Các chiến lược thúc đẩy sự tự chủ trong việc học từ vựng tiếng anh của học sinh lớp 9 tại một trường THCS ở hà nội

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

ĐẶNG HƯƠNG GIANG

STRATEGIES FOR FOSTERING LEARNER AUTONOMY IN
LEARNING ENGLISH VOCABULARY OF GRADE 9 STUDENTS AT
A SECONDARY SCHOOL IN HANOI

(Các chiến lược thúc đẩy sự tự chủ trong việc học từ vựng tiếng
Anh của học sinh lớp 9 tại một trường THCS ở Hà Nội)

M.A. MINOR THESIS

Major

: Teaching English Methodology

Code

: 8140231.01

HANOI - 2021


VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

ĐẶNG HƯƠNG GIANG

STRATEGIES FOR FOSTERING LEARNER AUTONOMY IN
LEARNING ENGLISH VOCABULARY OF GRADE 9 STUDENTS AT
A SECONDARY SCHOOL IN HANOI

(Các chiến lược thúc đẩy sự tự chủ trong việc học từ vựng tiếng
Anh của học sinh lớp 9 tại một trường THCS ở Hà Nội)

M.A. MINOR THESIS

Major

: Teaching English Methodology

Code

: 8140231.01

Supervisor : Dr. Huynh Anh Tuan

HANOI - 2021


DECLARATION
I certify that the minor thesis entitled “Strategies for fostering learner
autonomy in learning English vocabulary of grade 9 students at a
secondary school in Hanoi.” is the result of my own work and fulfill the
requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts at the University of Languages
and International Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi.

Hanoi, 2021

Dang Huong Giang

i


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This thesis would not have been accomplished without the assistance of
several individuals who one way or another have converted their valuable
interpretations of the subject into solid knowledge that directly contributes to
the preparation and completion of this study.
First and foremost, I would like to manifest my most sincere gratitude to
Dr. Huynh Anh Tuan, my thesis supervisor, who has contributed an untiring
effort in guiding and correcting various documents of mine with attention to
detail. He has always been willing to provide necessary guidance that greatly
facilitates the writing of this research work.
I would also like to thank the experts in Vietnam National University,
whose valuable lectures have provided me abundant knowledge and
experiences in the field.
And last but not least, I offer my regards and appreciation to my family,
friends, and the staffs the Faculty of Post-Graduate Studies, University of
Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University for their
supports and inspiration during the completion of the thesis.

Hanoi, 2021

Dang Huong Giang

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION .............................................................................................. i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................ ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................... iii
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................ vi
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................... vii
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................. viii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................. 1
1. Rationale for the study .................................................................................. 1
2. Scope of the study ......................................................................................... 2
3. Aims and objectives of the study .................................................................. 2
4. Research questions ........................................................................................ 3
5. Methods of the study ..................................................................................... 3
6. Significance of the study ............................................................................... 4
7. Organisation of the thesis .............................................................................. 4
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW...................................................... 6
2.1. Theoretical background .............................................................................. 6
2.1.1. Vocabulary .............................................................................................. 6
2.1.2. Vocabulary learning and teaching......................................................... 10
2.1.3. Learner autonomy ................................................................................. 15
2.1.4. Strategies for fostering learner autonomy ............................................. 16
2.2. Review of previous studies ...................................................................... 21
2.2.1. Overseas ................................................................................................ 21
2.2.2. In Vietnam ............................................................................................. 26
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ............................................................... 28
3.1. Context of the study ................................................................................. 28

