Tài liệu PART- II SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION doc

PART- II SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

1


SHEEP AND GOAT
PRODUCTION







Bakht Baidar Khan
Arshad Iqbal
Muhammad Iqbal Mustafa

Department of Livestock Management
University of Agriculture Faisalabad
2003







PART- II SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

2
FOREWORD

The past more than half a century is a witness to the fact that except a few, no serious attempts have been made to write books even on a few of the so
many wide open aspects of the field of animal sciences. Among other factors that keep the animal science sector lagging behind, utter lack of relevant
books of local origin is probably the most important. The dearth of documented information concerning various species of our farm animals adversely
affects the learning potential of our students, who have been reported to complain about the non-availability of professional books written in Pakistan. I
personally feel that as animal scientists we cannot exonerate ourselves of this responsibility. Of course, not all of us would have the aptitude to write
books. However, those who opt to take up this tiresome and time-consuming job, their efforts must be appreciated. We must not forget that beginnings
are always small.

It is really encouraging to learn that sheep and goats being the victims of a long neglect, have attracted the attention of experienced animal scientists and
teachers of long standing to write a book on them. A look into the contents of the book ‘Sheep and Goat Production’, makes me believe that it would
adequately serve the purpose for which it has been produced. Its made-easy format would be rather more helpful to the students, field workers and
progressive farmers. A collection of over 650 questions along with their answers should more than suffice to cover the discussion on important topics in
relation to sheep and goat production.

Sajjad Zaheer Malik
Director General (Ext.)
L & DD Dept., Punjab

PREFACE

Innumerable publications on sheep and goat farming/production are there in the world market. More than 98% of them are of foreign
origin and are thus either not available here or their prices are beyond the means of a common man. The book under discussion has not
been produced to burden the market with another such publication rather it has been brought out employing a novice format to meet
the requirements of beginners who venture to plan a small ruminant enterprise, but are found confronted with a series of questions.
Answers to many of such questions are already embodied in this ‘easy to read and understand’ book. In addition, feasibilities in
respect of keeping sheep and goats (pertaining to one breed of each spp.) have been outlined herein to facilitate the solution of their
input: output dilemma.

Another section of society most pertinent to books is professional students community. It often happens that even at the end of an
academic session/semester, many students in a class, would not know what type of questions, relevant to a course, may be asked in the
Exam. This book, for sure, would create an awareness in them as to the type of Exam. questions and as to the manner of answering
them. Among other features of the book are: the discussion on behaviour and welfare of small ruminants and clues on the application
of biotechnology in animals. A comprehensive review on terminology related to various aspects of small ruminants is also a part of
this book. Most of the answers to the questions included in this book have been picked up as such from various sources of literature
listed under references at the end. We feel highly obliged in sharing the fruit of hardwork of those so many authors/editors. Under the
circumstances it does not seem possible for us to individually convey to them our grateful thanks, but indeed we remain indebted to all
of them.

No book will ever be complete and this one is no exception since knowledge about sheep and goats is increasing so rapidly that no
book can be an absolute ultimate. We feel no hesitation to mention here that at places details of a few most sophisticated techniques
used abroad in small ruminant production have been intentionally avoided simply because farmers/producers here have yet to go a
long way to enable themselves to take full advantage of such costly tools and techniques.

We would like to record our thanks to our colleagues, namely Drs. Muhammad Younas, Muhammad Abdullah, Muhammad Yaqoob,

Syed Hassan Raza and Prof. William Hohenboken, a friend from USA; all of them provided us a lot of useful literature for this book.
Special thanks are extended to Mr. Farooq Ahmed, Dr. Akhter Saeed and Dr. Asad Saeed for arranging recent literature for the
purpose from abroad.

Suggestions in black and white from any quarter to effect further improvement and to remove any omissions in the contents of this
book will always be welcome.


March, 2003 Bakht Baidar Khan
Arshad Iqbal
Muhammad Iqbal Mustafa

PART- II SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

3







PART- II
includes following contents of the book:

• BREEDING AND REPRODUCTIVE MANAGEMENT
• PROBLEMS OF PREGNANT EWES/DOES
• PRE-LAMBING/PRE-KIDDING AND
LAMBING/KIDDING
• BABY LAMBS/KIDS

• ORPHAN LAMBS/KIDS
• PROBLEMS OF NEWBORNS















PART- II SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

4
BREEDING AND REPRODUCTIVE
MANAGEMENT

Q. Write a detailed note on selection for breeding of small ruminants.
Most people who farm sheep/goats or for that matter any farm animal, would expect to
gradually improve the productivity of their stock. Big improvements can often be made
by changes in husbandry practices so that the animals become fitter, healthier and better
fed. However, there will be limitations on how much productivity can be increased in this
way. These limitations will be the result of the genetic make-up of the animals. In other
words all animals are born with a potential for production and that potential is the result

of mixing of characteristics inherited from the animals’ parents, grandparents and, in fact,
all of its ancestors. By selecting animals with certain characteristics and mating them it is
possible to gradually improve the performance of that line, generation by generation.
Some characteristics are readily passed on and are highly heritable while others are not
readily passed on and are referred to as of low heritability.
Since it is not possible to discuss genetic gain or improvement without a basic
understanding of genetics, therefore, for the purposes of this book only a simplified
explanation is given. All inherited characteristics are carried by genes, which occur in
pairs, one from the sire and one from the dam. A pair or more of genes will control a
particular characteristic and thus in the case of colour a goat will either be coloured or
white (most of the discussion made here in respect of goat, just as an example, is equally
applicable to sheep). If the goat has a gene for colour from one parent and one for white
from the other, it will, in fact, be white because white is what is called a dominant gene
and colour is what is called a recessive gene. If two different genes for a particular colour
come together, the dominant gene will always be expressed. If in this example the goat
had received genes for colour from both its parents, it would then have been coloured. If
an animal is carrying a pair of identical genes for a particular character such as the
coloured offspring in the example, it is known as homozygous for that particular
character. If it carries different genes like the goat in our example with the genes for
white and colour, it is termed heterozygous.
The appearance of an animal as controlled by its genetic make-up is referred to as its
phenotype. In this example, the white goat is phenotypically white but its genotype is
white/coloured. This is shown in Figure 6 where two goats are mated. One is
homozygous for white and will be genotypically white. The other is heterozygous and
will be phenotypically white because white is dominant. When these two are mated, their
kids or what is called F1 generation, could be like the parents either heterozygous or
homozygous white. If, however, both parents were heterozygous white, the offspring
would be either white or coloured in the ratio 3:1 (Figure 7) with 1 homozygous and
phenotypically white, whereas the other 2 whites would be heterozygous and 1 would be
homozygous for colour and would therefore be (phenotypically) coloured. It is rare for a

single gene to control a characteristic or trait as shown in the simple example but it serves
to show how characters are inherited.
With selective breeding the intention is to cross animals together in such a way that the
progeny will hopefully be even better than their parents. It helps if the genetic make-up of
the parents is known. Some characteristics are linked to others and it may be, in selecting
PART- II SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

5
for one desirable feature or trait, that one also selects for an undesirable feature, which
may cancel out or be even less desirable than the trait that was being selected for. One
such trait in goats is polledness or hornlessness. If a naturally polled male is mated with a
female carrying the gene for polledness, there is a good chance of producing female
offspring that will be homozygous (pure) polled animals. These will be inter-sexed,
which means they may have some parts of the male and female reproductive tract and
characteristics and they will be infertile. They are not, as some people describe,
hermaphrodites, which means possessing both female and male sexual organs. Naturally
polled males do occur without the problem of inter-sex but evidence suggests that fertility
is lower in these.
If traits or characteristics are of low heritability, the genetic gain achieved by selecting
specific animals showing those characteristics will be less than for traits of high
heritability. Thus the hope for improvement will be achieved only slowly over a number
of generations.
Q. Discuss the importance of breed improvement.
There is an old saying “breed the best to the best and cull the rest”. It sounds no less than
a universal truth. Your chances of improving your flock are practically nil if you breed
your ewes/does to the neighbour’s nondescript ram/buck simply because it happens to be
cheap and available. You are not going to milk the buck, but never forget that you are
going to get milk from its daughters and meat from its male offspring. If the sire is not
better than the ewe/doe, you are not working for breed improvement. In fact, you are not
even breeding sheep/goats, you are merely freshening them. To further elaborate, a

