an Introduction to
Industrial
Chemistry
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Also edited by C. A. Heaton
The Chemical Industry
(a complementary volume)
Contents: Editorial introduction C. A. Heaton. Polymers J. P. Candlin.
Dyestuffs E. N. Abrahart. The chlor-alkali, sulphur, nitrogen and phosphorus
industries D. R. Browning. The pharmaceutical industry C. W Thornber.
Agrochemicals C. A. Heaton. Biological catalysis and biotechnology M. K.
Turner. The future C. A. Heaton. References. Index.
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an introduction to
Industrial
Chemistry
Second Edition
Edited by
(R Heaton
Senior Lecturer and Industrial Chemistry Subject Tutor
School of Natural Sciences
Liverpool Polytechnic
BLACKIE ACADEMIC &. PROFESSIONAL
An Imprint of Chapman & Hall
London . Glasgow· New York . Tokyo . Melbourne· Madras
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Published by Blackie Academic & Professional, an imprint of
Chapman & Hall, Wester Cleddens Road, Bishopbriggs, Glasgow
G64 2NZ, UK
Chapman & Hall, 2-6 Boundary Row, London SE1 8HN, UK
Blackie Academic & Professional, Wester Cleddens Road,
Bishopbriggs, Glasgow G64 2NZ, UK
Chapman & Hall Inc., One Penn Plaza, 41 st Floor, New York
NY10119,USA
Chapman & Hall Japan, Thomson Publishing Japan, Hirakawacho
Nemoto Building, 6F, 1-7-11 Hirakawa-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102,
Japan
DA Book (Aust.) Pty Ltd, 648 Whitehorse Road, Mitcham 3132,
Victoria, Australia
Chapman & Hall India, R. Seshadri, 32 Second Main Road, CIT East,
Madras 600 035, India
First edition 1984
Reprinted 1991, 1992, 1994
©
1991 Blackie & Son Ltd.
Typeset by Thomson Press (India) Limited, New Delhi
Edmunds, Suffolk
e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4615-6438-6
ISBN-13: 978-0-7514-0113-4
001: 10.1007/978-1-4615-6438-6
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private
study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the UK Copyright
Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may not be
reproduced, stored, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
without the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case
of reprographic reproduction only in accordance with the terms of the
licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in
accordance with the terms of licences issued by the appropriate
Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK. Enquiries concerning
reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to the
publishers at the London address printed on this page.
The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with
regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and
cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or
omissions that may be made.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
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Preface to First Edition
The chemical industry is a major, growing influence on all our lives,
encompassing household commodities and utensils, industrial materials and
components, medicines and drugs, and the production of chemicals has
become an essential factor in the economy of any industrialized nation. The
scientists and engineers responsible for the efficient operation of the industry
must have a sound knowledge not only ofthe physical and chemical principles,
but also of the economic and environmental aspects and the cost-effective
use of energy.
This book provides an introduction to these topics and includes detailed
discussion of catalysis and petrochemicals. It is written as a basis from which
students of chemistry and chemical engineering will be able to build an
understanding and appreciation of the industry.
Acknowledgements
An undertaking of this nature requires teamwork and it is a pleasure to
acknowledge the efforts and cooperation of the contributors. Thanks are
also due to the publishers for their help and advice at all times. Finally, I
wish to thank my wife Joy for typing part of the MS and for the support
which she and our children, Susan and Simon, have given.
C.A.H.
v
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Preface to Second Edition
The first edition of this book has been very well received and the few minor
criticisms made by reviewers were largely answered by the publication of the
complementary book-The Chemical Industry by C. A. Heaton (referred to as
Volume 2}-which was in preparation at the time. This covers each of the
major sectors of the chemical industry. They are designed to be used as a two
volume set and the contents of Volume 2 are listed on page ii of this volume.
We have, however, taken the opportunity in this second edition to add two
new chapters: Chapter 1, Introduction to the chemical industry which gives
both an overview of the industry and a lead into other chapters, and Chapter
9, Chlor-alkali products which provides a balance on the inorganic side to the
Petrochemicals chapter on the organic side, plus leading into Chapter 3 of
Volume 2 (The chlor-alkali, sulphur, nitrogen and phosphorus industries).
Almost all statistics and tables have been updated as have references and
bibliographies, where appropriate, and it is a pleasure to record thal this has
been done by the original team of authors. The new edition also reflects the
changed situation of the industry which is currently riding high, in contrast to
the recession when the first edition was written. Issues which have become
more topical during the last few years, mostly environmental concerns, are
also given increased coverage.
