USING PROJECT-BASED LEARNING TO IMPROVE THE 10TH GRADERS’ ENGLISH PARAGRAPH WRITING SKILLS AT A HIGH SCHOOL IN HUNG YEN PROVINCE

VIETNAM ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
GRADUATE ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

TRẦN MẠNH HÙNG

USING PROJECT-BASED LEARNING TO
IMPROVE THE 10TH GRADERS’ ENGLISH
PARAGRAPH WRITING SKILLS AT A HIGH
SCHOOL IN HUNG YEN PROVINCE

MA THESIS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE

HANOI, 2021


VIETNAM ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
GRADUATE ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

Trần Mạnh Hùng

USING PROJECT-BASED LEARNING TO
IMPROVE THE 10TH GRADERS’ ENGLISH
PARAGRAPH WRITING SKILLS AT A HIGH
SCHOOL IN HUNG YEN PROVINCE

Field: English Language
Code: 8220201
Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hoàng Tuyết Minh,

HANOI, 2021

DECLARATION BY AUTHOR
I, the undersigned, thusly guarantee that the thesis named “Using
project-based learning to improve the 10th graders’ English paragraph
writing skills at a high school in Hung Yen province " is the aftereffect of
my own research for the Degree of Master of Arts in English Language. The
substance of the thesis has not, wholly or in part, been submitted for any other
degree to any other universities or institutions.
Except where reference has been made in the text, this thesis contains
no material previously published or written by another person.
The study reported in this thesis was approved by Graduate Academy of
Social Sciences.
Author’s Signature

Trần Mạnh Hùng

i


ACKNOWLEGDEMENTS
Although only one name appears as the author of this work, writing a
thesis is indeed a collaborative effort. I would like to express my sincere
thanks to the many people who made it possible.
First and foremost, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my
M.A thesis’s supervisor, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hoàng Tuyết Minh, for her kind
consultation, invaluable encouragement as well as thorough correction in the
process of completion. But for her helpful guidance, this study would not
have been achieved.
Next, I would like to convey my sincere appreciation and thanks to Dr.
Đặng Nguyên Giang - Dean of the Department of Foreign Languages and the

other staff at Graduate Academy of Social Sciences the Department of
Foreign Languages, Graduate Academy of Social Sciences for granting me the
honor of writing this thesis as well as their assistance and most valuable
comments.
Especially, millions of my special thanks go to the teachers and
students of my High School in Hung Yen, who participated in this study for
their kind and patient co-operation and encouragement. They helped provide
me with valuable data for the study so that I could have a better view of
activities in English writing classes at my High School in Hung Yen province.
Last but not least, I am deeply indebted to my family for their sympathy
and support during all the time I was studying for M.A degree at Graduate
Academy of Social Sciences. Without their unconditional love and sincere
contribution, I could not have overcome my difficulties and concentrated on
my studies.