reference to commercial dairy farming in several western countries appears logical.
Almost invariably these practical, tough-minded, cost-conscious farmers use the best
purebred registered animals they can find. Milk production per cow has more than
doubled during the last century. While some of that, of course, is due to better feeding
practices, surely a large share of the credit must go to genetics. No animal is perfect, all
have faults. It is the job of the breeder to eliminate those faults as much as possible in
future generations, while at the same time preventing new ones from showing up.
Q. Briefly indicate the importance of twins.
Although multiple births certainly require more attention and care, yet the profits seem
worth the effort. In USA, at one of the universities the data were analysed in this respect
and it was stated that it would require 5721 ewes producing one lamb each to yield a
$25000 profit, while 353 ewes producing two lambs each to equal it. These figures
seemingly sound strange, but consider the vast reduction in the amount of grain and hay
expenses (grain feeding not largely practised under our conditions) for the smaller
number of ewes, to produce double the number of lambs. The same is applicable to goats.
Choose your potential replacement ewes/does from among your earlier-born twin
ewes/does. Turn these twin ewe lambs/doe kids in with a ram/buck wearing a marking
harness. The ones that are marked and presumably bred, can be kept for your own flock
and sell the rest. Ewe lambs/doe kids that have twins the first time are more valuable than
those who lamb/kid with a single, even though ewes/does with a future history of
twinning may have only a single that first time. Still they pass on both the inherited
ability to breed early and to have twins and they will produce more lambs/kids during
their lifetime. However, it all depends on how well fed the animals are.
Q. Discuss the sheep breeding management as it does prevail in Pakistan.
PART- II SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

6
Some mating occurs throughout the year but the principal breeding seasons remain
autumn and spring. Hand mating is not known since it may be impracticable in the case
of transhument and sedentary breeders because of absence of mating facilities. Breeders

who practice seasonal breeding tie an apron around the belly of ram in the off-season to
avoid mating. Others tie a cord on the opening of the sheath to check mating. In some
areas (D.I. Khan), many small farmers do not maintain their own rams, but hire them at
Rs. 4 to 5 per day for 4 to 5 days. A ram is usually put with a flock of 40 to 50 ewes but
in some cases as many as 80 to 90. In the bigger flocks, two or more rams may be
allowed to mate at a time. In such cases the stronger ram is overused and the weaker
underused and as a result some of the ewes are not mated and others are served by
overused rams and do not conceive. Some breeders in Balochistan believe that breeding
twice a year ensures regular milk supply for the families. Rams are not allowed to breed
before 2 years of age.
A comparison of spring and autumn breeding seasons indicated that:
i) Fertility was 83% in autumn and 73% in spring;
ii) The number of lambs born per ewe was 1.04 in autumn but 0.88 in spring;
iii) The number of lambs born per ewe conceived was 1.25 in autumn and 1.21 in
spring; and
iv) The incidence of twin births was 36% in autumn and 21% in spring.
A study of the incidence of post-lambing oestrus in Lohi, Kachhi from Sindh and Awasi
from Lebanon and its crosses showed that oestrus occurred:
i) In the second to fourth month after lambing, 70% Lohi came into oestrus;
ii) During the same period 65% Kachhi were in oestrus; but
iii) The crosses behaved mid way between two parents.
Selection is largely subjective in the absence of records such as birth and weaning
weights, fecundity, or quality and quantity of wool produced, but at public experimental
farms due attention is paid to such traits. Private breeders do care for growth as the larger
PART- II SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

7
and heavier ram lambs would attract the attention of the breeders. Lambs are allowed to
suckle for 4 to 5 months. Lambs are not allowed to accompany the mothers to pasture. In
most parts of the Punjab province, lambs accompany their mothers as soon as they are

able to walk. In parts of Balochistan lambs are grazed separately by children near the
camp. Where lambs are kept separate, suckling is allowed morning and evening after the
families have removed part of the milk especially from good milkers. Since white wool
fetches the highest price, ram lambs with a white coat, well developed body and strong
constitution are selected for future breeding. Breed uniformity is keenly maintained for
an all−white body and recognized spots, if any, on the extremities. The incidence of
mismothering is high in cases where lambs are kept separate from their mothers.
Mismothered lambs are reared on foster ewes by forced suckling. Mortality in such lambs
is high and the growth rate generally below average. The shepherds of Balochistan take
extra care to avoid mismothering. There the flock is halted at a distance from the lamb
enclosure and ewes are freed one by one to allow them to recognize their lambs when
rejoining occurs. The records at public sheep farms show that the incidence of
mismotheirnbg varies in different breeds (1.5 to 3%), being the highest in Kachhi breed
(4 to 23%), probably due to poor mothering instinct.
In most of the cases culling of sheep is not very systematic. It is practised in ewes and
male lambs and is generally done when the family needs money or 2 to 3 months before
the annual religious occasion of Eid-ul-Azha. Others avail the occasions of
weekly/monthly/sheep goat markets to sell their surplus/culled stock. Male surplus stock
is commonly castrated and reared to one year age and in other cases to 2 years age to sell
at high prices. Culling of ewe lambs is rare. The ewes are culled for broken mouths,
damaged udders, permanent lameness or infertility.
Q. Briefly discuss the anatomy and physiology of sex organs of a small ruminant
male.
Anatomy: The most obvious part of the male’s reproductive system is the scrotum
containing the testes, which are suspended herein by spermatic cord. This may vary in
size according to breed but, in general, abnormally small testes are a sign of likely low
PART- II SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

8
fertility. The scrotum not only supports and protects the testes but also it is an important

means of temperature regulation. Normal production of spermatozoa occurs at a
temperature 4 to 7°C lower than body temperature. Thus in hot weather the scrotum will
allow the testes to hang down from the wall of the abdomen and conversely when cold
they will be drawn up close to the body. In extremely hot weather this temperature
regulatory mechanism may break down resulting in poor spermatozoa production. In
some goat breeds especially in some Angoras, the scrotum may be almost completely
bifurcated (split purse). It is considered a fault in show animals. However, this may not
cause a severe fertility problem.
Failure of the testes to descend into the scrotum will also cause problems of fertility. One
testis may not descend (called monorchid) or in some cases both may not (called
cryptorchid). When purchasing males for stud, it is the most important to ensure that both
testes are in place in the scrotum and that they are of reasonable size with no abnormal
swellings and that they feel firm and not soft and spongy. The other external sex organ is
the penis. In the male sheep/goat, the penis is normally retracted into a tube called the
prepuce. To give extra length during copulation, the penis has a S-bend known as the
sigmoid flexure (Figure 8).
On the end of the penis is the thin tubular protrusion of the urethra called the urethral
process. When the penis is protruded from the prepuce, especially during the breeding
season, the male (goat) is able, with remarkable directional accuracy, to spray urine over
himself or anyone who is standing close enough.
Physiology: The rams/bucks, except in temperate regions, show year round sexual
activity, especially when stimulated by receptive females. Young males are particularly
precocious and fertile matings have been recorded from kids of 4 months of age. Males of
Teddy goat breed exhibit quite a bit sexual activity at 5 to 6 months of age.
Spermatozoa are formed from cells in the testes called spermatogonia. These
spermatogonia divide repeatedly to form spermatids, which eventually form the
spermatozoa, which are discharged into the lumen of seminiferous tubules. The
spermatozoa travel along in fluid secreted by the tubules, until they reach the epididymis
where they are stored. These newly formed immature spermatozoa are immotile and are
very sensitive to unfavourable temperature and nutritional conditions. Full maturation

occurs in the tail of the epididymis and the spermatozoa become motile during
ejaculation when they come in contact with the secretions of the accessory glands (the
vesicular or the seminal vesicular gland, prostate and bulbo-urethral glands). It takes
about 50 days from the formation of the spermatozoa in the seminiferous tubules to the
time they are stored in the tail of the epididymis. During periods of intense sexual
activity, this duration may be reduced as the movement of the spermatozoa through the
epididymis may be speeded up.
Another important function of the testes is the production of the hormone testosterone.
The secretion of this hormone is controlled by gonadotrophic hormones secreted by the
pituitary gland situated at the base of the brain. Although sexual desire in ram/buck is
influenced a great deal by the presence of receptive females, nutritional status and
environmental factors also play an important part.
Prior to mating a ram/buck will spend varying amounts of time in courtship behaviour,
which certainly is an important stimulation for both male and female. During hand
mating of pedigree animals, when a female is led to a specific male, it is important that
PART- II SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