We hope you enjoy reading this new edition and find it both informative and
interesting.
C.A.H.
Note
Where reference is made to West Germany this is because no figures were available for the
newly combined Germany at the time of printing.
VI
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Contributors
D. G. Bew
Formerly of ICI Petrochemicals and Plastics Division,
Wilton, Middlesbrough
C. A. Heaton
School of Natural Sciences, Liverpool Polytechnic
S. F. Kelham
ICI Chemicals and Polymers Ltd., Runcorn, Cheshire
J. McIntyre
Department of Chemistry, University of York
1. Pennington
Formerly of BP Chemicals Ltd, Hull
K. V. Scott
Consultant, Worthing, West Sussex
R. Szczepanski
Infochem Computer Services Ltd., London
vii
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Conversion factors
Mass
1 tonne (metric ton) = 1000 kilograms = 2205 pounds
= 0·984 tons
= 1016 kilograms = 2240 pounds
1 ton
= 1·016 tonnes
Volume
1 litre = 0·220 gallons (U.K. or Imperial) = 1 cubic metre
1 gallon = 4·546 lit res
1 gallon = 1·200 U.S. gallons = 0·00455 cubic metres
1 barrel = 42 U.S. gallons = 35 gallons = 0·159 cubic metres
(Densities of crude oil vary, but 7·5 barrels per tonne is an accepted average
figure.)
1 cubic metre = 35·31 cubic feet
1 cubic foot = 0·02832 cubic metres
Pressure
1 atmosphere = 1·013 bar = 14·696 pounds per square inch
= 1·013 x 10 5 newtons per square metre
= 1·013 x 10 5 pascal
Temperature
Degrees Centigrade = 0·556 (degrees Fahrenheit - 32)
Degrees Fahrenheit = 1·80 (degrees Centigrade) + 32
Degrees Kelvin
= degrees Centigrade + 273
Energy
1 therm
= 100000 British thermal units
1 British thermal unit = 0·252 kilocalories = 1·055 kilojoules
= 4·184 kilojoules
1 kilocalorie
1 kilowatt hour = 3600 kilojoules = 859·8 kilocalories
= 3412 British thermal units.
Vlll
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CONVERSION FACTORS
Power
1 horsepower = 0·746 kilowatts
= 1·34 horsepower
1 kilowatt
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IX
Nomenclature of organic compounds
Common or trivial
name
Systematic (or IUPAC)
name
Structure
(a) Classes of compounds
Paraffin
Cycloparaffins or
Naphthenes
Olefins
Acetylenes
Methacrylates
Alkane
Cycloalkanes
Alkenes
Alkynes
2-Methylpropenoates
(b) Individual compounds
Ethylene
Propylene
Ethene
Propene
CH 2 =CH 2
CH 3CH=CH 2
Styrene
Phenylethene
o-CH=CH 2
Acetylene
Isoprene
Ethyne
2-Methylbuta-l,3-diene
CH2=C~CH=CH2
H~C
C~H
I
CH 3
Ethylene oxide
Oxirane
Propylene oxide
1-Methyloxirane
Methyl iodide
Methyl chloride
Methylene dichloride
Chloroform
Carbon tetrachloride
Vinyl chloride
Ethylene dichloride
Allyl chloride
Iodomethane
Chloromethane
Dichloromethane
Trichloromethane
Tetrachloromethane
Chloroethene
1,2-Dichloroethane
3-Chloropropene
x
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CH3I
CH 3CI
CH 2Cl 2
CHCl 3
CCl 4
CH2=CH~C1
CICH 2CH 2CI
CH 2 =CH-CH 2 -CI
xi
NOMENCLATURE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Chloroprene
2-Chlorobuta-I,3-diene
CH 2=C-CH=CH 2
I
CI
Epichlorohydrin
I-Chloromethyloxirane
Ethylene glycol
Propargyl alcohol
Allyl alcohol
iso-Propanol
Ethane-I,2-diol
Prop-2-yn-I-ol
Prop-2-en-I-ol
2-Propanol
Glycerol
Propane-I, 2, 3-triol
HOCH 2CH 20H
H-C C-CH 20H
CH 2=CH -CH 20H
CH 3 CHCH 3
I
OH
HOCH 2-CH-CH 20H
J
sec-Butanol
2-Butanol
OH
CH 3 CHCH 2CH 3
I
OH
Pentaerythritol
Lauryl alcohol
.Acetone
Methylisobutyl ketone
2,2-Di (hydroxymethyl)
propane-l,3-diol
Dodecanol
Propanone
4-Methylpentan-2-one
CH 2 0H
I
HOCH 2-C-CH 20H
I
CH 2 0H
CH3(CH2)10CH20H
CH 3 COCH 3
CH 3 COCH 2 CHCH 3
I
CH 3
Formaldehyde
Acetaldehyde
Chloral
Propionaldehyde
Acrolein
Butyraldehyde
Formic acid
Methyl formate
Acetic acid
Acetic anhydride
Peracetic acid
Vinyl acetate
Acrylic acid
Dimethyl oxalate