ii


TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
DECLARATION BY AUTHOR

i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ii

ABSTRACT

vi

LIST OF TABLES

vii

LIST OF FIGURES & CHARTS

viii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ix

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1

1.1. Rationale

1

1.2. Aims of the Study

3

1.3. Research Questions

4

1.4. Scope of the Study

4

1.5. Significance of the Study

5

1.6. Research Methods

6

1.7. Structure of the Study

6

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

7

2.1. Concepts of writing

7

2.1.1. Definitions of writing

7

2.1.2. Characteristics of writing

8

2.1.3. The importance of teaching writing

9

2.1.4. Teacher’s roles in teaching writing

11

2.2. Concepts of paragraph

12

2.2.1. Definitions of paragraph

12

2.2.2. Structures of paragraph

13

iii


2.2.3. Approaches to teaching paragraph writing skills in foreign
language

14

2.3. Project-based learning

17

2.3.1. Definitions of project-based learning

17

2.3.2. Types of projects

20

2.3.3. Key features of Project-based learning

20

2.3.4. Advantages and challenges of project-based learning

23

2.3.5. Process of Project-based learning

25

2.4. Previous studies

28

2.5. Summary

29

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

31

3.1. Research Setting

31

3.2. Participants

32

3.2.1. The researcher

32

3.2. 2. The teachers

33

3.2.3. The students

33

3.3. Design of the study

34

3.3.1. Action research

34

3.3. 2. Procedures of the study

35

3.3.2.1. Phase 1: Planning

36

3.2.2.2. Phase 2: Action

37

3.3.2.3. Phase 3: Observation

39

3.3.2.4. Phase 4: Reflection

40

3.3.3. Data collection instruments

42

3.3.3.1. Pre-test and post-test

42

3.3.3.2. Questionnaires

43

iv


3.3.3.3. Semi-structured interview
3.4. Data analytic method

45
46

3.5. Summary

48

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

49

4.1. Data Analysis from Tests

49

4.2. Analysis from the survey Questionnaires

53

4.3. Analysis from the Interview

63

4.4. Discussion of findings

66

4.5. Summary

68

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION

71

5.1. Recapitulation

71

5.2. Concluding Remarks

72

5.3. Implications

73

5.4. Limitations and Suggestions for Further Studies

74

References
APPENDIX 1: Pre-test for students

I

APPENDIX 2: Post-test for students

II

APPENDIX 3: Rating scale for Writing test

III

APPENDIX 4: Survey questionnaire

IV

APPENDIX 5: Post- survey questionnaire

VI

APPENDIX 6: Interview

XII

APPENDIX 7: Transcripts of interviews

XIII

APPENDIX 8: Sample project plans

XVI

v


ABSTRACT
In a diligent attempt to investigate the impacts of PBL on students’
paragraph writing skills and their attitudes towards the new approach in my
own teaching conditions to see whether it is applicable at my school or not,
this research addressed two issues: (1) the effectiveness of using PBL on
students’ paragraph writing Learning in their English optional lessons; (2).
students’ attitudes toward the use of Project-based learning. Especially, an
action research project was carried out with the participation of 40 students in
Class 10A11 at a High School in Hung Yen province as a research class as a
compared class by dint of the same age, level and size of students. The study
lasted 12 weeks and involved some data, pre- test, post-test and interviews.
Research findings showed that students had positive attitudes towards the use
of PBL in their English lessons. It was also acknowledged that the PBL was
beneficial for helping students improve their performance in writing lessons.
Based on the findings, some implications would be given for both the teachers
and the students. With all these information, this study is expected to be useful
to both teachers and students in teaching and learning English writing skills.

vi

LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 2.1: Assessing Writing Performance- Level B1 (CEFR)

10

Table 2.2: Observation Checklist

37

Table 3.1: Procedures of the study

41

Table 4.1: The results of pre-test and post-test

50

Table 4.2: Students’ responses to the questionnaire

54

vii


LIST OF FIGURES & CHARTS
Page
Figure 2.1: Stages of the process approach to writing

16

Figure 3.1: Action Research Cycle

34

Chart 4.1: Students’ mean score of average mark

50

Chart 4.2: A comparison of mean scores on pre-test and post-test

50

by five criteria
Chart 4.3: Students’ opinions of being afraid of writing English

52

lessons in class
Chart 4.4: Students’ opinions of difficulties in English writing

53

lessons
Chart 4.5: Frequency of practicing writing English lessons

54

Chart 4.6: Students’ being active in English writing lessons

54

Chart 4.7: Students’ interest in writing English lessons in class

55

Chart 4.8: Students’ attitude towards PBL

58

Chart 4.9: The benefits of PBL

59

Chart 4.10: The benefits of PBL in learning paragraph writing

60

skills
Chart 4.11: Students’ difficulties when implementing PBL

viii

60


AR:

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Action Research

CEFR:

Common European Framework for Reference

CLT:

Communicative Language Teaching

EFL:

English as Foreign Language

PBL:

Project-Based Learning

T:

Teacher

SsStudents

ix


CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1.

Rationale

In recent years, project-based teaching has been focused on and applied

effectively in Vietnamese education. The phrase "Project-Based Teaching" has
been mentioned in many books on teaching methods and techniques as well as
many other scientific works. Research has shown that project-based teaching
or project-based teaching methods and techniques have been shown to be
positive and effective. It is a learner-centered teaching model, through open
tasks, encouraging learners to explore, perceive knowledge learned during
implementation, and create their own products. Instead of following a model
lesson plan that guides learners through a specific path of learning outcomes
and goals, project-based instruction leads students to undertake an in-depth
investigation of a topic under discussion and essay. Through project-based
teaching, learners have more autonomy over what they learn, stay interested,
and are motivated to take greater responsibility for their learning. The projectbased teaching approach “focuses on the realism of how teachers facilitate
high-quality learning experiences” (Suzie Boss and John Larmer 2018). Along
with the changes in the world, the demand for project-based teaching is
increasing. We see schools and districts working towards a more studentcentered approach that includes question-and-answer learning, personalized
learning, performance-based assessment, and a large amount of engagement.
interest and implement project-based learning. Project-based learning (PBL)
is a showing strategy where understudies get information and abilities by
working throughout a drawn-out timeframe to examine and respond to an
inquiry, issue, or challenge, authentic, engaging, and complex. PBL is the
transformation of project-based teaching. PBL and project-based