9
restraints are not imposed on this behaviour and the most successful results will always
be from animals that are allowed some time together in an enclosure.
Q. Briefly discuss the anatomy and physiology of sex organs of a small ruminant
female.
Anatomy: Unlike the male most of the female’s reproductive organs are internal and
would only be seen by attending a post-mortem examination or by obtaining the relative
part of the body from a slaughtered animal. The only external feature is the vulva which
undergoes some changes during oestrus and when parturition (lambing/kidding) is
imminent. The vulva opens into the vagina wherein the male’s penis deposits semen
during copulation. In a normal adult ewe/doe, the vagina is approximately 7 to 8 cm in
length. At the end of the vagina is the cervix or neck of the uterus (Figure 9). The cervix
varies in length from about 4 to 8 cm and is made up of 5 to 6 muscular rings, which

effectively act as a seal between the vagina and the uterus. The uterus is made up of two
large tubes or horns and at the end of each of these horns are the oviducts and ovaries.
The ovaries change in appearance according to the stage in the reproductive cycle. The
eggs or ova are shed from what are called the Graafian follicles and these can be seen
during a postmortem examination if they are near to maturation.
When an ovum is shed, the remaining structure is called a corpus luteum, meaning yellow
body, and these also can be seen on the ovary and are an indication of an ewe/doe that is
ovulating normally. If the ewe/doe is pregnant, the corpus luteum remains and plays a
part in maintaining the state of pregnancy. If she is not pregnant, the corpus luteum
regresses.
Physiology: The decreasing daylight triggers off breeding activity in small ruminants.
The lengthening nights cause increased release of the hormone melatonin from the pineal
gland within the brain. It then causes the release of gonadotrophin releasing hormone,
which stimulates the pituitary gland into secreting follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).
As its name suggests, FSH stimulates the development of the follicle within which an
ovum will develop and from which it will be released. The onset of the sequence of
events gives rise to oestrus behaviour, or heat, in an ewe/doe and the whole cycle of
events is called the oestrous cycle.
As the Graafian follicle matures, it secretes the hormone estrogen, which eventually
stimulates the brain into triggering off the release of luteinising hormone (LH) into the
bloodstream. The release of LH causes the follicle to rupture and an ovum will be
released into the oviduct. The ovum remains viable in the oviduct for 10 to 12 hours.
About 30 to 36 hours before ovulation occurs, the ewe/doe will normally begin to show
oestrus or heat behaviour. Pheromones (specific odours) are released by the female,
which also stimulate the male to sexual excitement. This behaviour is a combination of
signals to the male that she is at the correct period in her ovulation cycle for mating when
changes in the reproductive tract, to facilitate mating, have occurred. The vulva becomes
somewhat swollen, copious mucus is produced and the cervix dilates.
If a fertile mating takes place, the fertilised embryo develops freely in the uterus for about
21 days until implantation takes place and the embryo becomes attached to the wall of the

uterus by way of the placenta. The caruncles which form the points of attachment on the
uterine wall are present all the time.
If an ewe/doe is pregnant, the corpus luteum, formed after rupturing of the follicle,
remains and produces the hormone progesterone. Progesterone acts as a signal to the
PART- II SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

10
brain to shut down the cycling mechanism and prepares for and helps maintain
pregnancy. In some animals, but not the goat, the role of corpus luteum is taken over by
the placenta. In case conception does not occur, the corpus luteum regresses and the level
of circulating progesterone consequently falls. The cycle then starts again and a non-
pregnant ewe and doe will continue to cycle in this way every 16 to 17 days and 19 to 21
days respectively until the end of the breeding season.
Q. What do you understand by Induced Cryptorchidism or Short Scrotum?
This is still another approach where the elastrator rubber ring is used on the scrotum, but
the testes are pushed back up into the body cavity. This sterilizes the animal due to
increased body heat. While the male hormones are still present to increase weight gain
with more lean meat, the animal shows little or no sex activity. This method is used at
about four weeks of age and the animal is called an induced cryptorchid (having hidden
testicles). Extensive tests (Figure 10) in Australia have shown such animals gain weight
faster, get to market faster and have more lean meat than either castrated or uncastrated
males.

Q. Discuss the salient points in respect of proper breeding age and care of a
ram/buck.
Ordinarily a well-grown ram/buck is considered the best. However, if he is a lamb/kid,
use him sparingly during his first breeding season. One way to conserve his energy is to
separate him from the females for several hours during the day, at which time he can be
fed and watered and allowed to rest. One good ram/buck can handle 25 to 30 ewes/does.
On a small flock where the ram/buck gets good feed, about six years of service can be

expected of him. On open range there may be overuse with more females per ram/buck,
fighting with other males and little or no supplemental feed, rams/bucks (get run down)
lose condition during the breeding season from eating so little and chasing the females.
They then succumb to diseases because of their low resistance. If you are buying a new
ram/buck, do this long enough before breeding season so that he becomes acclimated to
his new surroundings. Keep him separate on good feed and pasture until breeding time. In
case you are going to feed him a different ration than he had previously, be sure to
change gradually. Excess weight results in a lowering of potency and efficiency. Keep
him in good condition but not fat. A buck may be ready to breed at about six to seven
months, depending on his breed (Teddy bucks at four to five months), but it is better not
to use him until one year. Use him two or three times a week from the age of one year to
one and a half years.
During the breeding season, feed the ram buck at least 300 g concentrate mixture per day.
After separating him from the bred females, a maintenance ration of at least 100 to 150 g
per day, plus leafy hay as necessary during the winter should carry him through until
good pasture is available again.
Since summers here are very hot, therefore, provide him a cool shady place to protect
from the heat. An elevated body temperature whether from heat or due to an infection,
can cause infertility. Semen quality is affected at 100 degrees and is seriously damaged at
air temperatures beyond that. Several hours at that temperature may leave him infertile
for weeks. The scrotum of ram should be sheared before the onset of severe summer. The
ram/buck may be run with the ewes/does at night and in the early morning, but keep him
PART- II SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

11
penned in a cool place during the heat of the noon and afternoon and provide fresh water.
High humidity coupled with temperature can also decrease sexual urge.
A sense of smell greatly determines a ram’s/buck’s awareness of oestrus in the
ewes/does. A study of sex drive in rams done at a university in UK showed that some
breeds of rams have keener olfactory (nose) development than others and are able to

detect oestrus in ewes that goes unnoticed by other breeds.
Q. Does the presence of a ram/buck show some effect on ewes/does?
The presence of the ram/buck, especially its smell has a great effect on sexual activity of
the ewes/does. This stimulus is not as pronounced when the male is constantly with the
females as it is when he is placed in the adjoining pasture or pen about two weeks ahead
of the breeding season. Owners of large flocks often use a vasectomized ram/buck turned
in with the ewes/does about three weeks prior to scheduled breeding, in order to stimulate
the onset of oestrus in the flock. Be careful that at any one time not more than one normal
male should be turned in with the ewes/does, otherwise there is inevitable fighting and
head-butting until the boss is decided. Aggressive potential and ram/buck fertility are not
necessarily related. However, there are reports that mating success of dominant
rams/bucks does far exceed that of the subordinate ones.
Q. What are the uses of a ram/buck marking harness? Is there any suitable
alternative to it?
The ram/buck marking harness is a device that helps keep track of the ewes/does who are
bred. It has a holder on its chest for a marking crayon. Each ewe/doe is marked with the
colour of crayon the day he breeds her. While using a colour in the crayon, the colour of
female animals be kept in view (Figure 11). Inspect the ewes/does each day and keep
record of the dates so that you will know when to expect each one to give birth. In case of
ram use one colour for the first sixteen days he is with the ewes, then change colour for
the next sixteen days and again for the next. Change of colour in case of buck may be
done after 18 to 19 days. If many females are being re-marked, it means they were not
bred the previous times he tried to breed them, since they are still coming into heat. This
might indicate that the breeding male was sterile. If the weather was extremely hot just
before or after you turned the male in, you can blame heat for it. But to be on the safe
side, it is better to try another ram/buck.
As an alternative, instead of marking harness, use a marking paint on the ram/buck
brisket (lower chest). Mix the colour with a lubricating oil or even with vegetable ghee,
using only paints that will wash out of the fleece such as lamp black, venetian red. The
same colour will be stamped on the back of the ewe/doe indicating that it has been bred.