Propionic acid
Methyl methacrylate
Methanal
Ethanal
2,2,2-Trichloroethanal
Propanal
Pro penal
Butanal
Methanoic acid
Methyl methanoate
Ethanoic acid
Ethanoic anhydride
Perethanoic acid
Ethenyl ethanoate
Propenoic acid
Dimethyl ethanedioate
Propanoic acid
Methyl
2-methylpropenoate
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HCHO
CH 3 CHO
Cl 3 CCHO
CH 3 CH 2CHO
CH 2=CHCHO
CH 3 CH 2CH 2CHO
HC0 2H
HC0 2CH 3
CH 3 C0 2H
(CH 3 COhO
CH 3 C0 3 H
CH 2 =CH0 2CCH 3
CH 2=CH -C0 2H
C0 2CH 3
I
C0 2 CH 3
CH 3CH 2C0 2H
xii
NOMENCLATURE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Maleic acid
cis-Butenedioic acid
Maleic anhydride
cis-Butenedioic anhydride
Methyl laurate
Stearic acid
Acrylonitrile
Adiponitrile
Urea
Ketene
CH 2C0 2 H
I
2-Hydroxypropane-l, 2, 3- HO~C~CO H
I
2
tricarboxylic acid
CH 2C0 2 H
Methyl dodecanoate
CH 3(CH 2)lOC0 2CH 3
Octadecanoic acid
CH3(CH2)16C02H
Propenonitrile
CH 2=CH-CN
Hexane-l,6-dinitrile
NC~(CH2)6-CN
Carbamide
H 2 NCONH 2
Ethenone
CH 2=C=O
Toluene
Methylbenzene
~
()
Aniline
Phenylamine
8
Citric acid
C~3 /CH 3
Cumene
iso-Propy1benzene
Benzyl alcohol
Phenylmethanol
o-Xylene
1,2-Dimethylbenzene
m-Xylene
1,3-Dimethylbenzene
p-Xylene
1,4-Dimethylbenzene
Phthalic acid
Benzene-l,2-dicarboxylic
acid
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2)
6
0H
xiii
NOMENCLATURE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Isophthalic acid
Terephthalic acid
Benzene-I,3-dicarboxylic
acid
Benzene-I,4-dicarboxylic
acid
r5
~
C0 2 H
Q"
C0 2 H
a
C0 2 H
Toluic acid
2-Methylbenzoic acid
p-Toluic acid
4-Methylbenzoic acid
0-
CH
]
¢"
CH)
¢
CHO
p- Tolualdehyde
4- Methylbenzaldehyde
CH 3
Benzidine
4,4' -Biphenyldiamine
Furfural
2-Formylfuran
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--0-0-
H2 N
QCHO
NH '
Contents
1
Editorial introduction
C. A. Heaton
5
6
General bibliography
References
7
1 Introduction
C. A. Heaton
1.1 Characteristics of the industry
1.2 Scale of operations
1.3 Major chemical producing countries
1.4 Major sectors and their products
1.5 Turning chemicals into useful end products
1.6 Environmental issues
1.6.1 F1ixborough
1.6.2 Minamata Bay (Japan)
1.6.3 Thalidomide and drugs
1.6.4 Seveso, Bhopal and pesticides
1.6.5 CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons)
2.3
2.4
10
12
13
13
14
14
15
15
17
2 Sources of chemicals
C. A. Heaton
2.1
2.2
8
9
10
Introduction
Sources of organic chemicals
2.2.1 Organic chemicals from
2.2.2 Organic chemicals from
2.2.3 Organic chemicals from
2.2.4 Organic chemicals from
Sources of inorganic chemicals
Recycling of materials
References
Bibliography
17
oil and natural gas
coal
carbohydrates (biomass)
animal and vegetable oils and fats
22
23
27
36
39
41
43
43
44
3 The world's major chemical industries
45
C. A. Heaton
3.1
History and development of the chemical industry
3.1.1 Origins of the chemical industry
3.1.2 Inter-war years, 1918-1939
3.1.3 Second World War period, 1939-1945
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45
45
48
50
XVI
CONTENTS
3.1.4 Post-1945 period
The chemical industry today
3.2.1 Definition of the chemical industry
3.2.2 The need for a chemical industry
3.2.3 The major chemicals
3.3 The United Kingdom chemical industry
3.3.1 Comparison with other U.K. manufacturing industries
3.3.2 International comparisons in the chemical industry
3.3.3 Major locations of the U.K. chemical industry
3.3.4 Some major u.K. chemical companies
3.4 The U.S. chemical industry
3.5 Other chemical industries
3.5.1 Japan
3.5.2 West Germany
3.5.3 France
3.5.4 Italy
3.5.5 Netherlands
3.6 World's major chemical companies
3.7 General characteristics and future of the chemical industry
3.7.1 General characteristics
3.7.2 The future
References
Bibliography
3.2
4 Organization and finance