1


teaching presuppose each other. So, in this thesis, project-based teaching was
experienced through my exploration of the field of PBL.
PBL is a constructivist-based learning method (Hmelo-Silver 2004)

first proposed by John Dewey (1859-1952) in the late 1890s (Douglas and
Stack 2010). Dewey's philosophy is to be child-centered and to incorporate
real-life situations and contexts into the school environment. His ideas were
further developed by Kilpatrick in the early 1900s in his book "Project
Methods" (1918). Since then, the PBL has been elaborated and applied to
different school subjects and learning situations. As a result of such an
effective experience, our understanding of PBL has been greatly enriched.
With the theory of "learning by doing and experiencing", Dewey advocates
teaching students how to learn through building a specific project and finding
reasonable solutions to bring the project to success. According to Thomas
(2000), this learning method gives learners a good opportunity to improve
general skills such as language competence and other necessary expertise in
the 21st century. PBL allows teachers to demonstrate diversity in learners,
such as interests, abilities, and learning styles.
Having taught English in a high school for over twenty years, I have
noticed that students can read and write English well but they cannot write
paragraphs clearly and academically. Writing is one of four skills which are
taught at high school. In particular, Writing is compulsory in 10 Units and 4
reviews in Grade 10, Grade 11 and Grade 12. However, most of the students
showed little motivation in writing. They are quite passive, not active in
writing classes. The importance of writing is revealed more with the
integration of other language skills. Being academic in English is a priority
for many foreign or second language learners. Our learners often rate their
success in learning a foreign language as well as the effectiveness of their
2


English learning on the basis of how much they feel they have improved in
their language proficiency.
In order to deal with the emergence of educational development trends,

globalization, and internationalization, as well as to improve students' learning
efficiency, the researcher has been trying to find out the most appropriate and
effective methods of teaching English. The methods being implemented can
be for the four English skills, in which the writing skill requires the most
attention. Realizing the benefits of PBL, the researcher is interested in
applying it to his teaching work to improve his learners' writing skills.
Therefore, the project “Using project-based learning to improve the
10th graders’ English paragraph writing skills at a high school in Hung
Yen province” has been carried out. The goal is to develop the most effective
ways to help students overcome the barrier of low self-esteem when learning
writing skills through this innovative method as well as students' motivation,
self-control can be promoted and improved significantly.
1.2. Aims of the Study
The aim of the study is to improve the 10th-graders’ paragraph writing
skills at a High School in Hung Yen province.
In order to achieve the aim, the study is expected to reach the following
objectives.
- To evaluate the effectiveness of the project-based learning techniques
applied to paragraph writing skill teaching and learning.
- To find out the attitudes that 10th grade students at a High School when
leaning paragraph writing skills when project-based learning is applied.

3


1.3.

Research Questions
To achieve the above-mentioned aims, the following research questions

(RQ) are raised:
RQ 1. To what extent does project-based learning better the 10 th
students in improving paragraph writing skills?
RQ 2. What are the 10th-grade students’ attitudes towards projectbased learning?
Of these two questions above, the first one is the focus of the study.
1.4.

Scope of the Study
Due to time constraints, the study cannot cover all the techniques to

motivate students’ writing ability in a language class. Therefore, it mainly
focuses on some typical skills of using project-based learning which may
produce a stimulation for the 10th-grades’writing.
The focus of the study is using Project-based Learning techniques to
improve the 10th graders’ English paragraph skills at a high school. Hence, the
study could not cover all aspects in writing teaching. It only focused on some
typical skills of using project-based learning which may produce stimulation
for the 10th-grade students’ paragraph writing ability.
The subjects of the study are 40 male and female students coming from
class 10A11. The age of those 40 students is around 15. They are going to be
the participants and respondents to survey questionnaires, trial lessons and
tests.
The action plan was implemented in 5 months from early January 2021
to late May 2021, during optional lessons of the academic school year 20202021 at the high school where the researcher works in Hung Yen province.

4


1.5.

