Unit 2: place of contrastive analysis in linguistics

UNIT 2: MAJOR ISSUES OF
CONTRASTIVE LINGUISTICS


1. Place of Contrastive Analysis
in linguistics
Approaches of Modern linguistics
1. Essential/ introductory linguistics studies all
languages in the world to clarify their characteristics,
functions, origins of a particular language in general,
setting up a general system, categories as tools to
investigate a particular language.
2. Descriptive linguistics is the study of the grammar,
classification and arrangement of a language at a given
time, without reference to its history or comparison to
the other languages.
3. Comparative linguistics is a study in which different
languages to be compared among others.


2. Subfields of comparative linguistics
1. Linguistic typology compares languages to
classify them by their features. Its ultimate aim
is to understand the universals that govern
language, and the range of types found in the
world's languages in respect of any particular
feature (word order or vowel system, for
example).
Typological similarity does not imply a historical
relationship. However, typological arguments
can be used in comparative linguistics: one

reconstruction may be preferred to another as
typologically more plausible.
(see Linguistic typology)


2. Subfields of comparative linguistics
2. Historical linguistics is about how and why
language changes over time. Comparative
linguistics, in the relevant sense, is the study of
linguistic relatedness, that is to say, of genetic or
ancestral connections and related matters of
subgrouping extending to the reconstruction of
unattested ancestral languages or proto-languages.
3. Contrastive linguistics (CL) compares
languages usually with the aim of assisting language
learning by identifying similarities and differences
between the learner's native (source language –
Vietnamese) and target languages (English).
Contrastive linguistics deals solely with present-day
languages.


3. Contrastive
linguistics: terms


contrastive linguistics (or its methods) is also called
contrastive studies
 contrastive analysis
 interlingual linguistics

Traditional concepts:


 Contrastive

Studies (CS) = any systematic comparison of
two languages
 Contrastive Linguistics (CL) = the whole field of crosslanguage comparisons with a focus on theory and
methodology of comparison
 Contrastive Analysis (CA) 
= sensu largo: CS or CL 
= sensu stricto: the third step in classical contrastive
studies: description, juxtaposition, comparison


3. Contrastive
linguistics: terms


Contrastive Studies (CS) in the past and at present
 History

of CS
 since Aelfric’s Grammatica (1000AD) till now (Fries’
1945, Fisiak 1992): CS mostly for pedagogical purposes
 20th c.: grow of interest theory and methodology: more
systematic and comprehensive empirical studies,
language corpora
 nowadays CS is conducted
 to support some theoretical claims not connected with

CL proper, emphasis on practice and application of CS
 to develop CL, emphasis on theory and methodology in
CS,
 in language pedagogy, translation studies, theoretical
linguistics, language technology


4. Approaches to CL
 comparative

historical linguistics

 looking

for common genetic background of different
languages
 diachronic studies
 comparative

typological linguistics

 group

languages according to their characteristics
 synchronic studies
 contrastive

(non-classification) linguistics

 note

and describe similarities and differences
between languages
 do not group them in any way
Self-study: Nguyễn Văn Chiến (1992) - page 29 - 39


5. Aims of CAs




CAs is the systematic comparison of two
or more languages, with the aim of
describing their similarities and
differences.
CAs has often been done for practical/
pedagogical purposes. The aim has been
to provide better descriptions and better
teaching materials for language
learners.


5. Aims of CAs



The main purpose is for foreign language teaching (FLT)
Teachers must solve three questions.
1. Why CAs is instructive in foreign language teaching?

Teachers must analyze the factors in FLT, study the psychology
of learners, and know more about the learning process.
2. How to apply contrastive analysis to FLT?
Teachers must study and analyze the important stages of
learning such as course design, textbook, classroom teaching
and FL testing. They should do the detailed comparison of
language differences.
3. What’s the relationship between contrastive analysis and
applied linguistics?
Teachers must know what function CAs has in the long course of
linguistics. They shall evaluate its importance and significance.


5. Aims of CAs


Carl, J (1980) -



Nguyễn Văn Chiến (1992) - page
41 – 65

page 11 - 60


6. Criteria for CAs
(Tertium comparationis)


What’s that?

Assume
 TC = common platform, against which differences and similarities
can be stated
DF = distinctive feature that assumes values DF 1 and
DF2 for L1 and L2 respectively
 Then we say that
L1 is like L2 with respect to TC
e.g. [Polish]L1 is like [English]L2 with respect to [the presence of 2sg
personal pronouns]TC.
TC in L1 is marked by DF1, whereas in L2 TC is marked by DF2
e.g. [The presence of 2sg personal pronouns]TC in English is marked
by [you]DF1, whereas in Polish it is marked by [ty, Pan/Pani]DF2.



