Organic chemistry 5th edition by maitland jones steven fleming

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Organic Chemistry
F I F T H ED I T I ON

Maitland Jones, Jr.
NEW YORK UNIVERSITY

Steven A. Fleming
TEMPLE UNIVERSITY

W. W. Norton & Company
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Brief Contents
1 Atoms and Molecules; Orbitals and Bonding 1
2 Alkanes 52
3 Alkenes and Alkynes 101
4 Stereochemistry 151
5 Rings 190

6 Substituted Alkanes: Alkyl Halides, Alcohols, Amines, Ethers,
Thiols, and Thioethers 229
7 Substitution Reactions: T he SN2 and SN1 Reactions 267
8 Elimination Reactions: T he E1 and E2 Reactions 331
9 Analytical Chemistry: Spectroscopy 367
10 Electrophilic Additions to Alkenes 441
11 More Additions to Ĭ Bonds 487
12 Radical Reactions 544
13 Dienes and the Allyl System: 2p Orbitals in Conjugation 588
14 Aromaticity 641
15 Substitution Reactions of Aromatic Compounds 693
16 Carbonyl Chemistry 1: Addition Reactions 765
17 Carboxylic Acids 833
18 Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids: Acyl Compounds 878
19 Carbonyl Chemistry 2: Reactions at the Ĝ Position 929
20 Carbohydrates 1026
21 Special Topic: Bioorganic Chemistry 1076
22 Special Topic: Amino Acids and Polyamino Acids
(Peptides and Proteins) 1104
23 Special Topic: Reactions Controlled by Orbital Symmetry 1153
24 Special Topic: Intramolecular Reactions and Neighboring
Group Participation 1203

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Contents
Selected Applications xix
Organic Reaction Animations xxi
Preface to the Fifth Edition xxiii
Introduction xxxi

1

Atoms and Molecules; Orbitals and Bonding

1

1.1

Preview

1.2

Atoms and Atomic Orbitals 4

1.3

Covalent Bonds and Lewis Structures

1.4

Formal Charges

1.5

Resonance Forms and the Curved Arrow Formalism

1.6

Hydrogen (H2): Molecular Orbitals

1.7

Bond Strength 37

1.8

An Introduction to Reactivity: Acids and Bases 44

1.9

Special Topic: Quantum Mechanics and Babies

1.10

Summary

1.11

Additional Problems 47

2

Alkanes

2.1

Preview

2.2

Hybrid Orbitals: Making a Model for Methane

2.3

T he Methyl Group (CH3) and Methyl Compounds (CH3X)

2.4

T he Methyl Cation (àCH3), Anion (ŹCH3), and Radical (CH3)

2.5

Ethane (C2H6), Ethyl Compounds (C2H5X),
and Newman Projections 67

2.6

Structure Drawings

2.7

Propane (C3H8) and Propyl Compounds (C3H7X)

2

13

20
23

32

45

45

52
53
54
63
65

74
75

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CONTENTS

2.8

Butanes (C4H10), Butyl Compounds (C4H9X),
and Conformational Analysis 77

2.9

Pentanes (C5H12) and Pentyl Compounds (C5H11X)