iii


3.1.1. Setting of the study................................................................................ 28
3.1.2. Study approach ...................................................................................... 29
3.2. Research design ........................................................................................ 32
3.2.1. Implementation of the action research .................................................. 32
3.2.2. Instruments of data collection ............................................................... 36
3.2.3. Data collection procedures .................................................................... 40
3.2.4. Data analysis procedures ....................................................................... 41
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS ............................................................................ 42
4.1. Phase One: ................................................................................................ 42
4.2. Phase Two: ............................................................................................... 43
4.2.1. Research question 2a: Students’ performance in the use of the taught
strategies .......................................................................................................... 43
4.2.2. Research question 2b: Students’ participation in the use of the taught
strategies .......................................................................................................... 46
4.3. Phase Three: ............................................................................................. 47
4.3.1. Research question 3: Students’ maintenance of the taught strategies in
independent vocabulary learning .................................................................... 48
4.3.2. Research question 4: Students’ perception of the effectiveness of the
strategy training programme ........................................................................... 49
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION ..................................................................... 56
5.1. Conclusion................................................................................................ 56
5.2. Pedagogical implications from the findings ............................................ 57
5.3. Limitations of the study and suggestions for further study ..................... 58
REFERENCES ................................................................................................. I
APPENDICES ............................................................................................... VI
Appendix 1 ...................................................................................................... VI
Appendix 2 ................................................................................................... VIII

iv


Appendix 3 ................................................................................................ XXIX
Appendix 4 .......................................................................................... XXXVIII
Appendix 5 ............................................................................................... XLVII
Appendix 6 ................................................................................................ XLIX

v


LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Criteria for accessing word – learning records ................................. 37
Table 2. Holistic rubric for marking the maintenance of the trained strategy sets 39
Table 3. Students’ performance in the use of Dictionary-related strategies and
Vocabulary - recording strategies ................................................................... 44
Table 4. Students’ performance in the use of Affix - studying strategies ...... 45
Table 5. Students’ participation in the use of Dictionary-related strategies and
Vocabulary - recording strategies ................................................................... 46
Table 6. Students’ participation in the use of Affix - studying strategies ...... 47

vi


LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Action Research Spiral (Kemmis and McTaggart, 2000:595) ........ 29
Figure 2: Elliot’s action research model (1991: 71) ...................................... 30
Figure 3: O’Leary’s cycles of research (2004: 141) ....................................... 31

Figure 4: Students’ problems in independent vocabulary learning ............... 43
Figure 5: Students’ maintenance of the taught strategies in independent
vocabulary learning ......................................................................................... 49
Figure 6: Frequency of vocabulary strategy use before and after training ..... 50
Figure 7: Frequency of vocabulary strategy use before and after training ..... 51
Figure 8: Effectiveness of the vocabulary-learning strategy training
programme ...................................................................................................... 53
Figure 9: Students’ recommenations for vocabulary-learning strategy training ... 55

vii


ABSTRACT

Learner autonomy in foreign language teaching and learning has been a
favorite topic for a long time. Since the beginning of the millennium year,
there have been lots of studies to promote learner autonomy in different levels
of foreign language education at different schools and at different universities.
Helping foreign language learners to become autonomous is one of the
fundamental and the universal duties of all of the foreign language educators
have. Therefore, it is crucial for teachers to realize the importance of learner
autonomy development as an aid to vocabulary enhancement. However,
research on learner autonomy and vocabulary acquisition have not received
the same attention within Vietnam as in other countries. As such, this research
was conducted to address the paucity of literature dealing specifically with
learner autonomy and vocabulary development within English language
learning at secondary level. More specifically, it examined the extent of the
application of learner autonomy in two contexts - a teacher-centered approach
to language education, in which the teacher is not supporting learner
autonomy, and a student-centered classroom, where the teacher is using some

autonomous learning strategies. This study also explored the roles and
insights of teachers of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in promoting
learner autonomy in vocabulary development in the KSA.

viii


CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1. Rationale for the study
The term "learner autonomy" was first introduced in 1981 by Henri Holec, the
"father" of learner autonomy. According to Holec, "learner autonomy is an
ability to take charge of one’s own learning". The recent years has witnessed
more literature devoted to attempts to define the concept, classify approaches,
propose training models, and explore the applicability of learner autonomy in
various educational contexts. Little (1991) believes that learning could be
“more focused and more purposeful, and thus more effective both
immediately and in the longer term” (Little, 1991, p.8) and Waite (1994)
specifies that learners need to take charge of their own learning in order to
make the most of available resources, especially outside the classroom.
In spite of being widely discussed worldwide, learner autonomy remains a
fairly novel concept in Vietnam. Whether or to what extent learner autonomy
is developed and practiced in Vietnamese schools is still open to question.
Moreover, developing learners’ autonomy becomes increasingly important for
grade 9 students who are required to do a substantial amount of exercises and
under a lot of pressure to pass Secondary School Graduation Examination.
They are supposed to know when and how to work independently so that they
can achieve a satisfactory result. After having taught them for several
semesters, I immediately take notice of the situation that they encounter
severe difficulties learning vocabulary and intend to design a remedy plan to