D. G. Bew
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
50
56
56
57
60
60
61
64
66
68
70
73
73
73
74
74
74
74
74
74
76
78
78
79
Introduction
Structure of a company
4.2.1 Company board functions
4.2.2 Operating divisions
4.2.3 Divisional structures
Organization of R&D
4.3.1 Long-term activities
4.3.2 Shorter term-process R&D
4.3.3 Shorter term-product R&D
4.3.4 Evaluating results of R&D
4.3.5 Financing R&D activities
4.3.6 Links with other functions
Production organization
4.4.1 Management structure
4.4.2 Plant management and operation
4.4.3 Engineering function
4.4.4 Links with other functions
Marketing
4.5.1 Role of marketing
4.5.2 Short-term sales plans
4.5.3 Long-term sales plans
4.5.4 Market R&D
4.5.5 Links with other functions
Sources of finance
4.6.1 Internal sources of finance
4.6.2 External finance
4.6.3 Financial structure
Multinationals
4.7.1 Growth of multinationals
4.7.2 Reasons for development
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79
80
81
82
84
84
86
87
88
89
91
92
93
93
96
96
97
98
99
99
100
100
101
101
102
104
105
106
106
CONTENTS
References
Bibliography
108
108
5 Technological economics
D. G. Bew
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
5.12
5.13
5.14
109
Introduction
Cost of producing a chemical
Variable costs
5.3.1 Raw material costs
5.3.2 Energy input costs
5.3.3 Royalty/licence payments
5.3.4 Effect of production rate on variable cost
5.3.5 Packaging and transport
Fixed costs
5.4.1 Labour charges
5.4.2 Depreciation
5.4.3 Rates and insurance
5.4.4 Overhead charges
Direct, indirect and capital related costs
Profit
Effects of scale of operation
5.7.1 Variable costs
5.7.2 Fixed costs
5.7.3 Plant capital
Effect of low rate operation
5.8.1 Break-even production rate
Diminishing return
Absorption costing and marginality
Measuring profitability
5.11.1 Return on investment
5.11.2 Use of inflated capital-current cost accounting
5.11.3 Payback time
5.11.4 Equivalent maximum investment period
Time value of money
5.12.1 Net present value and discounted cash flow
5.12.2 Discounted cash flow return
5.12.3 Use of NPV and DCF as profitability measures
Project evaluation
5.13.1 Comparison of process variable costs
5.13.2 Estimation of plant capital
5.13.3 Process cost comparison
5.13.4 Estimating markets/prices
5.13.5 Effects of uncertainty
Conclusion
Appendix (D.C.F. calculations)
References
Bibliography
6 Chemical engineering
R. Szczepanski
6.1
6.2
xvii
109
110
111
112
112
113
114
114
114
115
115
116
116
116
117
118
118
118
119
122
125
125
127
130
130
131
132
134
135
135
139
140
141
141
142
143
144
148
151
151
160
160
161
Introduction
Material balances
6.2.1 The flowsheet
6.2.2 General balance equation
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162
162
162
xviii
COl'lTENTS
6.2.3 Material balance techniques
6.2.4 Multiple unit balances
6.2.5 Chemical reactions
6.3 Energy balances
6.3.1 Energy balance equations
6.3.2 Estimation of enthalpy changes
6.3.3 Reactive systems
6.3.4 Energy balance techniques
6.4 Fluid flow
6.4.1 Types of fluid
6.4.2 Flow regimes
6.4.3 Balance equations
6.4.4 Flow in pipes
6.5 Heat transfer
6.5.1 Mechanisms
6.5.2 Shell and tube heat exchangers
6.6 Separation processes
6.6.1 Characteristics of separation processes
6.6.2 Phase equilibria
.6.6.3 Binary distillation
6.7 Process control
6.7.1 Objectives of process control
6.7.2 The control loop
6.7.3 Measuring devices
6.7.4 The controller
6.7.5 Final control element
6.7.6 Computer control
Appendix
References
Bibliography
165
167
170
178
178
179
181
182
187
187
188
190
192
201
201
206
211
211
212
214
221
222
223
224
224
227
227
230
232
232
233
7 Energy
J. McIntyre
7.1
Introduction
7.1.1 Energy required by the chemical industry