The same happens when marking harness is used.
Q. What are the advantages of raising your own ram/buck and what care is to
be observed?
One advantage of raising your own ram/buck is that you can see that what he looks like at
the usual market age for meat. The older a ram/buck gets, the less you can tell about how
he looked as a lamb/kid or how his offspring will look when they attain market age. If
you are raising lambs/kids for marketing as meat animals, you may try a system called
‘recurrent selection of ram lambs/buck kids’. This system consists of keeping the fastest-
gaining ram lambs/buck kids sired by the fastest-gaining ram lambs/buck kids. Recurrent
selection is a way of improving the potential for fast growth in your lamb/kid crop. It
involves changing rams/bucks fairly frequently and creates the problem of disposing a
PART- II SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

12
three or four year old ram/buck. If it is a good one, it can be sold as a breeding male, can
trade with another small ruminant raiser or can be sold for slaughter on Eid-ul-Azha.
The way ram lambs/buck kids are raised can have some effect on their future sexual
performance. Various studies have shown that rams/bucks raised from weaning in an all-
male group will show lower levels of sexual performance in later life. Some will actually
show no interest in receptive females. When you are raising a lamb/kid as a breeding
male, do not pet him much or handle him unnecessarily. Do not let children play with
him even when he is small. He will be more prone to butting and becoming dangerous if
he is familiar with you than if he is shy.
Q. Define gestation period and give the range and average gestation periods for
sheep and goats.
The period from the date an animal gets conceived to that date it gives birth to one or
more newborns is called gestation period or pregnancy period. It ranges from 148-152
days in sheep and goats with an average of 150 days (five months).
Q. What is meant by oestrous cycle? Give the duration of oestrous cycles for
sheep and goats.

The duration between two heat periods is called the oestrous cycle. Normally each
oestrous cycle has four different phases i.e. proestrus, oestrus, metoestrus and dioestrus.
The duration of oestrous cycle on average is 16-17 days in sheep and 18-21 days in goats.
Q. What do you understand by oestrus or heat period?
Oestrus is one phase of the oestrous cycle and it denotes the period during which an ewe
or doe is receptive to the breeding male. On average the duration of oestrus or heat period
in sheep and goats is 28 and 24 hours, respectively.
Q. What are the usual indications that an ewe/doe is in heat?
The usual signs are nervous voices such as ‘baa baa’/bleating, slightly swollen vulva
sometimes accompanied by a discharge, riding other does or being ridden by them,
somewhat off feed, tail wagging and drop in milk production (in milk goats). In some
cases increased but interrupted micturition is also observed. At the beginning of heat, the
mucus discharge from vulva will be clear, but it will turn cloudy toward the time of
ovulation. After the ewe/doe ovulates near the end of heat, the mucus will get thick and
whitish.
Q. What may be the optimal time of year for lambing/kidding? Discuss briefly.
The optimal time varies greatly among different geographical areas. It may vary even in
the same country. The desired lambing/kidding time may depend on the availability of
pasture, local weather conditions, time restraints, labour, targeted lamb/kid markets etc. It
is better to choose the lambing/kidding time that fits your priorities and plan to breed
about five months before you want newborns. When the cost of hay or concentrate
feeding is a consideration, lambing/kidding should be timed to take advantage of new
pasture growth. Thus you could plan for the lambs/kids to be about five to six weeks old
at about the time of the first good early growth of pasture.
Q. What is meant by early-or late lambing/kidding? Give advantages of both
early and late lambing/kidding.
What constitutes ‘early’ or ‘late’ lambing/kidding will depend on climate of the given
area. In areas where modern husbandry practices are in operation, there with moderate
winters and hot summers, the lambing/kidding is planned for autumn or early winter to
maximize weight gain, knowing that newborns experience very poor weight gain in hot

PART- II SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

13
temperatures. On the other hand, those in far northern areas often plan for
lambing/kidding during March or April in order to avoid severe winter, while those in
temperate coastal climates may let the rams/bucks run with the ewes/does the year round
and let nature take its course. Advantages:
Early Lambing/Kidding
i) There are fewer parasites on the early grass pasture.
ii) Ewe lambs/doe kids are more apt to breed as well grown lambs/kids.
iii) You can have all lambs/kids born by the time best spring grass is there.
iv) There are fewer problems with flies at docking, castrating and disbudding.
Late Lambing/Kidding
i) It is easy to shear ewes before lambing.
ii) It avoids lambing/kidding danger in severe weather.
iii) Milder weather means fewer chilled lambs/kids.
iv) Ewes/does can give birth on the pasture, if needed.
v) Concentrate ration can be saved since there is good grazing available.
Q. What age is appropriate to breed an ewe/doe for the first time?
A female that is bred before she matures fully may become stunted since she cannot put
nutrients into both her growth and foetal development. A well fed ewe/doe is ready for
breeding earlier than a poorly fed one. An ewe/doe should reach 70 to 75% of her mature
weight before being bred. Some breeds are slow maturing than others. Breeding season is
shorter for ewe lambs/doe kids than for mature ewes/does. Teddy goats mature much
earlier than other goat breeds. A properly fed Teddy doe is ready for breeding at five
months of age. In milk goats a reasonably early breeding helps the udder develop better.
In countries where early marketing of lambs for meat is practised, there the ewes who
breed as lambs are thought to be the most promising as they show early maturing which
is a key to prolific lambing. Ewe lambs according to their feeding practices should have
attained 38 to 45 kg by breeding time as their later growth will be held back a little as

compared to unbred lambs. If not well fed, their reproductive life-time may be shortened.
If replacement ewes are chosen for their ability to breed as lambs, the flock will improve
the capacity for ewe lamb breeding, which can be a sales factor to stress when selling
breeding stock.
Q. What preparations specific to the start of breeding season need to be made?
Deworm the ewes/does. Trim away any wool/dung-tags from around the tail. Trim their
feet since they will be carrying extra weight during pregnancy. Subject the ram/buck to
deworming too. Check all animals for ticks. If you eliminate ticks before
lambing/kidding, none will get on the lambs/kids and thus you will not have to treat for
ticks again. At seventeen days/nineteen days before you want to start breeding, put your
ram/buck in a place adjacent to the ewes/does, with a good fence between them. Some
studies have indicated that the sound and smell of the male will bring ewes/does into heat
earlier. Also, a similar reaction was obtained just by fastening a ram/buck-scented pad to
the ewe’s/doe’s nose.
Some large flock owners have initiated the use of a vasectomized (sterilized) ram/buck to
stimulate the onset of oestrus in the flock. Never pen your rams/bucks next to ewes/does
before this ‘sensitizing’ period just prior to breeding. Remember, ‘absence makes the
heart grow fonder’. It is the sudden contact with the rams/bucks that excites the females.
Appropriate vaccines important to both mothers and/or newborns should be timely used.
PART- II SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