Significance of the Study

Theoretically, the findings of this research will reaffirm the adequacy of
project-based learning methods in past examinations. Furthermore, the
educators' ability in utilizing PBL to improve the understudies' English
writing skills is relied upon to be honed and created. Moreover, the findings
of this research will be considered as the reference to different specialists who
need to contemplate PBL all the more serious in showing paragraph writing
skills.
Practically, the researcher trusts that the effectiveness of the study
might be for all intents and purposes valuable to the researcher herself as well
as to different instructors, the understudies at a secondary school. Right off
the bat, to the researcher, subsequent to doing this research, she will have a
more careful comprehension of the hypothesis and strategy of showing
writing abilities, particularly PBL. Besides, to the instructors, the findings of
this research can uphold the teachers of English at a secondary school in Hung
Yen province in applying this technique in showing writing paragraphs,
alongside numerous different strategies, with the goal that the tenth graders,
as well as the rest understudies, may get benefits. Also, the teachers can set to
the side their customary techniques in showing the English language,
especially in teaching writing. They can utilize this new methodology to make
the understudies keener on learning measures. Thirdly, to the understudies, the
positive aftereffects of this research are hoped to assist the understudies with
being sure and afterward improve their English writing abilities. At long last,
to my upper-secondary school, the school leaders can give the suggestion to
the teachers in order to utilize the proper methods or techniques in teaching
and learning paragraph writing skills. Thusly, the teachers will master more
5

teaching skills and will bring benefits to the school.
1.6.

Research Methods

The method employed in the study is classroom action research (AR).
According to Ferrance (2000), action research is regarded as one of the most
common research methods applied in current educational circumstances. To
achieve the objectives, both qualitative and quantitative methods will be
exploited in this action research project. The data will be collected via survey
questionnaires, tests, and interviews.
1.7.

Structure of the Study

The study consists of five chapters:
Chapter 1 – Introduction: The first chapter gives reasons for choosing
the thesis, scope, and aims of the study as well as the research method and the
structure of the study.
Chapter 2 – Literature Review: This chapter focuses on an overview of
the Nature of language skills and oral communication, writing skills,
Communicative Language Teaching, PBL as well as previous studies on
improving or developing students’ writing skills.
Chapter 3 - Methodology: This chapter reports the context settings,
research hypothesis, participants, instruments, and the procedure of
conducting Action Research for the study. The detailed results of the surveys
and a critical comprehensive analysis of the data collected are presented.
Chapter 4- Findings and Discussion: This part deals with the data
analysis from the Action Research results to make the foundation for the
activities recommended in Chapter 5.

Chapter 5 – Conclusion: This chapter summarizes the study and
suggests some typical activities as well as practical tips for teachers to
stimulate 10th -grade students’ writing skills when using PBL. Limitations of
the study and suggestions for further study are also included in this chapter.
6


CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
The study investigates the effectiveness of using PBL approach to
improve a High School students’ paragraph writing skill. This chapter reviews
the theories and literature relevant to the study area.
2.1. Concepts of writing
2.1.1. Definitions of writing
Writing is an important interpretation skill so we have to find out “what
is writing? How to write well?...” There are many definitions of writing.
According to Byrne (1991:1) that “When we write, we use graphic symbols
that is, letters or combinations of letters which relate to the sentences we make
when we write. Then, writing can be said to be the act of constituting these
symbols; making marks on the flat surfaces of some kind... The symbols have
to be classified, according to certain assemblies, to construct words, and
words have to be arranged to form sentences” Lannon (1989) make an
incompatible explanation that, writing is a process of transforming tile
material determined by research inspiration, accident, trial, and error, or
whatever into a message with definite meaning... a process of deliberate
decision. Having the same assessment with Lannon, White (1991:3)
considered that writing is a logical process in its own right and is not a simple
action but a complex one “ writing is a form of problem-solving which
involves such processes as generating ideas, discovering a “voice” With
which to write, planning, goal-setting, monitoring and evaluating with which
to express exact meanings” From another analysis of writing, Candlin and

Hyland(1999: 107) affirmed writing as “ an engagement in a social process,
where the production of the text reflects methodologies, arguments and
rhetorical strategies constructed to engage colleagues and persuade them of
the claims that are made.”
7