7.1.2 Sources of energy
7.1.3 Properties of fuels
7.1.4 Cost of energy
7.2 Types of energy
7.2.1 Power requirements for fluid flow
7.2.2 Variation in energy content requirement
7.3 Use of energy in the chemical industry
7.3.1 Reaction energy
7.3.2 Preparation and separation of energy
7.3.3 Heat transfer media
7.4 Efficient utilization of energy
7.4.1 Exothermic reactions
7.4.2 Separation processes
7.4.3 Restriction of losses
7.5 Conclusions
Appendix
References
Bibliography
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233
233
235
236
237
238
240
241
241
242
242
245
245
246
247
248
249
249
250
CONTENTS
8 Environmental pollution control
xix
251
K. V. Scott
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
Technology and pollution
8.1.1 Air pollution
8.1.2 Water pollution
Methods of pollution control
8.2.1 Elimination of effiuent at source
8.2.2 Reduction of effiuent volume
8.2.3 Water re-use and recovery of materials
8.2.4 Physical, chemical and biological methods of treatment
Economics of pollution control
8.3.1 Treatment plant/processes
8.3.2 Disposal into sewers
8.3.3 Recovery of materials
Industrial health and hygiene
8.4.1 Introduction
8.4.2 Health hazards
8.4.3 Industrial medicine
Legislation
8.5.1 U.K. legislation
8.5.2 U.S. legislation
8.5.3 EEC legislation
8.5.4 Responsibility
8.5.5 Effects of legislation and standards
Environmental topics
8.6.1 Acid rain
8.6.2 Ozone depletion
8.6.3 Carbon dioxide and the greenhouse effect
References
Bibliography
9 Chlor-alkali products
251
253
256
258
258
260
261
261
266
266
270
270
270
270
271
273
274
274
277
278
278
279
279
279
280
281
282
283
284
S. F. Kelham
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
Introduction
Uses of chlorine
Uses of caustic soda (sodium hydroxide)
Uses of hydrogen
Types of cell
9.5.1 Mercury cell process
9.5.2 Diaphragm cell process
9.5.3 Membrane cell process
9.6 Future developments
Bibliography
284
287
288
288
289
289
293
296
302
303
304
10 Catalysts and catalysis
1. Pennington
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Definitions and constraints
10.2.1 Essential features
10.2.2 Initiators
10.2.3 Co-reactants
10.2.4 Inhibition
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305
305
306
307
307
XX
CONTENTS
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
10.8
Thermodynamic relationships
10.3.1 Application
10.3.2 Effect of total pressure
10.3.3 Rough calculations
10.3.4 Thermodynamic traps
Homogeneous catalysis
10.4.1 General features
10.4.2 Catalyst life and poisons
10.4.3 Limitations
Heterogenization of homogeneous catalytic systems
Heterogeneous catalysis
10.6.1 Introduction
10.6.2 Major (primary) and minor (secondary) components
10.6.3 Operational modes
10.6.4 Chemisorption and active sites
10.6.5 Physical forms and their preparation
10.6.6 Support interactions
10.6.7 Catalyst structure
10.6.8 General kinetic behaviour
10.6.9 Catalyst deactivation and life
10.6.10 Studies on surface chemistry
10.6.11 Theoretical approaches
Applications and mechanisms
10.7.1 Introduction
10.7.2 Acid catalysis
10.7.3 Hydrogenation
10.7.4 Dual-function catalysis
10.7.5 Olefin (alkene) polymerization and dismutation on metals
10.7.6 Base catalysis
10.7.7 Oxidations
10.7.8 Carbon monoxide chemistry
The future
References
Bibliography
11 Petrochemicals
J. Pennington
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
307
307
308
309
309
310
310
311
311
313
315
315
316
316
317
319
321
321
322
323
325
326
326
326
327
333
334
335
336
336
343
345
346
347
348
Introduction
11.1.1 Layout
11.1.2 The beginnings
11.1.3 Into the 70s
11.1.4 The present
11.1.5 Individual feedstocks and routes
Crude oil, gas and refinery operations
11.2.1 Crude oil and natural gas
11.2.2 Refinery operations