overcome it. Most of the students feel discouraged by a large number of
words they encounter in each English lesson. Learning vocabulary seems to
be the most difficult and most important to them; however, the students have
only three periods per week for English lessons. It means the time spent on

1


vocabulary learning is really limited in class. In order to develop the students’
vocabulary, it is crucial that they practice independent vocabulary learning
regularly outside class. Therefore, it has become increasingly essential to
provide them with useful learning strategies so that they can employ and
practice vocabulary self-study effectively and autonomously.
For all the reasons above, I have decided to undertake a study into
“Strategies for fostering learner autonomy in learning English vocabulary
of grade 9 students at a secondary school in Hanoi”. The focus of the study is

a training programme of vocabulary – learning strategies conducted for ten
weeks.
1.2. Scope of the study
The research focuses on one specific way of developing learner autonomy:
the explicit teaching of learning strategies. A vocabulary-learning strategy
training programme is conducted for eight weeks. Within the scope of the
study, only three strategy sets, including dictionary-related strategies,
recording vocabulary and studying affixes, are taught. The effectiveness of
the taught strategies is measured in terms of performance, participation and
maintenance. Performance refers to the extent of correctness when the
students use the taught strategies while participation means how much they
use these strategies in their guided vocabulary practice. Lastly, maintenance
refers to the extent of retaining the taught strategies in their independent

vocabulary study.
The participants are limited to 54 grade 9 students of the same English class at a
secondary school in Hanoi and their teacher. In this study, the teacher is in
charge of teaching the class and plays the role of the researcher at the same time.
1.3. Aims and objectives of the study
Firstly, the study aims at improving the students’ autonomous vocabulary
learning by teaching them some helpful strategies.
2


Secondly, it is intended to evaluate their employment of these vocabulary learning strategies.
1.4. Research questions
These aims can be achieved by answering the following research
questions:
1. What are the problems that the students encounter in their
independent vocabulary learning?
2. How well and how much do the students use the taught strategies in
their guided vocabulary practice?
3. To what extent do the students maintain the taught strategies in their
autonomous vocabulary learning?
4. How effective is the strategy programme in helping the students
learn vocabulary, as perceived by the students?
1.5. Methods of the study
The current study is carried out as an action research, which combines
qualitative and quantitative approaches. The action actually taken is a
vocabulary-learning strategy training programme designed for the duration of
eight weeks. The programme is divided into three phases.
In phase one, pre-treatment questionnaires are distributed to seek the answer
for research question one regarding the students’ problem in learning
vocabulary. Then, the students are taught about three strategy sets, namely

dictionary-related strategies, vocabulary-recording and affix-studying.
In phase two, three word-learning records are provided as guided practice of
the taught strategies. The data from the word-records aims at answering the
research question two about the students’ performance and participation in the
use of the taught strategies.
In phase three, the students keep free-style vocabulary learning diaries, in
which they record the vocabulary they want to learn in their self-study time.
3