14
Q. Define flushing and explain its role in small ruminant breeding.
Flushing is the practice of placing the ewes/does on an increasing plane of nutrition i.e. in
a slight weight-gain situation to prepare for breeding. High quality forage may be used
for flushing or it can be accomplished by supplementing the usual summer diet with
concentrate ration. It is not as effective in animals that are already in good condition.
Thin females require a longer flushing period. It is most productive when initiated
seventeen/twenty-one days prior to turning in the ram/buck and continued tapering off
gradually for about thirty days. This process not only gets the ewes/does in a better

physical condition for breeding, but it also helps synchronizing them by bringing them
into heat at about the same time, preventing long strung-out lambing/kidding session.
It is also a factor in twinning, possibly because with better nourishment the ewes/does are
more likely to drop more ova. Various studies have indicated that flushing results in 18 to
25% increase in the number of lambs/kids, and some farmers think it is even more. You
can start with 100 g concentrate mixture/head/day and work up to 300 g in the first week
continue that quantity for seventeen/twenty-one days. When you turn in the ram/buck,
taper off the extra grain gradually. The ewes/does will probably come in heat once during
that seventeen/twenty-one days of flushing, particularly if you have put the ram/buck in
an adjoining place but it is preferable to have them bred in the second heat since they are
expected to drop a greater number of eggs and are more likely to produce twins. Flushing
promotes increased ovulations, thus increasing the number of lambs/kids born.
Q. Briefly write down the simplest and the best method for heat detection in
small ruminants.
One of the best heat-detectors is a ram/buck wearing a breeding apron to prevent actual
mating or a male that has been vasectomized. A miniature version of the ram/buck rag
may help detect heat. Rub a piece of cloth over various parts of ram’s body or over the
scent glands of a mature buck and keep it in a jar with a tight fitting lid to retain the
odour. During daily oestrus check, open the jar and let the ewes/does sniff the contents. If
one is in heat, the signs should become more obvious.
Q. What is an abnormal heat? Give the causes responsible for this phenomenon.
Weak or silent heat, longer than normal cycles, continuous heat, shorter than normal
cycles or heat signs during pregnancy are the conditions that may be termed abnormal
heat. Commonly known causes are anaemia, embryonic death, cystic ovaries, moldy feed
and estrogen content in some legume forages (red clover/white clover has estrogen and
lowers lambing/kidding percentages). For cases of anaemia, the animals should be treated
for blood-sucking worms (two weeks before breeding) as well as for nutritional
deficiencies. Treatment is probably unnecessary when abnormal heat is due to embryonic
death since either embryonic material become reabsorbed or abortion occurs. If cystic
ovaries are the cause, hormonal treatment can cure. No treatment is necessary when heat

signs are exhibited during pregnancy since ovulation does not occur.
Q. What would you suggest to homesteaders having two, three or four dairy
does, to have them bred?
Dairy does are usually kept separate from bucks to prevent male odour from ruining the
milk and are bred annually to maximize milk flow. Does bred early in the season have
better lactation records and their female kids mature early enough (if well fed) to be bred
the following season. But it is not desirable to breed a doe during her first heat of the
season. Better wait until her second or third heat to avoid having kids come during the
PART- II SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

15
worst part of winter or to have freshening of your does so spread as to create a continuous
milk flow.
The best time to breed a doe is in the middle of heat, but it is not always easy to tell when
that occurs. It seems fairly safe to take the doe to the buck as soon as you notice that she
is in heat. If possible, breed her again in about twelve hours to ensure conception. It is
better to hand breed which involves holding her collar or a lead. The buck will cooperate
quickly and the fuss will be over soon. If the buck shows little or no interest in your doe,
you may have misjudged the signs of heat or noticed them too late. Virgin does are often
hard to settle. Some keepers leave problem does with a stud for a full month, since bucks
have an uncanny sense for right timing. If you do not own a buck, pick out a stud in
advance and make arrangements early so that you do not miss the breeding season. Look
for a handsome buck that has a history of producing daughters with good milking
records/ability. Preferably identify the buck and doe(s), the date they were mated and the
buck’s owner. (These are requirements for registration of animals of the same breed-
purebred animals).
Q. Discuss practical aspects of reproduction management to maximize goat’s
reproductive performance to achieve optimum numbers of healthy kids.
Breeders should not depend too much on getting animals mated at the end of the season
since, all too often, the cycle before the one when mating was planned turns out to be the

last for that season. Kids show sexual activity earlier than older goats and therefore, it is
unwise to leave male and females together about 4 months after their birth.
The restriction of seasonal breeding is a problem to some farmers since it results in
seasonal milk production and for those who depend on milk production for their
livelihood, it is an advantage to be able to produce and supply milk all the year round.
There are two ways of stimulating goats to breed out of season: one involves the
administration of hormones or analogues of hormones and the other involves the
alteration of environmental conditions, usually light to induce ovulation.
The most common method of treatment involves the use of sponges impregnated with the
hormone progesterone or a synthetic version of it. These sponges are inserted into the
vagina and are left to release the hormone over a predetermined period. Table 10 shows
two methods commonly used. French workers have recently shown that prolonged
progesterone treatment can adversely affect fertility and they advocate shorter sponge-in
method. The amount of PMSG (pregnant mare serum gonadotrophin) given will depend
on the stage in the season. For Method-I 600 to 700 iu are given during the non-breeding
season and 500 to 600 iu during the transitional period i.e. within 2 months of the normal
cycle. The PMSG is given as a source of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and
Luteinising hormone (LH) to increase the ovulation rate and thus to increase the chance
of conception. For Method-II the same principle applies but 100 iu less PMSG is used
than for the longer sponge-in method. For the shorter sponge-in method 0.1 to 0.2 mg of
prostaglandin (cloprostenol) is injected intramuscularly at the same time as the PMSG
injection.

Table 10. Two possible regimes for using progesterone sponges for induction of
oestrus
Method-I Method-II
Sponge-in Day 1 Day 1
PART- II SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

16

PMSG Day 17 Day 9
Prostaglandin Day 9
Sponge-out Day 19 Day 12
Oestrus Day 20-21 Day 13-14
AI* 42-44 hours after sponge removal
* There is evidence that time of day affects fertility, the optimum time for AI
being 1200 to 1400 hours, thus influencing the time of sponge removal.

The purpose of prostaglandin is to cause regression of any corpus luteum that may be
present, depending on the goat’s natural cycle, thus removing any endogenous
progesterone (packets of sponges come with detailed instructions on how to insert them;
applicators are also supplied). Care should be exercised with them as clumsy use can
result in severe damage to the wall of the vagina, particularly when inserting sponges into
virgin animals. Nylon threads are attached to the sponges to facilitate removal. These
threads may be chewed off by other goats. It is also possible to synchronise oestrus by
injections of synthetic prostaglandin, a substance produced by the uterus of non-pregnant
goats, which causes the degeneration of the corpus luteum. This can only work if there is
an active corpus luteum. Goats respond quickly to prostaglandin and usually come into
heat 24 to 48 hours after treatment. If a timed mating is required for a goat whose last
oestrus is not known, two injections are given 11 days apart.
Male Effect: If a male is run with females during the transitory period prior to the
expected breeding season, he will tend to stimulate the females into oestrus some 2 to 4
weeks early and they will tend to be synchronous. If a selected mating of the females is
intended then a vasectomised teaser male can be used. In case goats failed to exhibit
oestrus, a ‘billy rag’ is used. This is a rag that has been rubbed over the stud male thus
becoming impregnated with his very characteristic smell. This rag will be kept in screw-
top jar and will be brought out to be waved under the nose of a female that is not showing
any signs of heat when it is thought she should. Often this is enough to start a female
cycling.
Light Effect: Having discussed earlier that how differences in day length are the main

trigger for the onset of the breeding season, it is perhaps possible that by housing goats in
late summer or early autumn in a shed that is fairly dark, to accelerate the shorterning day
effect and thus the goats may well show first heat signs a few weeks earlier. The role of
the hormone melatonin in controlling seasonal oestrus behaviour is well known. By
administering melatonin, which can be done in feed, scientists have been able to induce
oestrus behaviour and ovulation out of season. If this technique can be used with goats, it
would be extremely useful for a farm wishing to produce milk throughout the year. Work
done in USA has shown that out of season mating can be planned by using a controlled
artificial lighting regime based on the principle of a period of long artificial days
followed by a period of shorter days. A system involving 60 days of 20 hours light during
January and February, followed by ambient lighting from March 1, resulted in the goats
showing a single oestrus period during late April through June with most showing oestrus
in May. The level of light recommended was 0.3 m of 40-watt fluorescent tube per 3
sq.m of floor space with tubes approximately 3 m above the floor. Those goats not mated
went on to cycle normally in the autumn. The increased lighting is also likely to increase
winter-feeding activity, which will probably increase milk yields. It was also suggested
PART- II SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

17
that the males should also be kept in the same extended light conditions if they were to
work satisfactorily out of season.
Q. Is heat detection a problem in goats?
Unlike cows and more particularly buffaloes, heat or oestrus detection in goats is not
normally a problem. Those with large herds, especially if there are male goats on the
farm, rarely experience problems in this respect. They exhibit a number of behavioural
signs which in goats that are regularly handled, such as milkers, are easily recognized.
Those who experience more trouble in detecting oestrus seem to be those who have one
or two goats. Probably in comparative isolation, the typical oestrus behaviour and the
interaction between goats at this time are suppressed. The most evident sign of heat is the
plaintive cry that nearly all goats make at this time. It is much different to their normal

call and will soon be recognized once one is familiar with the normal calls and behaviour.
If there are males on the farm, the plaintive crying will be accompanied with wishful
looks towards the males and if they get the opportunity, the females will stand around the
male’s pens showing what in human terms would be called flirting behaviour. Oestrus
often starts late at night thus signs might be observed early the following morning.
Several of the usual signs of oestrus have already been discussed elsewhere in this book.
In spite of all these signs oestrus is sometimes missed. When large groups of young goats
are run together, it can be difficult to notice oestrus behaviour. If possible it is very useful
to run a vasectomised teaser male with such groups of young goats. If a sheep raddle
harness is used on the male, he will mark the oestrus females when he attempts to mount
them. If the females are checked twice daily it will be possible to pick out those that are
in heat and these can then be taken to the appropriate stud male.