11.2.3 Energy consumption
Lower olefins (alkenes) and acetylene (ethyne)
11.3.1 Cracking processes
11.3.2 Energy balances and economics
11.3.3 Lower olefins (alkenes) versus acetylene (ethyne)
11.3.4 Polyethylene (polyethene) and polypropylene (polypropene)
11.3.5 Production and use statistics
Synthesis gas, ammonia and methanol
11.4.1 Process descriptions
11.4.2 Energy balances and economics
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348
348
349
349
350
351
351
351
353
354
354
357
361
364
365
366
367
369
CONTENTS
11.4.3
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9
11.10
11.11
11.12
11.13
Urea (carbamide), formaldehyde (methanal), amino resins
and polyacetal
11.4.4 Production and use statistics
Acetic (ethanoic) acid and anhydride
11.5.1 Acetic acid production
11.5.2 Acetic anhydride production
11.5.3 Production and use statistics
C 1 products
11.6.1 Formic (methanoic) acid and derivatives
11.6.2 Hydrogen cyanide
11.6.3 Chloromethanes
C2 products
11.7.1 Ethanol
11.7.2 Acetaldehyde (ethanal)
11.7.3 Ethylene oxide (oxirane) and glycol (ethane-I, 2-diol)
11.7.4 Vinyl acetate (ethenyl ethanoate)
11.7.5 Choroethylenes (chloroethenes) and choroethanes
C 3 products
11.8.1 Isopropanol (2-propanol) and acetone (propanone)
11.8.2 Propylene oxide (l-methyloxirane) and glycol (propane-I, 2-diol)
11.8.3 Acrylonitrile (propenonitrile)
11.8.4 Acrylates and acrolein (propenal)
11.8.5 Allylic (propenyl) derivatives
11.8.6 n-Propanol, propionaldehyde (propanal) and propionic
(propanoic) acid
C4 products
11.9.1 Butenes and butadiene
11.9.2 Sec-butanol (2-butanol) and methyl ethyl ketone (2-butanone)
11.9.3 Tert-butanol
11.9.4 Maleic anhydride (cis-butanedioic anhydride)
11.9.5 Chloroprene (2-chlorobuta-1, 3-diene)
11.9.6 Methacrylates (2-methylpropenoates)
11.9.7 Butyraldehydes (butanals) and primary butanols
11.9.8 C4 diols and related products
C s aliphatics
11.10.1 Isoprene (2-methylbuta-l, 3-diene)
11.10.2 Plasticizer alcohols
11.10.3 Detergent intermediates
Aromatics
11.11.1 Hydrocarbons
11.11.2 Phenol
11.11.3 Benzyls
11.11.4 Nitro-compounds and amines
11.11.5 Phthalic (benzene-I, 2-dicarboxylic) anhydride
11.11.6 Terephthalic (benzene-I, 4-dicarboxylic) acid
Nylon intermediates
The future
11.13.1 The products
11.13.2 Future raw materials and production routes
References
Bibliography
Periodical special issues and supplements
Index
xxi
372
373
373
373
376
376
377
377
378
378
379
379
379
380
381
381
382
382
382
383
383
384
384
385
385
385
386
386
386
386
387
387
388
388
388
389
390
390
391
392
392
393
393
394
396
396
398
400
400
401
403
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EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION
The importance of industrial chemistry
Chemistry is a challenging and interesting subject for academic study. Its
principles and ideas are used to produce the chemicals from which all manner
of materials and eventually consumer products are manufactured. The
diversity of examples is enormous, ranging from cement to iron and steel, and
on to modern plastics which are so widely used in the packaging of consumer
goods and in the manufacture of household items. Indeed life as we know it
today could not exist without the chemical industry. Its contribution to the
saving of lives and relief of suffering is immeasurable; synthetic drugs such as
those which lower blood pressure (e.g. /3-blockers), attack bacterial and viral
infections (e.g. antibiotics such as the penicillins and cephalosporins) and
replace vital natural chemicals which the body is not producing due to some
malfunction (e.g. insulin, some vitamins), are particularly noteworthy in this
respect. Effect chemicals also clearly make an impact on our everyday lives.