The diaries are used to answer the research question three about the extent of
maintaining the taught strategies in the students’ independent vocabulary
learning. By the end of phase three, post-treatment questionnaires are
distributed to answer the research question four about the learners’ perception
of the strategy training programme.
The data from the pre-treatment and post-treatment questionnaires, the word
learning records and vocabulary-learning diaries are calculated with regard to
items’ frequency, mean, and percentage.
1.6. Significance of the study
The study is of enormous importance to the effort to enhance the quality
education in Vietnam through the development of learner capacity for greater
autonomy, which enables them to identify their own needs, define their own
study programme, and pursue life-long learning.
It is also anticipated that data pertaining to the defining characteristics of
learner autonomy in a Vietnamese secondary context can serve as a
comparative base from which future research on learner autonomy in
Vietnamese or other contexts can be explored.
First and foremost, autonomous vocabulary learning will hopefully be
developed for grade 9 students at a secondary school in Hanoi. The students
can overcome their difficulties in learning vocabulary by means of monitoring

and regulating their self-study with appropriate learning strategies. In this
way, the researcher hopes that the students’ awareness of learning strategies
and learner autonomy can be raised and nurtured.
1.7. Organisation of the thesis
The study consists of five main chapters:
Chapter 1 – Introduction: This chapter presents

rationale of the

research, scope of the research, aims and objectives of the research, research

4


questions, methods of the research, significance of the research, organization
of the research.
Chapter 2 – Literature review: This chapter puts forward a review of
the literature pertaining to learner independence and vocabulary learning and
teaching. In each section, the definition or clarification of the major terms is
introduced as well as the previous studies.
Chapter 3 – Methodology: This chapter aims to present the
methodology of my research, including the context of the study, participants,
instruments of data collection, procedures of data collection and data analysis.
Chapter 4 – Findings: This chapter presents an analysis of the data
gained from the pre-treatment and post-treatment questionnaires, the wordlearning records and the vocabulary-learning diaries, as well as discuss about
findings from analyses.
Chapter 5 – Conclusion: This chapter summarizes all discovered results
in “Strategies for fostering learner autonomy in learning English
vocabulary of grade 9 students at a secondary school in Hanoi”. An overall
picture of what was done in this study and suggestions for further studies are

included in this section.

5


CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter puts forward a review of the literature pertaining to learner
independence and vocabulary learning and teaching. In each section, the
definition or clarification of the major terms is introduced as well as the
previous studies.
2.1. Theoretical background
2.1.1. Vocabulary
2.1.1.1. Vocabulary and its importance in language learning
Definition of vocabulary
There are several definitions of vocabulary in the literature review, all of
which appears to share the thought of what vocabulary is.
According to Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied
linguistics (Richard, Platt & Platt, 1992), vocabulary is characterized as “a set
of lexemes, counting single words, compound words and idioms”. This way
of defining is similar to the one given by Hatch & Brown (1995:1) that
vocabulary is a list or set of words for a particular language or a list or set of
words that individual speakers of language might use. In the same vein,
McCarthy (1990) contends that multi-word units including idioms and phrasal
verbs should clearly be treated as single lexical items since their meaning are
partly identified by their fixedness. Hornby (2006: 1645)

in

Oxford

Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English says that vocabulary is:
(1) all the words that a person knows or uses, (2) all the words in a
particular language, (3) the words that people use when they are
talking, and (4) a list of words with their meanings, especially in a book
for learning a foreign language.
It is evident from these definitions that vocabulary involves not only

6


individual words but also settled expressions. The central idea of these
definitions can be best summed up by Lewis (1993, cited in Nguyen, 2007: 7)
who defines vocabulary as “individual words, or full sentences –
institutionalized utterances – that convey fixed social or pragmatic meaning
within a given community”.
Based on the definitions mentioned previously, it can be concluded that
vocabulary is a set of words that comes from written and oral form and used
to communicate in learning language.
Importance of vocabulary in language learning
Many researchers (e.g., Nation, 2001; Richards & Renandya, 2002; Schmitt,
2010) have claimed that vocabulary is one of the most important components
of language learning in which learners are able to use it in order to support for
four language skills. Likewise, Balci and Çakir (2011) have confirmed that
vocabulary plays a vital role in any stages of the learners’ language
development. Moreover, it is impossible for a learner to communicate without
the required vocabulary. Indeed, a number of scholars (e.g., Willis, 1990;
Lewis, 1993; Folse, 2004) in the field of vocabulary believe that
communication can occur without syntax and grammar, but not vocabulary.
According to Wilkins as stated in Thornbury (2002), “. . . while without

grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be
conveyed” (pp. 111–112). Lewis (1993) also argued, “lexis is the core or
heart of language” (p. 89). As such, it cannot be denied that if learners have
no vocabulary, they cannot express their ideas, thinking or feelings as well as
are unable to understand the meaning of written and spoken texts. Thus,
vocabulary learning is a prominent domain to approach a satisfactory
language proficiency level (Boers & Lindstromberg, 2008). Moreover,
Teaching vocabulary helps students understand and communicate with others
in English.
7