2.10

T he Naming Conventions for Alkanes 82

2.11

Drawing Isomers 85

2.12

Cycloalkanes

2.13

Physical Properties of Alkanes and Cycloalkanes

90

2.14

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectra of Alkanes

91

2.15

Acids and Bases Revisited: More Chemical Reactions 94

2.16

Special Topic: Alkanes as Biomolecules 95

2.17

Summary

2.18

Additional Problems 97

3

Alkenes and Alkynes

3.1

Preview

3.2

Alkenes: Structure and Bonding 103

3.3

Derivatives and Isomers of Alkenes 111

3.4

Nomenclature

3.5

T he Cahn–Ingold–Prelog Priority System 116

3.6

Relative Stability of Alkenes: Heats of Formation

3.7

Double Bonds in Rings 122

3.8

Physical Properties of Alkenes

3.9

Alkynes: Structure and Bonding 127

3.10

Relative Stability of Alkynes: Heats of Formation

3.11

Derivatives and Isomers of Alkynes 130

3.12

Triple Bonds in Rings 132

3.13

Physical Properties of Alkynes

3.14

Acidity of Alkynes

3.15

Molecular Formulas and Degrees of Unsaturation

3.16

An Introduction to Addition Reactions of Alkenes and Alkynes 135

3.17

Mechanism of the Addition of Hydrogen Halides to Alkenes 136

3.18

T he Energetics of the Addition Reaction: Energy Diagrams 139

3.19

T he Regiochemistry of the Addition Reaction 141

3.20

A Catalyzed Addition to Alkenes: Hydration 144

3.21

Synthesis: A Beginning

3.22

Special Topic: Alkenes and Biology

80

87

96

101

102

115

119

127

130

133

133

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146

134


CONTENTS

3.23

Summary

147

3.24

Additional Problems 148

4

Stereochemistry 151

4.1

Preview

4.2

Chirality

4.3

T he (R /S) Convention 156

4.4

Properties of Enantiomers: Physical Differences

4.5

T he Physical Basis of Optical Activity

4.6

Properties of Enantiomers: Chemical Differences

4.7

Interconversion of Enantiomers by Rotation about a Single Bond:
gauche-Butane 168

4.8

Properties of Diastereomers: Molecules Containing More than One
Stereogenic Atom 169

4.9

Resolution, a Method of Separating Enantiomers from Each Other 174

4.10

Determination of Absolute Configuration [(R) or (S)]

4.11

Stereochemical Analysis of Ring Compounds (a Beginning) 177

4.12

Summary of Isomerism 180

4.13

Special Topic: Chirality without “Four Different Groups Attached to One
Carbon” 182

4.14

Special Topic: Stereochemistry in the Real World: Thalidomide, the
Consequences of Being Wrong-Handed 185

4.15

Summary

4.16

Additional Problems 187

5

Rings

5.1

Preview

5.2

Rings and Strain

5.3

Quantitative Evaluation of Strain Energy

5.4

Stereochemistry of Cyclohexane: Conformational Analysis 201

5.5

Monosubstituted Cyclohexanes 203

5.6

Disubstituted Ring Compounds 208

5.7

Bicyclic Compounds 216

5.8

Special Topic: Polycyclic Systems

5.9

Special Topic: Adamantanes in Materials and Biology

5.10

Summary

5.11

Additional Problems 226

152
153

160

161
164

176

186

190
191
191
198

221
223

225

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x

CONTENTS

6

Substituted Alkanes: Alkyl Halides, Alcohols, Amines,
Ethers, Thiols, and Thioethers 229