Two examples are the use of polytetrafluoroethylene (polytetrafluoroethene
Teflon or Fluon) to provide a non-stick surface coating for cooking utensils,
and silicones which are used to ease the discharge of bread from baking tins. It
should also be noted that the chemical industry's activities have an influence
on all other industries, either in terms of providing raw materials or chemicals
for quality control analyses and to improve operation, and to treat boiler
water, cooling water and effiuents. The general public is increasingly interested
in the operations of the chemical industry, in its concern both about the safety
of chemicals and the operation of chemical plant.
Industrial chemistry is a topic of growing interest and importance for all
chemistry students. Indeed a survey! of all u.K. departments which offer a
degree course in chemistry showed that almost two-thirds included some
industrial chemistry in their courses and several offered a full degree in this
subject.
Industrial chemistry is characterized by the very broad nature of the subject,
spanning as it does several different disciplines. Apart from chemistry it
includes topics such as organization and management of a company, technical,
economics, chemical engineering and environmental pollution control, and it
would not be complete without an in-depth study of several particular sectors
of the chemical industry. The latter would be selected as a representative crosssection of the entire industry.
1
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2
AN INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY
Clearly a comprehensive treatment of all these topics would hardly be
possible even in a full degree in industrial chemistry, let alone as an option or
part of a chemistry degree course. Nor would this be appropriate. An
understanding of the basic aspects of, and an appreciation of, the language of
some of the above topics, and their linking with physico-chemical principles in
the manufacture of chemicals is required.
The growing interest in the study of industrial chemistry in undergraduate
courses clearly requires the availability of suitable accompanying student
textbooks. In some areas of the subject excellent monographs are available
(these are detailed in the 'further reading' section at the end of each chapter).
However, for a broad introductory treatment to the whole of industrial
chemistry they are too detailed and therefore inappropriate. Books presenting
an overall introduction to industrial chemistry are few and far between. The
few valiant attempts indicate the difficulties, since they either (a) attempt to
be too comprehensive and are therefore somewhat superficial in the treatment
of certain topics 2 , (b) tend to be rather a catalogue of factual materiaP,
or (c) adopt an entirely different approach-that of process developmentleading to the coverage of rather different topics 4 . A more recent two-volume
publication 5 has much merit but its very high cost puts it beyond the reach
of students.
The aim of writing this textbook is to provide a readable introduction to the
very broad subject of industrial chemistry (or chemical technology) in a single
volume of a reasonable length. Although the text is aimed primarily at
chemists, much of its material will be of value to first- and second-year students
studying for degrees in chemical engineering. Finally those graduates about to
enter industry after taking a 'pure' chemistry degree course should find that it
is a useful introduction to industry, and therefore provides a bridge between
their academic studies and their first employment. Our approach has been to
use a team of specialist authors comprising both practising industrialists and
teachers. We hope to convey the challenge, excitement, and also the difficulties
which are involved in chemicals manufacture. Emphasis will be given to
factors vital in the production process. Examples are the economics,
engineering and pollution-control aspects. However, it should be made clear
that our aim is just to introduce these subjects and not provide an extensive
course in them. This should equip the reader-assuming he or she is a
chemist-not only with a broader appreciation of their subject but also with
the understanding to enable them to converse with chemical engineers and
technical economists. This is vital in the very large projects undertaken by the
major chemical companies where co-operation within a team comprising
scientific and commercial personnel of several different disciplines is essential.
Those readers requiring a more detailed study are directed to the bibliography at the end ofthe appropriate chapter. Physico-chemical principles will
be integrated with the above aspects, where appropriate. The interplay, and
often the compromise, between these various factors will be discussed and
emphasized. Even within the chemistry itself there are often substantial dif-
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EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION
3
ferences between college and industrial chemistry. The general area of oxidation reactions is a good example. In the academic situation sophisticated,
expensive, or even toxic reagents are often used, e.g. osmium tetroxide,
whereas industrially the same reaction will almost certainly be carried out
catalytically and using the cheapest reagent of all-air. Another important
point of difference is that in college decisions are usually made in a situation
where the required background information is virtually complete. For
example, assigning a particular mechanism to a reaction is usually carried out
on the basis of a substantial amount of experimental supporting evidence.