Q. Write a note on mating management.
The age at which an ewe/doe should first be mated will vary according to breed, their
feeding and health status. It is important that the young female is well grown before she
is expected to become pregnant and rear a lamb/kid. If mated too young she herself will
be stunted, restricting her capacity for long and productive life. Young breeders are very
likely to abort or may be unable to produce enough milk for the lamb/kid, leading to
nutritional stress and a high probability that the young will die. However, feeding and
care of an unproductive female is a burden for farmers. An ewe/doe should never be
mated before one year old. Ideally she would have one pair of permanent incisors i.e. be
aged about 14 months. Dwarf breeds such as Teddy goats may be an exception.
Exceptions to these rules would also occur in intensive systems where they are well fed
and are able to develop early. It is best if rams/bucks are not used for mating before one
year age.
The main signs of male sexual excitement are pursuing the female, pawing her with the
front legs, curling back of the upper lip and usually a loud snorting sound. Once oestrus
has been detected, copulation takes place. At ejaculation, sperm are deposited into the

vagina, from where they are transported through the uterus and into the oviducts by the
muscular contractions of these organs. Sperm may be able to fertilize an ovum for 24 to
36 hours after ejaculation, but sooner the better, because with ageing of the sperm during
this period, fertility is reduced. Because the sperm has a longer (12 to 24 hours) period of
viability than ovum (10 to 12 hours), it should therefore be in place in the reproductive
PART- II SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

18
tract before ovulation takes place so that it is ready for the descending egg. Oestrus lasts
for about 24 to 36 hours in sheep. Mating should take place 12 to 18 hours after the onset
of oestrus with ovulation occurring 24 to 36 hours after the onset. In goats the duration of
oestrus is almost 2 to 3 days and the appropriate time for mating should be 12 to 22 hours
after the onset of oestrus with ovulation occurring between 24 to 36 hours after the onset.
Q. Give a few helpful hints to improve mating management in goats.
The simplest system is to let the male(s) run with the females during the breeding season
and after allowing 2 or 3 cycles i.e. 6 to 9 weeks, it is assumed that all females likely to
be mated will have been mated and the males can be removed. Kidding will be expected
over a 6 to 9 week period 150 days from when the males were first put in with the
females. If using this system one male will be required for every 30 to 40 females.
However, it is desirable that farmers should know when mating took place so that the
precise kidding date can be predicted and also many people would like to put particular
females to a particular male. It would thus be necessary to group the females according to
the male that one wanted to use. These would be put together in a pen, paddock or field.
To be able to time matings, a sheep raddle harness could be used and thus the females
would be marked as they were mated. If the goats are checked twice a day, it would be
possible to record the goats mated each day. If the raddle crayon is changed to a different
colour every 20 days, it will be possible to detect those matings that were unsuccessful as
these goats will be mated a second time 21 days after the first. This mating system is
exactly the same as used for most commercial sheep flocks and can be used with
extensive goat system such as prevalent here.

For pedigree mating and certainly where a single female is brought to a particular stud
male, a hand-mating technique will be used. This simply means the female will be led to
the male who would normally be brought out of his pen onto a convenient level piece of
ground nearby. If the male is working well and the female is properly in heat, mating will
usually take place very quickly. However, a male may spend some time going through
courtship behaviour, which may involve much rubbing against and spluttering over the
female. This behaviour should not be constrained in any way as this could jeopardize the
chances of success.
When the male mounts the female, a good sign of a successful mating is if he throws his
head back as this is the normal sign of ejaculation having occurred. If the male spends a
lot of time rubbing and spluttering without mounting the female, it probably means the
female is not in oestrus. If the male has behaved like this with a number of females, his
performance and ability must be suspected. Whichever, system of mating is used, goats
are normally fertile animals and a conception rate at the first mating of over 80% can be
expected during the natural season. Goats that have been induced into oestrus out of
season using hormone treatment such as progesterone sponges, usually have a lower
conception rate.
Q. Discuss manipulation of breeding in small ruminants.
For various reasons sheep/goat keepers may want to control the time of mating. This may
be in order for lambs/kids to be born at a favourable time of year when feed is plentiful or
it may be to ensure in respect of goats that milk is available at a certain time of year. In
more intensive systems, farmers may want to breed their sheep/goats to take advantage of
seasonal changes in the prices of sheep/goats or their products. There are several methods
to control mating and the season at which kids are born.
PART- II SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

19
Separation of Males from Females: This requires the year round separate management
of males and females, introducing males into the flock at the time desired for mating. For
most farmers this method of breeding control is suitable only for goats that are housed for

most of the year.
Ram/Buck Apron: The ram/buck wears an apron made of leather, canvas or other
suitable material. The apron tied above behind the shoulders hangs below the abdomen of
the animal in front of the prepuce in such a way that if penis is extended, the ram/buck is
unable to perform mating.
Ram/Buck Penis String: A string is looped at one end around the testicles and at the
other around the prepuce of the ram/buck so that if the animal extends its penis, it is
forced to deviate to the right or left, making copulation impossible. The string must be
removed for successful mating (Figure 12).
Castration: Unwanted breeding males may be made infertile by crushing their spermatic
cords using a special metal pincer called Burdizzo castrator. Rubber ring method is also
used but only on very young lambs/kids. Castration is one method of ensuring that poor
quality males do not breed. In some countries it is also used to reduce the odour of the
meat from male goats. It will also increase both the fat content of the final carcass and the
lamb’s/kid’s growth rate, by reducing the energy spent on sexual activity and fighting.
For ease of management it is desirable to castrate all unwanted young males if they are to
be kept beyond the age of 3 to 4 months since fertile matings have been recorded at this
age.
Q. Devise a simple chart providing space for the number of matings, predicted
lambing/kidding dates, number of lambs/kids born and a column for
remarks.
A breeding chart for the day-to-day recording of mating and lambing/kidding

Fe
mal
e
Male Ist
mati
ng
2nd

mati
ng
3rd
matin
g
Due
date
for
birth
Date
gave
birth
No. of
lambs/kid
s
Remar
ks
Ma
le
Fem
ale


Nur
i
Hero 10.1
0.00
- - 10-3-
01
9-3-

2001
1 1 Female
small
Ran
o
Goga 11.1
0.00
2-
11-
00
- 3-4-
01
3-4-
2001
2 - One
was
dead
Hir
ni
Goga 11.1
0.00
3-
11-
00
- 6-4-
01
5-4-
2001
1 1
Ma

no
Goga/
Hero
15.1
0.00
6-
11-
00
28-
11-00
28-4-
01
27-4-
2001
- 2

PART- II SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

20
As can be seen in the example above (chart) that the male Goga was at fault since Mano
mated successfully with Hero at 3
rd
mating. The male Goga also did not prove successful
on Ist mating with Rano as well as Hirni, it is therefore, possible that he is no longer
adequately fertile. Similarly, if the chart shows that a certain female does not mate
successfully even with three attempts, twice with one male and 3
rd
time with another
male, it is then probable that she is infertile. Such animals may be culled from the flock.
Q. Suggest some effective measures for pregnancy diagnosis in small ruminants.