6.1

Preview

6.2

Nomenclature of Substituted Alkanes

6.3

Structure of Substituted Alkanes

6.4

Properties of Substituted Alkanes

6.5

Solubility

6.6

Formation of Substituted Alkanes

6.7

A Reaction of Alkyl Halides: Synthesis of Alkanes 257

6.8

Special Topic: Sulfur Compounds 260

6.9

Special Topic: Crown Ethers 262

6.10

Summary 263

6.11

Additional Problems 264

7

Substitution Reactions: The SN2 and SN1 Reactions

7.1

Preview

7.2

Review of Lewis Acids and Bases

7.3

Reactions of Alkyl Halides: T he Substitution Reaction 272

7.4

Equilibrium and Reaction Rates, T hermodynamics and Kinetics 274

7.5

Substitution, Nucleophilic, Bimolecular: T he SN2 Reaction 284

7.6

T he SN2 Reaction in Biochemistry 304

7.7

Substitution, Nucleophilic, Unimolecular: T he SN1 Reaction

7.8

Summary and Overview of the SN2 and SN1 Reactions 313

7.9

What Can We Do with T hese Reactions?
How to Do Organic Synthesis 315

7.10

Summary

7.11

Additional Problems 325

8

Elimination Reactions: The E1 and E2 Reactions

8.1

Preview

8.2

T he Unimolecular Elimination Reaction: E1 332

8.3

T he Bimolecular Elimination Reaction: E2 336

8.4

Transition States: T hermodynamics versus Kinetics

8.5

Rearrangements of Carbocations 353

8.6

Special Topic: Other Eliminations 356

8.7

Special Topic: Enzymes and Reaction Rates 359

230
231

238
241

255
256

267

268
270

323

331

332

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305


CONTENTS

8.8

Special Topic: Why Are Rearrangements of Carbocations Fast? 361

8.9

Summary 362

8.10

Additional Problems 363

9

Analytical Chemistry: Spectroscopy 367

9.1

Preview

9.2

Chromatography 370

9.3

Mass Spectrometry 372

9.4

Ultraviolet/Visible Spectroscopy

9.5

Infrared Spectroscopy

9.6

1

9.7

NMR Measurements

9.8

Special Topic: More-Complicated NMR Spectra 415

9.9

13

9.10

Problem Solving: How to Use Spectroscopy to Determine Structure 421

9.11

Special Topic: Dynamic NMR

9.12

Summary

9.13

Additional Problems 430

10

Electrophilic Additions to Alkenes 441

10.1

Preview

10.2

Mechanism of the Electrophilic Addition of Hydrogen Halides to
Alkenes—Hydrohalogenation 443

10.3

Effects of Resonance on Regiochemistry

10.4

Brief Review of Resonance 449

10.5

Resonance and the Stability of Carbocations 451

10.6

Inductive Effects on Electrophilic Addition Reactions 455

10.7

More on Rearrangements of Carbocations 457

10.8

Mechanism of the Electrophilic Addition of Acid and Water to Alkenes—
Hydration 460

10.9

Mechanism of Dimerization and Polymerization of Alkenes 463

368

380

388

H Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

394

397

C NMR Spectroscopy

419

426

429

442

10.10 Mechanism of Hydroboration of Alkenes

444

466

10.11 Hydroboration in Synthesis: Alcohol Formation 475
10.12 Special Topic: Rearrangements in Biological Processes
10.13 Summary

478

479

10.14 Additional Problems 481

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xii

CONTENTS

11

More Additions to Ĭ Bonds

11.1

Preview

11.2

Electrophilic Addition of X2: Halogenation 488

11.3

Electrophilic Addition of Mercury: Oxymercuration 497

11.4

Electrophilic Addition of Oxygen: Epoxidation 499

11.5

Special Topic: Additions of Carbenes—Cyclopropane Synthesis 506

11.6

Dipolar Addition: Ozonolysis and Dihydroxylation 512

11.7

Hydrohalogenation of Alkynes 519

11.8

Hydration of Alkynes

11.9

Hydroboration of Alkynes

487

488

523
524

11.10 Reduction by Addition of H2: Hydrogenation 526
11.11 Reduction of Alkynes by Sodium in Ammonia 530
11.12 Special Topic: Three-Membered Rings in Biochemistry
11.13 Summary

532

534

11.14 Additional Problems 537

12

Radical Reactions

544

12.1

Preview

12.2

Formation and Simple Reactions of Radicals 546

12.3

Structure and Stability of Radicals

12.4

Radical Addition to Alkenes 559

12.5

Other Radical Addition Reactions 566

12.6

Radical-Initiated Addition of HBr to Alkynes 567

12.7

Photohalogenation 568

12.8

Allylic Halogenation: Synthetically Useful Reactions 575

12.9

Special Topic: Rearrangements (and Non-rearrangements)

of Radicals 578

545

555

12.10 Special Topic: Radicals in Our Bodies;
Do Free Radicals Age Us? 582
12.11 Summary

583

12.12 Additional Problems 584

13

Dienes and the Allyl System: 2p Orbitals in Conjugation

13.1

Preview

589

13.2

Allenes

590

13.3

Related Systems: Ketenes and Cumulenes

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592

588


CONTENTS

13.4

Allenes as Intermediates in the Isomerization of Alkynes

593

13.5

Conjugated Dienes 595

13.6

T he Physical Consequences of Conjugation 598

13.7

T he Chemical Consequences of Conjugation:

Addition Reactions of Conjugated Dienes 603

13.8

T hermodynamic and Kinetic Control of Addition Reactions 608

13.9

T he Allyl System: Three Overlapping 2p Orbitals

611

13.10 T he Diels–Alder Reaction of Conjugated Dienes 615
13.11 Special Topic: Biosynthesis of Terpenes
13.12 Special Topic: Steroid Biosynthesis