Although one can never prove a chosen mechanism correct, the more
supporting evidence that is collected the more confidence one has in it. The
manager in industry, in contrast, is invariably working in a situation of only
limited information. Thus he may have to decide which of several new projects
to back, on the basis of financial evaluations projected up to ten years ahead.
The uncertainty in the figures is considerable since assumptions have to be
made on the interest rates, inflation, taxation, etc. Nevertheless he has to use
his managerial ability to come to a decision in a situation oflimited availability
of reliable information.
Statistics
Production statistics and prices are extensively used in certain chapters in this
book in order to illustrate points such as scale of operation, or comparison of
companies and national chemical industries. National and international
statistics, due to their extensive nature, take some considerable time to collect
and collate, and may refer to a period which ended a few years before the date
oftheir publication. We therefore recommend that the reader overcomes these
difficulties by regarding all figures not as absolute or currently correct but
more as being indicative of orders of magnitude, trends or relative positions. In
other words it is the conclusions which we can draw from the figures which are
important rather than the individual statistics themselves. If current figures are
of interest, however, they can often be gleaned from journals such as Chemical
and Engineering News, Chemical Marketing Reporter or European Chemical
News. More specific sources are detailed at the end of each chapter.
There are a number of points which should be borne in mind when
considering statistics-particularly those relating to economic comparisons.
Firstly, in terms of national and international statistics items included under
the term, say 'chemicals' may vary from country to country. In other words
there is not a single standard classification system. The information may also
be incomplete since it may cover only the larger companies, and in somf;.
countries there may be a legal obligation to provide it whereas in others it may
be purely voluntary. Similarly, sales of chemicals compared either internationally or by individual multinational corporations (a term which
covers all large chemical companies) can be significantly affected by the
currency exchange rate chosen in order to obtain all figures in U.S. dollars or
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AN INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY
U.K. pounds. Because of its fluctuating nature, depending on the time chosen
for the interconversion, it could favour some companies or countries and
adversely affect others. This reinforces the suggestion made above to treat
figures on a relative rather than an absolute basis.
Although figures relating to companies and national chemical industries are
available for most of the world, those relating to the communist bloc of
countries (USSR, Eastern Europe and China) are either difficult to obtain or
are of limited reliability. For this reason these countries have not been
considered in the text.
Costing details relating to specific processes are also difficult to obtain.
Whilst the reluctance of companies to make these known, for commercial
reasons, can to a large extent be appreciated, this does leave an important gap
when putting together case studies for use in teaching. It must be acknowledged that U.S. companies are rather more forthcoming in this respect than their
European counterparts. Fortunately journals like European Chemical News
and particularly Chemical and Process Engineering do publish such information from time to time.
Units and nomenclature
There is a general trend in science towards a more systematic approach to both
units and nomenclature, i.e. naming specific chemical compounds. For units
the S.I. (Systeme International) system has been widely introduced, and
science students in Europe are brought up on this. However, in industry a
range of non-S.1. units are used. For example, weights may be expressed as
short tons (2000 lbs), metric tons or tonnes (1000 kg or 22051bs) or long tons
or tons (2240Ibs) or even (particularly in the U.S.A.) millions of pounds. It is
therefore necessary to be bi- or even multilingual and to assist in this
conversion factors are given at the beginning of this book.
There are arguments for and against whichever units are used but we have
chosen to standardize on tonnes for weight (tonnes), degrees centigrade for
temperature eC), and atmospheres for pressure (atm). Both pounds sterling
(£) and U.S. dollars ($) are used for monetary values because of the volatility
of their exchange rates over the last two decades. Billions are U.S. billions,
i.e. one thousand millions.
In naming chemical compounds the systematic IUPAC system is increasingly used in educational establishments. However in many areas of chemistry,
e.g. natural products, trivial names are still far more important, as indeed they
are in the chemical industry. Again it is desirable to be bilingual. To assist
in this trivial names are used in this book, but the IUPAC name is usually
given in brackets afterwards. A reference table for the two systems of naming
compounds is also provided at the front of the book. Since only trivial names
are used in the index in this book, this conversion table should be used to
obtain the trivial name from its systematic counterpart.
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