For economic reasons it is often useful to determine whether or not an ewe/doe is
pregnant. Such a diagnosis can save feed as a non-pregnant animal will be fed less and
also if non-pregnant there may be time to try another mating before the end of season. It
may also be necessary if one is buying or selling sheep/goats that are supposedly
pregnant. A milk test for pregnancy, developed for cows, involves testing for a metabolite
produced by the placenta of pregnant animals called oestrone sulphate. Since it is only
produced by the placenta, false positive results do not occur. A goat milk sample can be
tested for the purpose after 35 to 50 days gestation.
A recent development, particularly for sheep, is the pregnancy diagnosis by ultra-sonic
scanning. Using a rectal probe, diagnosis can be done after about 35 days gestation and if
left a little longer, can usually count the number of foetuses. This system works equally
well with goats. Diagnosis may also be made by X-ray. Foetal bones show up after about
85 to 90 days and of course with a good X-ray, the number of foetuses should be clearly
visible. During the last 6 weeks of gestation, it is often possible to see the foetuses
moving particularly when the goats are lying down. At this time foetuses can be felt by
firm palpation deep into the lower abdomen just in front of the udder.

Q. Write a note on genital hypoplasia.
Genital hypoplasia also called inter-sex or hermaphroditism denotes lack of proper
development of the reproductive organs. It is an important cause of infertility in small
ruminants especially goats (both bucks and does). It can appear in any breed, most often
in offspring of two naturally hornless goats. It may also occur when one parent is horned
and the other polled. The gene for hornlessness some how inhibits normal development
of the reproductive organs. Affected goats may have abnormal external genitals, but
many are not so easy to identify. A small ruminant-oriented reproduction expert, after
thorough examination can identify such an animal. As soon as it is identified do away
with it. It is useless for breeding; even its meat tastes strong and bucky.
Q. Normally what physical changes can be observed during gestation period in
small ruminants? Discuss the case of a dairy doe.
For the first three months you will see little change and it will be nearly impossible to tell

whether she is pregnant. Tests can provide an answer. The most practicable for small
flocks is to check milk or urine for estrone sulphate, a hormone produced by a living
foetus that can be detected as early as thirty-five days after conception. If you find that
the doe is not pregnant, you may still have time to rebreed her. A doe that has been bred
should be dried off three months later for replenishment of depleted body reserves and so
that milk production would not compete with foetal development. Unborn kids put on
about 70% of their weight during the last five to six weeks of gestation. About a month
before kidding, the doe should really fill out. Start feeding her a little grain ration on the
milk stand both to readjust her to milking routine and to check her udder for any
PART- II SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

21
problems. Two or three weeks before kidding, restrict legume roughage and calcium
supplements in the rations of high producers.
Older and poorly fed does tend to kid late. Multiple births usually shorten the gestation
period. During the last week or two, the doe may develop depressed areas on both sides
of her tail and hollowness at her hips. She may carry the kid(s) lower so that her pelvic
bones seem sharper and her pinbones become raised. Her vulva may distend. Her udder
may fill out. If the udder of a heavy milker becomes tight and shiny, milk her out to
prevent damage to the udder and ligaments supporting the udder. At the end of or close to
five months, the doe may become withdrawn, bleat, eat less and discharge white mucus,
indicating that her time is near. Clip the hair around her tail and udder. Take the doe to a
roomy stall (pen) where the bedding is fresh and clean for the health of both the mother
and newborn. She may paw the ground, lie down and get up restlessly, pant or rearrange
the bedding. She may lie down and not get up until her first kid is born. She may labour
for a few hours before she actually kids. When contractions get closer together at the start
of hard labour, she will pass gelatinous strings of bloody mucus. The first kid should be
no more than fifteen minutes away and the entire process should take about forty-five
minutes, depending on the number of kids born, which may be two, though three or four
are not uncommon. A single is possible for does first kidding. When parturition starts,

you will see a round, dark, bulging water bag. It will burst to reveal two feet with a tiny
nose resting on them. Soon come out shoulders, hips and hind legs. Do not interfere or
you will upset the doe and may cause unnecessary complications.
The afterbirth or placenta usually comes out at the time of kidding or just afterwards. It is
a stringy, light, thin, milky-looking membrane. In a multiple birth, there may be one or
more. The doe may consume placenta and if she does, she will not be very hungry for the
next few days. Otherwise remove the placenta and burn or bury it.
Q. What do you know about selective breeding? Explain in detail.
If you intend to build up a sizeable flock, careful selective breeding will increase its
value. The two basic rules of selective breeding are:
i) Never mate two sheep/goats that have the same fault, no matter how minor it seems. ii)
Keep sight of your goals and make every decision with those goals in mind.
Goals may include improving milk production, improving quantity and quality of wool,
increasing the lambing/kidding rate, improving growth rate of lambs/kids or decreasing
susceptibility to certain disease conditions. Breeding for appearance alone often leads to
degeneration of wool and milk production or reproductive capabilities. Any time you
seem to be achieving your goals, raise your standards.
Selection in favour of desirable characteristics involves culling against undesirable ones.
Unwanted hereditary defects include overshot or undershot jaw, anomalies of the teeth or
joints, extra or double teats, undescended testicle(s), weak anatomical structure or
incorrect conformation and colour for the breed. How fast you make progress toward
your goals depends on the accuracy of your records, how good your foundation stock is,
the uniformity of its gene pool, the number of breeders you select from, the relationship
between the traits you are selecting for and their degree of heritability. Fortunately, most
of desirable traits for sheep and goats are heritable to a fairly high degree. Some traits are
not genetically controlled but depend on environment (nutrition, management etc.). You
can reach your goals faster if you concentrate on only one trait at a time, but do not
ignore all others, otherwise undesirable ones may creep in.
PART- II SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

22
Do not get excited by your early success, which may give you a false sense of
satisfaction. This is especially true if you start with unrelated sheep/goats so that your
first few matings produce exceptionally fine lambs/kids, the result of hybrid vigour. Only
years of careful selection can make you certain of the pedigree of each sheep/goat in your
breeding team and that no undesirable latent characteristics lurk in the background.
Selective breeding needs a whole lot of record keeping and a huge amount of patience.
Q. Write short notes on inbreeding, linebreeding, outbreeding and
crossbreeding.
Inbreeding: Methods of selective breeding include inbreeding, linebreeding, outbreeding
and crossbreeding. Inbreeding is the mating of closely related animals to develop a
uniform genetic base so that eventually every sheep/goat in your flock is nearly identical
in production and/or appearance. Inbreeding allows this by intensifying desirable
characteristics, but it can also intensify undesirable ones if those are not carefully culled
against. Inbreeding brings out latent weaknesses to make you aware of their existence so
that you can work toward eliminating them. If after four or five generations of
inbreeding, you continue to produce sound offspring, you can be more or less sure that
there are no hidden genetic defects in your flock.
Linebreeding: It is a form of inbreeding. It aims at concentrating the blood of one
founding parent, usually a ram/buck but it may also be an ewe/doe. Many books contain
linebreeding charts which may be taken as suggested guidelines, because blindly
plugging the names of sheep/goats into a chart only due to their position in the family tree
is likely to produce frustration. Instead choose each breeder according to its individual
merit and potential for bringing you closer to your goals. The effectiveness of any form
of inbreeding is increased with the number of sheep/goats involved which may be divided
among cooperating flock owners. A large breeding population lets you cull freely to keep
only animals that help you to achieve your goals. Because it involves such heavy culling
that inbreeding (linebreeding) is not feasible for very small flocks.
Outbreeding: It is the opposite of inbreeding. It involves mating animals that are not
closely related or are entirely unrelated. Its goal is to combine the desirable traits of two

distinct populations with an additional advantage that it produces hybrid vigour, making
the offspring superior to either parent. Outbreeding becomes necessary in an inbreeding
programme when undesirable traits show up or when it turns out that a flock cannot be
developed according to the plan because it does not carry the genes for certain desired
characteristics. Outbreeding involves careful selection of an animal to complement your
flock with the particular characteristics you need and no undesirable ones that may spoil
your programme. Such a sheep/goat is most likely to be found in another flock that is
inbred, preferably one with distant ancestors common to your flock.
Crossbreeding: When both parents belong to the same breed, the lamb/kid is termed as a
purebred. However, each parent is of distinct different breed, the lamb/kid is called a
crossbred. In crossbreeding you get a lamb/kid that can potentially (but not necessarily),
have the good points of both the parents and is usually faster growing. The value of
crossbreeding can be determined in practice by comparing the lamb/kid with the two
parent breeds considering particularly the factors that are of importance in your situation:
body conformation, wool, milk, prolificacy, rate of growth and size. Heterosis is the
hybrid vigour i.e. the increased hardiness and growth performance that is often found in a
crossbred when it is compared to the average of its purebred parents. Hybrid vigour is the
PART- II SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

23
major reason for crossbreeding. The other reason is to breed in such a manner as to allow
the strong points of one breed to compensate for the weakness of another. Individual
heterosis comes from crossing two different breeds and normally results in an average of
8 kg more meat (if well fed) than by pure breeding. Maternal heterosis, as reported by
researchers of Ohio State University, is the crossing of a purebred ram/buck with a
crossbred ewe/doe and causes on average 18% more meat produced per ewe/doe.
Q. Briefly discuss backcrossing and grading up.
Backcrossing: Breeding your best ewe lambs/doe kids to the same unusually good
ram/buck is called backcrossing. It is a form of inbreeding. The lambs/kids resulting from
this mating should not be bred back to the same ram/buck.