7. Methods of analysis in CA
4 steps to analyze languages (Whitman (1970
in Byung-gon, 1992):
1, The researcher writes description of the two
languages.
2, Forms are selected from the two descriptions.
3, The two selected forms are compared.
4, Features of difficulty are predicted.




6. Criteria for CAs

(Tertium comparationis)
Types of TC’s
 formal correspondence, for CA of word order,
function words, inflections,
affixation, suprasegmentals; alliteration, rhymes
 semantic equivalence, for CA of meaning of
words, phrases and sentences
 pragmatic/functional equivalence, for CA of
meaning/function of texts, structure of discourse,
stylistic properties, quantitative aspects of text
 Self

– study: J. Carl (1980) - p.166 - p.178


7. Methods of analysis in CA
Comparison of the two language subsystems
should be through the same model of description:
- To use the translation theory whereby each
language can be described by its favorite model
then translated into an artificial “etalon
language” (Melchuk, 1963) that can enhance the
features of L1 and L2 construction.
- To apply description bias to the second language
and how it is used by the second language
learner more than the focus on understanding L1.



7. Methods of analysis in CA

Comparing the two language subsystems involves
several steps:
1, Gathering of data of the system to be compared in
the two languages (using translations of the two
languages to focus on general rules or systems
rather than the focus on the translated meaning).
CA aims at generalizing its findings on the
grammatical systems of compared languages.
2, Description of the realizations of each grammatical
category in each of the two contrasted languages,
such as determining the realization or the context of
using the indefinite article in English and Russian.




7. Methods of analysis in CA
3, The addition of new data with their translation to
the corpus and then modifying the rules to include
the new data.
4, A formulation of the found results of the contrasted
data is determined either in the form of equation or
operation.
The formation was either in the form of a set of
instructions that can be applied to both language
grammars (Harris, 1954 in James, 1980) transfer
rules or equations which differ from transfer rules in
that they do not show which language is being
converted to the other and hence lack the
directionality of the transfer rules.

7. Methods of analysis in CA


Chien, N.V (1992) – p. 67 – p. 110


8. Kinds of CAs



Theoretical CAs
Applied CAs


8. Kinds of CAs
Theoretical CAs


“Pure” linguistics



its linguistic
validity

Applied CAs




(J.Carl 1980, 5)

A hybrid
discipline,
constituted not
only of linguistics
but also of
psychology and
sociology
Not only its
linguistic validity
but also its
psychological


8. Kinds of CAs
Theoretical CAs


“Real progress in
linguistics consists in
the discovery that
certain features of
given languages can be
reduced to universal
properties of language,
and explained in terms
of these deeper

aspects of linguistic
form” (Chomsky 1965,
35)

Applied CAs


“It is one of the
few investigations
into language
structure that has
improved
pedagogy as its
aim is therefore
truly a field of
applied language
research” (Wilkins
1972, 224)


8. Kinds of CAs
Theoretical CAs




Develop models of
language analysis,
describe languages and
explore similarities and

differences between
languages.
Focus more on abstract
concepts such as,
“grammatical categories,
rules, functions, and
constrains:

Applied CAs




Examine language for
bilingual education,
translation or any practical
specific purposes.
Focus on psycholinguistic
elements that are more
perceptual even if the
contrasted variables are
syntactically incomparable
at all. CAs must propose
hypotheses and solution
for problems. (Fisiak, 1990)


8. Kinds of CAs
Theoretical CAs


“Do not investigate
how a given category
present in language A
is represented in
language B. Instead
they look for the
realisation of a
universal category X
in both A and B”.
(Fisiak et al 1978, 10)

Applied CAs


“are preoccupied
with the problem
of how a
universal
category X,
realised in
language A as y,
is rendered in
language B.


8. Kinds of CAs
This means that applied CAs unidiretional (cf.
p. 171) whereas theoretical CAs are static,
since they do not need to reflect any

directionality
Theoretical of
CAslearning.
Applied CAs

X

A

X

B

A (y)

B (?)


8. Kinds of CAs
Theoretical CAs


Contains
information about
both
directionalities of
learning, and so
offers a measure
of economy.

Applied CAs


Contains only
information only on
English L1 learner’s
problems with other
language,
Vietnamese…, but no
information on the
obverse
directionality.


8. Kinds of CAs
Theoretical CAs


Makes constant or
recurrent reference
to the universal
tertium
comparationis: a
direct applied CA is
liable to lose sight of
the contact between
X and (?) – the L2
realization – since it
is mediated by y.

Applied CAs


Executed independently
is liable to lose its
objectivity, i.e its
predictions will tend to
base on teachers’
experience of learners’
difficulties than derived
from linguistic analysis –
interpretations of
theoretical CAs rather
than independent
execution.