625

629

13.13 Summary 634
13.14 Additional Problems 635

14

Aromaticity 641

14.1

Preview

14.2

The Structure of Benzene

14.3

A Resonance Picture of Benzene 645

14.4

T he Molecular Orbital Picture of Benzene

14.5

Quantitative Evaluations of Resonance Stabilization in Benzene 650

14.6

A Generalization of Aromaticity: Hückel’s 4n + 2 Rule

14.7

Substituted Benzenes

14.8

Physical Properties of Substituted Benzenes

14.9

Heterobenzenes and Other Heterocyclic Aromatic Compounds 668

642
644

648

652

665
668

14.10 Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds 672
14.11 Special Topic: T he Bio-Downside, the Mechanism of Carcinogenesis by
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 676
14.12 T he Benzyl Group and Its Reactivity

678

14.13 Introduction to the Chemistry of Benzene 682
14.14 Summary

686

14.15 Additional Problems 688

15

Substitution Reactions of Aromatic Compounds 693

15.1

Preview

15.2

Hydrogenation of Aromatic Compounds 696

15.3

Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution Reactions 698

15.4

Substitution Reactions We Can Do Using Nitrobenzene 713

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xiv

CONTENTS

15.5

Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution of Heteroaromatic Compounds 719

15.6

Disubstituted Benzenes: Ortho, Meta, and Para Substitution

15.7

Synthesis of Polysubstituted Benzenes

15.8

Nucleophilic Aromatic Substitution 741

15.9

Special Topic: Benzyne

722

736

747

15.10 Special Topic: Diels–Alder Reactions 749
15.11 Special Topic: Stable Carbocations in “Superacid” 752
15.12 Special Topic: Biological Synthesis of Aromatic Rings;
Phenylalanine 753
15.13 Summary

756

15.14 Additional Problems 759

16

Carbonyl Chemistry 1: Addition Reactions

765

16.1

Preview

16.2

Structure of the Carbon–Oxygen Double Bond 767

16.3

Nomenclature of Carbonyl Compounds 770

16.4

Physical Properties of Carbonyl Compounds 773

16.5

Spectroscopy of Carbonyl Compounds 773

16.6

Reactions of Carbonyl Compounds: Simple Reversible Additions 776

16.7

Equilibrium in Addition Reactions 780

16.8

Other Addition Reactions: Additions of Cyanide and Bisulfite 784

16.9

Addition Reactions Followed by Water Loss: Acetal Formation 786

766

16.10 Protecting Groups in Synthesis

792

16.11 Addition Reactions of Nitrogen Bases: Imine and
Enamine Formation 795
16.12 Organometallic Reagents 802
16.13 Irreversible Addition Reactions: A General Synthesis of Alcohols 804
16.14 Oxidation of Alcohols to Carbonyl Compounds 807
16.15 Retrosynthetic Alcohol Synthesis 812
16.16 Oxidation of Thiols and Other Sulfur Compounds 814
16.17 T he Wittig Reaction 816

16.18 Special Topic: Biological Oxidation 818
16.19 Summary 820
16.20 Additional Problems 825

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CONTENTS

17

Carboxylic Acids

833

17.1

Preview

17.2

Nomenclature and Properties of Carboxylic Acids

17.3

Structure of Carboxylic Acids

17.4

Infrared and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectra of

Carboxylic Acids 838

17.5

Acidity and Basicity of Carboxylic Acids

17.6

Syntheses of Carboxylic Acids

17.7

Reactions of Carboxylic Acids 845

17.8

Special Topic: Carboxylic Acids in Nature

17.9

Summary

834
834

837

839

843

866

870

17.10 Additional Problems 872

18

Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids: Acyl Compounds

878

18.1

Preview

18.2

Nomenclature

18.3

Physical Properties and Structures of Acyl Compounds 885

18.4

Acidity and Basicity of Acyl Compounds 887

18.5

Spectral Characteristics

18.6

Reactions of Acid Chlorides: Synthesis of Acyl Compounds 890

18.7

Reactions of Anhydrides 895

18.8

Reactions of Esters 896

18.9

Reactions of Amides 901

879
881

888

18.10 Reactions of Nitriles 904
18.11 Reactions of Ketenes 907
18.12 Special Topic: Other Synthetic Routes to Acid Derivatives