According to (Trible. 1996:3), in language teaching, writing is
considered to be difficult to acquire, and it is “not a skill that is readily picked
up by exposure. Rivers also determined that “Writing is not a skill that can be
learned or developed in isolation, but it should be taught and developed
incorporation with other skills and aspects of the language studied”. It is a
mechanism that exists over a period of time, particularly if we take into
consideration the sometimes-elongated periods of thinking that precede
creating an original preliminary form. In short, writing is an art that writers
want to convey ideas to certain groups of audiences... Through writing pieces,
writers are able to formulate intellectually, handle everyday affairs, express
ideas or argue. By writing, they can have management of both information
and communities.
2.1.2. Characteristics of writing
Writing has the following characteristics:
The situation in which the form and meaning of the writing process are
dependent on itself follows, including the participants themselves, their
concerted backgrounds, the natural surroundings, and the directions for
writing. It is often unplanned, open-ended, and emerging. However, speech is
not always unpredictable. Language functions (or patterns) that tend to
reiterate in certain discourse situations can be established and charted.
Writing depends upon those learners not only know how to produce
explicit points of language such as grammar, pronunciation, or vocabulary, but
also that they consider when, why, and in what ways to use language.

Lannon (1989) makes an adverse explanation that writing is a process of
transforming tile material discovered by research inspiration, accident, trial,
and error, or whatever into a message with a definite meaning... a process of
cautious decision. Having the same conclusion as Lannon, White (1991:3)
8


estimated that writing is a thinking process in its own right and is not a simple
process but a complex one “writing is a form of problem-solving which
involves such processes as provoking ideas, detecting a “voice” With which to
write, planning, goal-setting, controlling and evaluating with which to convey
exact meanings”
2.1.3. The importance of teaching writing skill
Teaching writing is an essential part of second language learning. The
capacity to convey in a second language obviously and proficiently adds to
the achievement of understudies in school and achievement later in each
period of life. Therefore, it is essential that language teachers pay great
attention to teaching writing including paragraph writing. Rather than leading
students to authentic memorization, providing extensible skills of writing.
With this aim, PBL can contribute a great deal to students in terms of gaining
the three functions of paragraph writing. Besides, PBL helps develop basic
skills necessary for life. Those activities at PBL result in students being more
active in the learning process and at the same time make their learning more
meaningful and fun.
For evaluating and assessing high school students’ English writing in
EFL, it is appropriate to refer to the set of proposed Common Reference
Levels in single holistic paragraphs, as shown below:

9

Table 2.1: Assessing Writing Performance – Level B1, CEFR
( />B1
5

CONTENT

COMMUNICATIVE
ACHIEVEMENT

ORGANISATION

LANGUAGE

All content is
relevant to the
task. Target

Uses the conventions of the
communicative task to hold the
target reader’s attention and

Text is generally well- organised
and coherent, using a variety of
linking words and cohesive

Uses a range of everyday
vocabulary appropriately,
with occasional

reader is fully

communicate straightforward

devices.

inappropriate use of less

informed.

ideas.

common lexis.
Uses a range of simple and
some complex grammatical
forms with a good degree of
control.
Errors do not impede
communication.
Performance shares features of
Bands 3 and 5.

4
3

Minor
irrelevanc
es and/or

Uses the conventions of the

communicative task in generally
appropriate ways to

Text is connected and coherent,
using basic linking words and a
limited number of cohesive

Uses everyday vocabulary
generally appropriately, while
occasionally overusing certain

omissions

communicate straightforward

devices.

lexis.

may be

ideas.

present.

forms with a good degree of

Target reader

control.

is on the

While errors are noticeable,

whole

meaning can still be

informed.

determined.
Performance shares features of
Bands 1 and 3.

2
1

Uses simple grammatical

Irrelevances and
misinterpretation
of task may be

Produces text that communicates
simple ideas in simple ways.

Text is connected using basic,
high-frequency linking words.

present.

forms with some degree of

Target

control.

reader is

Errors may impede meaning at

minimall

times.

y
informed.

0

Uses basic vocabulary
reasonably appropriately.
Uses simple grammatical

Content is totally
irrelevant.
Target reader is not

Performance below Band 1.

informed.

10


Using the scales themselves during classroom writing practice tasks
will help them to analyze their students’ strengths and weaknesses when they
do writing tasks and form an impression of how ready their students are to
take the writing test.
2.1.4. Teacher’s Roles in teaching writing
According to Harmer (2007), teachers play a significant role in teaching
writing, including:
• Building the writing topic with the students and giving advice and
comment on each of their contributions.
• Encouraging students to write out as much as they can by giving some
further suggestions basing on what students have just written and trying not to
use a student’s short expression to be a version for another lengthy turn.
• Applying the language students are learning to deal with the subject
matters and besides, stimulate the involvement of students in the class.
• Asking the least amount of display questions. In other words, teachers
should encourage students to “display” their background and subject
knowledge by asking questions instead of giving information directly. For
instance: “What is the noun form of communicating?”
• Including a clarification of the intention of what students display by
extending your opportunities to another student and trying not to cut off an
exchange too early.
• Taking serious notice of the usage of natural feedback rather than
assessing or evaluating the utterance of the students and ask them to follow
the judgment deliberately.