Grading Up: The use of a good purebred ram/buck on a flock of very ordinary
ewes/does and keeping the best of the resulting offspring, is called grading up. If done for
several years, keeping the best of the ewe lambs/doe kids and disposing off the original
ewes/does, you have probably improved the quality of your flock. The actual
improvement depends partly on the ram/buck chosen and partly on how carefully you
select the ewe lambs/doe kids that are kept for replacement.
Q. Give below the estimated heritability of some important traits of dairy goats
as well as Angora goats.
Exact degree of heritability is not easy to ascertain due to the interrelationship of
heritable characteristics as well as the complications of undetected environmental factors.
Estimates of heritability show the percentage of progress you can reasonably expect when
breeding selected parents (Table 11).

Table 11. Degree of heritability of certain traits
Trait Heritability (%)
Milk
Annual milk yield 36-64
Total yield 25-66
Fat yield 30-67
Fat (%) 32-62
Protein yield 32-47
Angora traits (%)

Protein (%) 59 Total fibre yield 48
Casein (%) 65 Fibre length 22
Lactose (%) 38 Greasy fleece weight 15-40
Flavour 27 Clean fleece weight 20
Milking time 67 Fibre diameter 12
Birth weight 01 Face cover 31-59
Liveweight at 7 months 49-77 Kemp score 20-43

General body weight 50 Body weight 30-50
Age at first kidding 54-77 Weaning weight 20-55
Number of kids 10

Q. Briefly discuss various methods of evaluating breeding animals.
There are several ways to evaluate the worthiness of potential breeders. One is to look at
showring experience if you want to breed for winners. But showring wins are often
weighted more in favour of appearance over meat, wool producing ability or dairy
PART- II SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

24
character. In addition, showring placement is mostly determined by comparing the
exhibited animals to each other rather than to an ideal. Another means of evaluation is
through classification, a system of scoring by comparing each animal to an established
standard of excellence for its breed. Classifiers are trained and licensed by the various
sheep/goat registered associations (mostly in western world). Like showring scoring,
classification involves some degree of subjectivity on the part of the judge. A third
alternative that provides more objective evaluation is linear appraisal. This system was
established (in USA) by a committee within the National Association of Animal Breeders
as a means of placing value on individual traits by using a sliding scale from worst to
best. It was designed to evaluate sires used for artificial insemination.
Q. Write a note on progeny testing.
Progeny testing is perhaps the most objective way to evaluate breeding animals. It
involves keeping track of performance of an animal’s offspring. It is a form of pedigree
selection and is a method of estimating the breeding value of an animal by the
performance or phenotype of its offspring. Progeny testing cannot be practised until after
the animal reaches sexual maturity. The ram/buck must be mated to a large number of
average ewes/does and not a small number of highly selected females. The accuracy of
ram’s/buck’s estimated breeding value increases as the number of progeny with
performance information increase. However, this method of selection can be very

expensive and greatly increases generation interval because selection of parents cannot be
carried out until after offspring have been measured.
Q. What do you understand by oestrus manipulation? Discuss in detail.
Oestrus manipulation is a means to influence the occurrence of heat, which offers some
advantages if you have a large flock. Manipulating heat cycles helps produce a more
regular flow of lambs/kids and that of milk from dairy goats by allowing groups of
ewes/does to lamb/kid at the times you designate. Synchronizing heat (having ewes/does
come into heat together) makes artificial insemination cheaper and easier, condenses the
period during which you have to be on hand for lambing/kidding and produces groups of
lambs/kids of similar ages that can be more easily raised together. A disadvantage is that
conception rates and foetus survival rates tend to be lower during out-of-season hot
summer months.
Oestrus may be controlled in three basic ways. One is by hormonal treatment.
The second is to introduce a vasectomized ram/buck into the flock or to hang a ram/buck
rag in the barn. A ram/buck rag is an empty burlap sack or an old blanket that has been
liberally rubbed over a mature ram or buck’s musk glands. Ram/buck odour generally
causes ewes/does to come into heat within about a week. The third method is through
light manipulation. Simulating the light conditions of fall prepares rams/bucks and female
animals for out-of-season breeding.
A more effective but complicated method has been devised at the International Dairy
Goat Research Center at Texas A & M. It involves light treating does for twenty hours a
day over a sixty-day period starting in early January, using one four-foot-forty-watt
fluorescent tube for each forty-two square feet of floor space, hung at a height of 2.7 to
3m. The does are then kept under natural light for another thirty-five days. Into each pen
of six does, a buck is introduced that has also been light-treated to stimulate fertility. He
is left there for sixty days during which two or three light-introduced heat cycles occur.
By this method a pregnancy rate of 67 to 100% was achieved in various breeds of dairy
PART- II SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

25

goats. How effectively the occurrence of heat can be controlled with ram/buck scent or
lighting depends on the season, the weather, your latitude, management practices and the
age and breed of your ewes/does. Environmental control of oestrus is easier with certain
breeds than with others, for which hormonal treatment may be necessary for optimum
results.
Q. Discuss the possibility of accelerated lambing/kidding in sheep/goats.
Obtaining two lamb/kid crops a year (without use of hormones) seems possible. Some
breeds might perform better in this respect than others e.g. Teddy goats have already
exhibited ample capacity to produce two kid crops a year. However, apart from the
physiological possibility, the possibility of proper feeding of ewes/does and their
offspring must be explored. Because underfeeding of small ruminants in this country has
definitely kept them back from utilizing their existing potential. It therefore, does not
appear advisable to burden them any more unless substantial feed resources are
developed and made available for them. The long run effect of two crops a year on
reproductive span, life span of ewes/does and on lamb/kid birth weight as well as their
growth rate needs to be considered.
Scientists in the Utah State University have devised and tested a method to overcome the
common problem of uterine debris that prevents ewes/does from breeding back early
enough to have two lamb/kid crops in twelve months. They infused the uterus with 200
ml saturated sucrose solution via the cervix, within four days of lambing/kidding and
obtained beneficial response. Sterile solution and sterile procedure are essential to avoid
serious complications. Any programme of accelerated lambing/kidding will require very
early weaning of lambs/kids to prepare the ewes/does for their next lambing/kidding. The
effect of severe hot and cold weather on newborns has also to be kept in view.
Q. What specific traits are favourably influenced by better feeding of small
ruminants during the last 10 weeks of pregnancy?
Better feeding during the last 10 weeks of gestation period will influence the size of
lambs/kids, the development of udder and subsequent milk yield (which is important for
the newborn lambs/kids as well as for the sale of goat milk later on), female’s forage
intake during lactation which is conditioned at this time, mohair yield of Angora kids and

probably wool producing capacity of sheep.
Q. Briefly discuss the role of hormones in the development of udder in small
ruminants in the last a few weeks of gestation.
The development of the udder is influenced by a number of hormones including
progesterone from the ovaries, prolactin from the pituitary gland and placental lactogen
from the placenta. The placental lactogen is produced in greater quantities according to
the amount of placental tissue. Thus ewes/does carrying a number of foetuses are likely
to produce more milk than those with single foetus. During the last a few weeks of
gestation the udder will undergo rapid development and in case of heavy milkers may
look swollen and engorged. There is often a temptation to milk out a little at this time to
relieve pressure but unless the ewe/doe is in obvious discomfort, it is better not to do this
since it will affect the production of colostrum at lambing/kidding.


Q. What are the important measures of reproductive efficiency in small
ruminants? Discuss briefly.