907

18.13 Special Topic: A Family of Concerted Rearrangements of
Acyl Compounds 912
18.14 Summary

919

18.15 Additional Problems 923

19

Carbonyl Chemistry 2: Reactions at the ³ Position

19.1

Preview

19.2

Many Carbonyl Compounds Are Weak Brønsted Acids 931

19.3

Racemization of Enols and Enolates 942

19.4

Halogenation in the Ĝ Position 944

929

930

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xvi

CONTENTS

19.5

Alkylation in the Ĝ Position 951

19.6

Addition of Carbonyl Compounds to the Ĝ Position:
T he Aldol Condensation 961

19.7

Reactions Related to the Aldol Condensation 977

19.8

Addition of Acid Derivatives to the Ĝ Position:
The Claisen Condensation 982

19.9

Variations on the Claisen Condensation 990

19.10 Special Topic: Forward and Reverse Claisen Condensations in
Biology 994
19.11 Condensation Reactions in Combination 995
19.12 Special Topic: Alkylation of Dithianes 999
19.13 Special Topic: Amines in Condensation Reactions,
the Mannich Reaction 1000
19.14 Special Topic: Carbonyl Compounds without Ĝ Hydrogens 1001
19.15 Special Topic: T he Aldol Condensation in the Real World, an
Introduction to Modern Synthesis 1004
19.16 Summary

1007

19.17 Additional Problems 1014

20

Carbohydrates 1026

20.1

Preview

20.2

Nomenclature and Structure of Carbohydrates

20.3

Formation of Carbohydrates

20.4

Reactions of Carbohydrates 1043

20.5

Special Topic: The Fischer Determination of the Structure of d-Glucose
(and the 15 Other Aldohexoses) 1056

20.6

Special Topic: An Introduction to Disaccharides and
Polysaccharides 1063

20.7

Summary 1071

20.8

Additional Problems 1073

21

Special Topic: Bioorganic Chemistry

21.1

Preview

21.2

Lipids

21.3

Formation of Neutral and Acidic Biomolecules

21.4

Alkaloids

21.5

Formation of Basic Biomolecules: Amine Chemistry 1093

21.6

Summary

21.7

Additional Problems 1101

1027
1028

1040

1076

1077
1078
1086

1089

1100

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CONTENTS

22

Special Topic: Amino Acids and Polyamino Acids
(Peptides and Proteins) 1104

22.1

Preview

22.2

Amino Acids 1106

22.3

Reactions of Amino Acids 1118

22.4

Peptide Chemistry

22.5

Nucleosides, Nucleotides, and Nucleic Acids

22.6

Summary

22.7

Additional Problems 1150

23

Special Topic: Reactions Controlled by Orbital Symmetry

23.1

Preview

23.2

Concerted Reactions 1155

23.3

Electrocyclic Reactions 1156

23.4

Cycloaddition Reactions 1165

23.5

Sigmatropic Shift Reactions 1170

23.6

The Cope Rearrangement

23.7

A Molecule with a Fluxional Structure

23.8

How to Work Orbital Symmetry Problems 1193

23.9

Summary

1105

1120
1141

1147

1153

1154

1181
1185

1195

23.10 Additional Problems 1196

24

Special Topic: Intramolecular Reactions and Neighboring Group
Participation 1203

24.1

Preview

24.2

Heteroatoms as Neighboring Groups

24.3

Neighboring Ĭ Systems

24.4

Single Bonds as Neighboring Groups 1231

24.5

Coates’ Cation 1241

24.6

Summary

24.7

Additional Problems 1242

1204
1206

1219

1242

Glossary G-1

Credits
Index

C-1
I-1

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Helium

Carcinogens 674

5

Methane

Carcinogenesis 676

62

Ethylene: A Plant Hormone
Strychnine

110

Azo dyes

714

Aniline 716

176

Civetone 772

Thalidomide 185
Carboranes: Weird Bonding

223

Salicylic Acid

843

Synthetic diamonds 224

Nylon and polyesters 856

Alkyl halides

Fats, oils, soaps, and detergents 869

Ajoene

257

Velcro

260

Malic Acid

Eat Your Broccoli!