• Giving explicit credit to the students by quoting them and trying not
to take credit for the contribution that students have made by giving the
intention for the content of the conversation that had been previously prepared
11


by the teacher. From the above-mentioned features, it can be seen that in
writing activities, like any other type of classroom procedure, the role of
teachers is of great importance. However, based on the viewpoint of Brown
(1994), there are three most outstanding roles that require more concentration
from the teacher:
• Prompter: During writing activities, owing to various reasons,
students can get lost or cannot think of what should be written from time to
time, or even have trouble with accuracy and productivity. In order to help
students, teachers can leave them to deal with the struggle on their own and
ask them when they come up with a possible solution.
• Participant: Students are the main participants of every writing
activity, so the teacher should be a good guide and also a model participant
when requiring them to write.
• A person who gives proper feedback: After each student presents
their ideas or produces a short piece of writing, teachers should immediately
give comments to encourage the students. However, if there are some points
that the students need to improve, teachers should also let them know.
2.2. Concepts of paragraph
2.2.1. Definitions of paragraph
Up to now, several definitions of paragraphs have been proposed. For
some people, a paragraph is simply a course of indention that is beginning a
little to the right of the margin. In other views, “paragraphing is indicated by a
skipped line and a new sentence beginning at the left-hand margin” (Robert &
Wilson, 1980, p.52), in a word, these definitions of paragraph tend to focus on

punctuation. There is another trend to define paragraphs. Oshima & Hogue
(1996, p. 2) defines a paragraph as "... a basic unit of organization in writing
in which a group of sentences develops one main idea”. Rooks (1988, p.4)
12


states “a paragraph is a group of sentences which logically develops one
subject”. In short, a paragraph can be defined as a group of sentences that
develop one main idea.
2.2.2. Structures of paragraph
Walter (2000) specifies that the construction of a passage should
contain three sections: topic sentence, supportive sentences, and concluding
sentence. The topic sentence is one sentence that introduces the topic and
expresses the main idea of a paragraph. Supportive sentences support the
topic sentences. The writing should be precise, correct purposeful, clear,
concise, and meaningful. The concluding sentence: the last sentence of your
paragraph is important and it often restates the idea expressed in the topic.
According to Oshima & Hogue (1996, p.104) “it is called the topic sentence
because it tells the reader what the topic of the paragraph is”. In other words,
it tells the readers what they are going to read. A topic sentence consists of
two parts: topic and controlling idea. The topic tells the readers what the
paragraph is about. The controlling idea limits the topic. According to Oshima
& Hogue (1996), the topic sentence may be the first or the last sentence in a
paragraph. Supporting sentences uphold or demonstrate the thought expressed
in the point sentence. That is they clarify the point sentence by giving
realities, reasons, models, insights, and citations.
The concluding sentence is the last sentence of the paragraph. It “signals the
end of the paragraph and leaves the readers with important points to
remember” (Oshima & Hogue, 1996, p. 36). A good concluding sentence
should: restate the main idea in the topic sentence and include the writer’s

comments or opinions about the topic.

13


2.2.3. Approaches to teaching paragraph writing skills in foreign
language
Ann Rainies (1983, pp. 5- 10) presents the following approaches to
teaching uniting:
(i) The Control - to- Free Approach
The Control- to- Free Approach in writing focused on spoken language and
written one in which the mastery of grammatical or syntactic rules were
achieved. Here, the students are given sentence exercises, then paragraphs
copy or manipulate grammatically. These controlled compositions are then
followed by correction of errors so that it can lead to the free composition.
Overall, this approach emphasized the accurate way to demonstrate rather
than fluency.
(ii)The Free- Writing Approach
The Free-Writing Approach centers more around familiarity and amount of
composing than quality. The emphasis in this approach is on content and
fluency rather than on accuracy and form. This approach encouraged students
to write as much and quickly as possible without worrying about grammar
and spelling. The principle that is based on is if once ideas are there, the
organization follows.
(iii) The Grammar- Syntax- Organization Approach
This approach focuses on simultaneous work on more than one
composition feature. It means that writing cannot be seen as composed of
separate skills that are learned one by one. Students need to pay attention to
the organization while they also work on the necessary grammar and syntax.
In general, this approach is the combination of the purpose and the form of the

writing.
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