2.1.1.2. Processes of vocabulary acquisition
According to Nation (2001), the learner needs to go through three processes
so as to remember a word, including noticing, retrieval and creative
(generative) use. It is a simple way to understand that noticing means paying
attention to an item. This can happen in various ways, such as learners
deliberately studying a word or having a word explained to them and the word
appearing crucial in the contextualized input.
Noticing involves decontextualization, which is a metacognitive process of
extracting the specific rules, heuristics, and processes that come to bear on a
situation. Decontextualization takes place when the learners, guided by the
debriefer, verbalize the general principles and problem-solving strategies that
underlie the topic under discussion, without reference to the specific context
of the case. In term of the role of decontextualization Nation (2001: 64)
wrote, “... in order to acquire the language, learners need to consciously see
language items as parts of the language system rather than only as messages”.
Nation (2001) further classified decontextualization into two: negotiation and
definition. Although a large number of studies demonstrate that negotiated
vocabulary items are more likely to be learned than non-negotiated ones, he

points out that it is not the means by which most vocabulary is learned,
suggesting the need for other complementary ways of decontextualizing
items. Concerning definition, an important finding is that simple, short
definitions are the most effective while more elaborate ones tend to be
confusing for vocabulary learning (Ellis, 1995; Chaudron, 1982, cited in
Nation, 2001). Moreover, Nation has shown that many learners find learning
faster and thoroughly when the word meaning is explained by a first language
translation. In the classroom, teachers directly influence students’ noticing
process by deciding the context to put the wanted vocabulary items, by pre-

8


teaching or consciousness-raising of the items before the activity and by using
different attention-drawing techniques.
The second process of vocabulary acquisition is retrieval, which reinforces
the meaning of the word in the learner’s mind. The more frequent the retrieval
of a particular item in the learning process, the better the chances that the item
will be engraved deeper in the learner’s memory. That means a repetition of a
word can only be effective if there is certain memory of the previous meeting
with the word. Thus, the span of time between encounters cannot be too long.
As Nation (2001: 68) states: It is very useful to try to estimate how much
listening and reading a learner would need to do per week in order for
incidental receptive vocabulary learning to proceed in an effective way (...)
Ordinary learners would need to listen to stories at least three times a week
for approximately twenty minutes each time. They would need to read about
one graded reader every two weeks.
The last but major process of vocabulary acquisition is generation or
generative use, which occurs when “previously met words are subsequently
met or used in ways that differ from the previous meeting with the word”

(Nation 2001: 68). Those new encounters push learners towards
reconceptualization of their knowledge of these words. There are also
receptive and productive forms of generation. Receptive generation occurs
when a word is encountered in listening and reading. It can be any word.
Maybe a word has never heard of or maybe a word is almost heard every day.
On the other hand, productive generation involves using the word in a new
context while writing or speaking.
The three stages of vocabulary acquisition above tend to correspond to the
three-point scale for describing depth of processing suggested by Stahl (1985,
cited in Nation, 2001). The scale includes three levels, namely association,
comprehension and generation.
9


2.1.2. Vocabulary learning and teaching
2.1.2.1. Aspects of learning vocabulary
The question of what learners should pay attention to is a significant issue of
second language vocabulary acquisition. Some researchers have considered
vocabulary learning as being proficient in its constituent elements. According
to Ur (1996), learners have to know the word form, namely pronunciation and
spelling, grammar, collocation, word meaning, and word formation. In term
of grammar, he supposed that the information such as irregular past form,
irregular plural form should be explained clearly to learners, especially when
a word has an unpredictable change of form. Ur also distinguished two levels
of meaning aspects. The first level comprised denotation, connotation and
appropriateness of use in a certain context, and the second level covers
meaning relationships, including synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms, cohyponyms, superordinates. Therefore, knowing a word requires more than just
its meaning and form. Sharing the same point of view with Ur, Harmer (1991:
158) presents a more detailed and systematic summary of “learning a word”
in the following chart:

Meaning in context
Sense relation
Metaphor and idiom
Collocation
Style and register
Parts of speech
Prefixes and suffixes
Spelling and pronunciation

MEANING
WORD USE
WORDS

WORD
INFORMATION

Nouns: Countable and uncountable, ...
WORD
GRAMMAR

Verb complementation, phrasal verbs, ..
Adjectives and adverbs: position,..

10


In contrast, some researchers have approached the learning of vocabulary
from a broader view. Chapelle (1994) suggests a three-component construct
of vocabulary ability, namely (1) the context of vocabulary use, (2)
vocabulary knowledge and fundamental processes, and (3) metacognitive

strategies for vocabulary use. As regards context, it can influence lexical
meaning in various ways. The second component is further divided into four
elements, including vocabulary size, knowledge of word characteristics,
lexicon organization (the way in which lexical items are organized in the
mental lexicon) and fundamental vocabulary processes that users apply to
access their lexical knowledge. The final one, metacognitive strategies, can be
avoidance, paraphrase, guessing meaning, asking teacher or consulting
dictionary …
2.1.2.2. Explicit approach vs. Incidental learning approach (Teaching
vocabulary)
The concept of explicit and implicit learning has become two debatable
aspects and sources of interest for the researchers emerged in applied
linguistics as well as in second language acquisition (SLA) (N. Ellis, 2008 as
cited in Sonbul and Schmitt, 2012 p.121). Ellis (1994) asserts that implicit
learning is a process where a learner learns simultaneously and incidentally
while explicit learning is a conscious process of learning where a learner
searches for structure and forms. In the field of vocabulary acquisition,
incidental learning is largely defined as the learning of vocabulary as a byproduct of any activity not explicitly geared towards vocabulary learning
(Rieder, 2008). In contrast, intentional vocabulary learning is defined as any
activity geared at committing lexical information to memory (Hulstijn, 2001).
As regards explicit learning, the central idea is that the application of
vocabulary learning strategies can greatly facilitate vocabulary acquisition,

11


and learners play an active role in processing information (Ellis, 1995).
Unsurprisingly, a large number of books have focused on numerous activities
and exercises for explicit study of vocabulary. According to a survey by
Sokmen (1997 cited in Schmitt, 2000: 146), explicit vocabulary teaching

should adhere to the following principles:
- build a large sight vocabulary
- integrate new words with old
- provide a number of encounters with a word
- promote a deep level of processing
- facilitate imaging
- make new words “real” by connecting them to the students’ world in
some way
- use a variety of techniques
- encourage independent learning strategies
In addition, Schmitt (2000) points out some other important principles. First,
the problem of cross – association should be prevented. This usually happens
when similar words, such as “left” and “right”, are initially taught together.
Students are confused when matching the word form with the right meaning.
Antonyms, synonyms, and closely related semantic groupings are particularly
subject to cross-association. Accordingly, students can understand the word in
a variety of contexts and the effect of teaching is maximized. Last, teaching
word families should be made a habit to enrich vocabulary learning.
Implicit learning, on the other hand, is defined as “accidental learning of
information without the intention of remembering that information” (Hustijn
et al., 1996). Several studies are made to support implicit learning on second
language acquisition. Robinson (2005) makes an experiment on some
Japanese L2 learners where they are given some words to memorize and some
12


visual sentences and then again they are provided by some comprehension
questions with no formal instruction of what they are basically learning,
however, from which they have to understand the stimulus meaning of the
sentences and then answer the following questions from the comprehension