290

Cholesterol Formation

360

Vitamin A and vision 387
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 394
Maitotoxin

Vitamin E

Vanillin

1006

Sugar Substitutes

1064

1067

1077
1080

1085

Alkaloid drugs 1089

582

Canavanine: An Unusual Amino Acid 1108
DNA and RNA

629

652

Palytoxin

Steroids

555

T he birth-control pill

T he Importance of “Pure Research” 977

Soap bubbles

533

Bombykol 603
Pine trees

Anticancer drugs 976

Yellow dyes

Ethyl Alcohol 477

Artemisinin

918

Cellulose and starch

425

Everyday alkene polymers 465

Pyrethrins

899

633

1141

Chorismate to Prephenate:
A Biological Cope Rearrangement 1185
Mustard Gas

1212

xix

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Bimolecular nucleophilic substitution: SN2

284

Friedel–Crafts acylation 725

SN2 with cyanide

291

Arene halogenation 737

Halide formation

301

Nucleophilic aromatic substitution: SNAr

Unimolecular nucleophilic substitution: SN1

305

Benzyne formation

748

Acetylide addition 315

Carbonyl hydration 780

Intramolecular SN2

Acetal formation

786

Unimolecular elimination: E1 333

Imine formation

796

Bimolecular elimination: E2 336

Grignard reaction 805

Hofmann elimination 342

Carbonyl reduction 806

Carbocation rearrangement: E1 356

Alcohol oxidation 808

Alkene hydrohalogenation 443

Diol cleavage 812

Alkene hydration

Wittig reaction 816

320

461

Alkene polymerization 465

Fischer esterification

Alkene hydroboration

Acid chloride formation

466

846

Alkene halogenation 489

Decarboxylation 863

Stabilized alkene halogenation 492

Acid chloride aminolysis

Halohydrin formation

Ester hydrolysis

493

Alkene epoxidation 499
Basic epoxide ring opening

Nitrile hydrolysis
502

Acidic epoxide ring opening

890

896
904
907

Enol halogenation 945

Alkene dihydroxylation 517
Radical alkene hydrohalogenation

858

Baeyer–Villiger oxidation

502

742

Malonate alkylation 958
563

Aldol condensation 962

Alkane halogenation 572

Michael addition 973

1,2-Hydrohalogenation of dienes 605

Mixed aldol condensation 979

1,4-Hydrohalogenation of dienes 605

Claisen condensation 985

Diels–Alder reaction 615

Cope rearrangement

1181

Benzylic oxidation 681
xxi

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Gi\]XZ\kfk_\=`ú_<[`k`fe
Most students in our organic chemistry courses are not chemistry majors. We wrote
this book for those students and anyone who wants a broad yet modern introduction
to the subject. We stress general principles because it is impossible to memorize
all the details of this vast subject. We want students to learn to make connections,
recognize patterns and trends, and use a set of organizing principles to make
the material more manageable and understandable. Students who will be taking
standardized exams, like the MCAT, will benefit from using this text and gaining a
deep understanding of the material. We also believe that the skill of critical thinking
is emphasized in this text. This skill will help in science courses taken in the future
and, more important, in future decision-making.
Although we have made substantial changes to the fifth edition that will benefit
students using this book, the voice remains the same. It is personal and talks directly
to the student not only about the material at hand, but also about the “how and

why” of organic chemistry. We believe it is much easier to enjoy, and learn, organic
chemistry if a strong focus on “Where are we and why are we here?” and “What is
the best way to do this?” is maintained. On occasion, we try to help students through
a tough part of the subject by pointing out that it is tough and then suggesting ways
to deal with it. When we talk to students, we try to use our experience to help them
succeed, and the book tries to do the same thing.
Every chapter begins with a Preview section in which the coming chapter is
outlined. At the end of the Preview, we describe the Essential Skills and Details
students will need for the chapter. At exam time, students can use these sections as
guides for study and review.
Organic chemistry is a highly visual subject. Organic chemists think by
constructing mental pictures of molecules and communicate with each other
by drawing pictures. To help students develop those same skills, we have added
Visualize, Understand, Draw sections in each chapter. T hese sections highlight an
important skill or concept and break it down into these three general steps with the
goal of training students to use these same steps when they are solving problems.
One factor that can make organic chemistry difficult is that new language must
be learned. Organic chemists talk to each other using many different conventions
and at least some of that language must be learned, or communication is impossible.
In addition to general treatments of nomenclature at the beginning of many
chapters, we have incorporated numerous Convention Alerts in which aspects of
the language that chemists use are highlighted.
Throughout the book, reference is made to the connection between organic
chemistry and the world of biology. Almost every chapter has a section devoted
to the biological relevance of new reactions discussed. We also have Applications
Boxes to illustrate the relevance of the subject to students’ lives.
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