immediately
restating the major ideas just covered.

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Supplements for the Instructor
MULTIMEDIA SUPPLEMENTS
Digital Content Manager
Electronic art at your fingertips! This cross-platform product provides
you with artwork from the text in multiple formats. You can easily create customized classroom presentations, visually based tests and
quizzes, dynamic content for a course website, or attractive printed
support materials. Available on CD-ROM or DVD are the following
resources:
• Active Art Library These key art pieces—formatted as PowerPoint
slides—illustrate difficult concepts in a step-by-step manner. The artwork is

broken into small, incremental frames, allowing you to incorporate the pieces
into your lecture in whatever sequence or format you desire.
• PowerPoint Lecture Outlines Ready-made presentations—combining
art and lecture notes—cover all of the chapters in the text. These lectures can
be used as is or customized by you to meet your specific needs.
• Art and Photo Library Full-color digital files of all of the illustrations and
many of the photos in the text can be readily incorporated into lecture
presentations, exams, or custom-made classroom materials.
• Worked Example Library and Table Library Access the worked examples and visual tables from the text
in electronic format for inclusion in your classroom presentations or materials.

Chemistry Animations DVD
This DVD contains more than 300 animations, several authored by Martin Silberberg. This easy-to-use DVD
allows you to view the animations quickly and import them into PowerPoint to create multimedia presentations.

ARIS
McGraw-Hill’s Assessment, Review, and Instruction System for Principles of General Chemistry is a complete electronic homework and
course management system, designed for greater ease of use than
any other system available. Instructors can create and share course
materials and assignments with colleagues with a few clicks of the
mouse. Instructors can edit questions, import their own content, and
create announcements and due dates for assignments. ARIS has
automatic grading and reporting of easy-to-assign homework,
quizzing, and testing. Once a student is registered in the course, all
student activity within ARIS is automatically recorded and available to the instructor through a fully integrated grade book that
can be downloaded to Excel. This book-specific website is found at
www.mhhe.com/silberberg, and contains many useful tools for
empowering both students and instructors.
• Most assignments and questions are directly tied to text-specific materials in Principles of General Chemistry, but you can
edit questions and algorithms, import your own content, and create announcements and due dates for assignments.

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• A secured Instructor Center stores your course materials, saving you
preparation time.
• ARIS provides you with access to these essential instructor resources
for each chapter: PowerPoint lecture outlines, Instructor’s Manual,
and animations.
• ChemSkill Builder McGraw-Hill’s powerful electronic homework system, gives students the tutorial practice they need to master concepts
covered in your general chemistry course. ChemSkill Builder contains
more than 1500 algorithmically generated questions as well as interactive exercises, quizzes, animations, and study tools that correlate
directly with each chapter of the text. A record of student work is
maintained in an online gradebook so that homework can be easily
assigned and factored into the course syllabus.

Instructor’s Testing and Resource
CD-ROM

Course Management Software

Instructor’s Solutions Manual

With help from Blackboard or WebAssign, you can take complete control over your course content. These course cartridges
also feature online testing and powerful student tracking. The
Principles of General Chemistry Online Learning Center is available within either of these platforms. Contact your McGraw-Hill
sales representative for more details.

By Patricia Amateis of Virginia Tech
This supplement contains complete, worked-out solutions for all
the end-of-chapter problems in the text. It can be found within
the secure Instructor’s Center, within the Online Learning
Center.

This cross-platform CD-ROM includes the Instructor’s Solutions
Manual, which provides all answers for the textbook’s end-ofchapter problems, and the Test Bank, which offers additional
questions that can be used for homework assignments and/or
exams; both are available in Word and PDF formats. The computerized Test Bank utilizes testing software to allow you to
quickly create customized exams by sorting questions by format, editing existing questions, adding new ones, and scrambling questions for multiple versions of the same test.

PRINTED SUPPLEMENTS
Transparencies
This boxed set of 300 full-color transparency acetates features
images from the text that are modified to ensure maximum readability in both small and large classroom settings.

Primis LabBase
By Joseph Lagowski of University of Texas at Austin
More than 40 general chemistry lab experiments are available
in this database collection, some from the Journal of Chemical
Education and others provided by Professor Lagowski, enabling
you to create your own custom laboratory manual.

Cooperative Chemistry Laboratory
Manual
By Melanie Cooper of Clemson University
This innovative guide features open-ended problems designed
to simulate experience in a research lab. Working in groups,
students investigate one problem over a period of several

weeks, thus completing three or four projects during the semester, rather than one preprogrammed experiment per class. The
emphasis here is on experimental design, analysis, problem
solving, and communication.

General Chemistry Laboratory
Manual
By Petra A. M. van Koppen of University of California, Santa
Barbara
This definitive lab manual for the two-semester general chemistry course contains 21 experiments that cover the most commonly assigned experiments for the introductory level.

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