(as cited in Rebuschat and Williams 2012). Robinson (2005) found from his
result that 63.8% of the learners’ results are accurate. Therefore, he comes
with a notion that adult learners can learn L2 incidentally, without given any
constructed form or rule (cited in Rebuschat and Williams 2012). Moreover,
Ellis (2005) opines that implicit learning allows the learner to be confident
fluently while communicating in L2. He further added that, since the explicit
learning is accessed by controlled processing, learners may suffer from
difficulties in L2 speaking. This idea of can conclude that learners make
better performance in terms of speaking L2 if the instruction follows implicit
learning process. However, the key to incidental learning approach is to make
sure that learners get maximum exposure to the language. In second language
classrooms, this can be best achieved through reading. However, there is a big
controversy regarding implicit learning coming from some researchers. Much
of the literature has showed that incidental learning through reading occurs
only to a limited degree. Implicit learning cannot be successful if the learning
is not previously known to them. The text has to be familiar to learners; if not
then the incidental learning would not work for L2 learner (Pulido 2003,
p.261). Therefore, from his perspective, it can be said that, implicit learning
may not work thoroughly in terms of teaching second language to the
learners. Moreover, Scott (1990) has conducted a research on two groups of
students, one group has been guided and told several examples approximately
10 times and another group has not been given any example. However, he

13


finds that though the group who are guided implicitly, heard examples more
than the group guided explicitly, the mean result of the explicitly instructed
group statistically scores high. Besides, according to Schmitt and McCarthy
(1997), the prerequisites for successful incidental acquisition include:

- Level of language proficiency
- Learner’s large L2 vocabulary
- Strategic knowledge of inferencing process
- Rich context with sufficient cues
All things considered, it is generally agreed that any vocabulary program needs
to include both explicit teaching and activities which promote incidental
learning. In the words of Schmitt (2000: 146), explicitly teaching all the words is
necessary for beginners whereas beyond this level, “incidental learning should
be structured into the program in a principled way.” Incidental learning not only
helps to consolidate vocabulary but also exposes learners to different contexts in
which a word is used, thus expanding the knowledge about the word. Moreover,
some aspects of word knowledge, especially collocation and register constraints,
can only be fully acquired through numerous exposures. Another reason is that
explicitly presenting all the uses of a word to students is obviously an impossible
task. More specifically, Ellis (1995) contends that both implicit and explicit
learning suit different levels of word meaning. In his view, implicit vocabulary
learning is suitable for simple pattern recognition of surface form, called
“shallow processing” while explicit learning necessarily facilitates the mapping
of those surface forms to their corresponding semantic/conceptual presentation.
Explicit learning, therefore, refers to the recognition of word meaning by means
of “deep processing”.

14


2.1.3. Learner autonomy
2.1.3.1. Concept of leaner autonomy
Many theoretical frameworks have shaped the idea of learner autonomy. John
Dewey (1916) established the foundation for the development of learner
autonomy in his book, Democracy and Education. He highlighted the

importance of generating a supportive teaching environment that promoted
students’ persistence in learning rather than the pure acquisition of knowledge
and subject matter. Holec (1981) coined the term “learner autonomy,”
defining it as “taking control over one’s learning” (p. 3), which encourages
learners to find their own way of learning and, ultimately, to ease the learning
process. In the learning context, Little (1991) defined autonomy as “a
capacity

–for

detachment,

critical

reflection,

decision-making,

and

independent action. It presupposes, but also entails, that the learner will
develop a particular kind of psychological relation to the process and content
of his learning” (p. 4). It should be noted that the concept of learner autonomy
has Western origins.
2.1.3.2. Teacher’s role in learner’s autonomous ability
The class time for vocabulary is desperately limited compared with the immense
number of vocabulary items that learners need to acquire; therefore, studying
vocabulary on their own is a must for all learners, the best preparation the teacher
can provide is to " help them become more autonomous" (Scharle , 2000).

In traditional language teaching, teachers usually play a larger role in the
learning environment when compared to students. Yan (2012) emphasized
that the teacher is evaluated based on the amount of knowledge that s/he is
able to transfer to the students. In this sense, teachers are the knowledgegivers who dominate the class from start to finish. However, in order for
learner autonomy to develop, the teacher’s role must be shifted from teacher-

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