The Internal Structure of Words and Processes of Word Formation in English

The Internal Structure of Words and Processes of
Word Formation in English
Exercise 4.1: English Word Division
Analyze the following words into morphs using the model given below:
Prefix(es Roo
)
inequality
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)

in-

t
)
equal

hospitaliz (k)

Suffix(es
-ity
disfunctio

ation

nal
invisibly
(l) inconsiderate
uninteresting
(m) postcolonial
undercooked
(n) unlikelihood
transcontinental (o) relationship
ungrammatical (p) asymmetrical
reinforcement (q) hypersensitivity
prototypical
(r) unfriendliness
unforgettable
(s) interdependence
impropriety
(t) monotheism

Exercise 4.2: Inflectional Affixes
For each of the bold words in the passage from Wallace Stegner's "The Dump Ground" below, label
the inflectional suffix:
pres
past
prsprt
pstprt

=
=
=
=

present tense
past tense
present participle
past participle

compr =
supl =
poss =
pl
=

comparative degree
superlative degree
possessive case
plural number

The place fascinated us, as it should have. For this was the kitchen midden of all the civilization we
knew. It gave us the most tantalizing glimpses into our neighbors' lives and our own; it provided an
aesthetic distance from which to know ourselves.
The town dump was our poetry and our history. We took it home with us by the wagonload, bringing
back into town the things the town had used and thrown away. Some little part of what we gathered,
mainly bottles, we managed to bring back to usefulness, but most of our gleanings we left lying
1


around barn or attic or cellar until in some renewed fury of spring cleanup our families carted them off
to the dump again, to be rescued and briefly treasured by some other boy. Occasionally something we
really valued with a passion was snatched from us in horror and returned at once. That happened to
the mounted head of a white mountain goat, somebody's trophy from old times and the far Rocky
Mountains, that I brought home one day. My mother took one look and discovered that his beard was

full of moths.
I remember that goat; I regret him yet. Poetry is seldom useful, but always memorable. If I were a
sociologist anxious to study in detail the life of any community I would go very early to its refuse piles.
For a community may be as well judged by what it throws away - what it has to throw away and what
it chooses to - as by any other evidence. For whole civilizations we sometimes have no more of the
poetry and little more of the history than this (from Wolf Willow 1955: 35-36)

Exercise 4.3: Inflectional versus Derivational Affixes
Is -ly an inflectional or a derivational affix? Like an inflectional affix, it seems to attach to many (though
not all) of the members of the class of adjective, as in quickly, helpfully, sadly, regrettably, softly,
sharply, foolishly. If -ly is an inflectional suffix marking the grammatical category adverb, then it should
meet the following criteria for inflectional suffixes:
(a) never change the part of speech of a root,
(b) follow, not precede, any derivational suffixes,
(c) affix to virtually any member of the category adjective.

Does -ly meet these criteria? Try to think of examples which violate these principles.

Exercise 4.4: Morphological and Morphemic Analysis
1. Divide the following words into morphs (use slashes) and then list the morphemes. Note that
some words may require more than one analysis into morphemes. List the morphological
realization rule(s) responsible for each formation.
2.
Example: mice's
Answer: mice/s {mouse} + {pl} + {poss} fusional and agglutinative
(a)
least
(k)
our
(b)

set
(l)
rings
(c)
fish
(m) sayings
(d)
should
(n)
broken
(e)
hoped
(o)
these
(f)
hearing
(p)
whose
2
(g)
were
(q)
older
(h)
elder
(r)
her
(i)
must
(s)

taken
(j)
topmost
(t)
women's


Exercise 4.5: Writing Morphemic Rules
1. Examine the following past tense forms in English:
hated
raided
faded
fitted
mated
loaded

Pulled
Opened
Groomed
Mowed
Cried
Paid

roared
hugged
robbed
bruised
loved
judged

walked
pushed
missed
hoped
fetched
laughed

a) Determine the allomorphs of this inflectional suffix.
b) Determine the conditioning environments for each of the allomorphs.
c) Decide on the underlying (or "elsewhere") form of this morpheme from which the other
allomorphs are derived. For what reasons did you choose this particular form as the base?
d) Write a morphemic rule.
e) Consider the following past tense forms. How are they conditioned? How are they realized?
sang
rang

f)

bought
fought

cut
put

went
were

How do you account for the following variants: learned/learnt, dreamed/dreamt, burned/burnt?

2. Consider the following words

illegal
irrelevant
impossible
immoral
impatient

ineligible
intolerant
insecure
infamous
injury

inactive
indeterminate
3
illogical
imbalance
ingrate

imbalance
immature
irregular
injudicious
incongruous


a) Determine the allomorphs of this derivational prefix.
b) Determine the conditioning factors for each of the allomorphs.
c) Decide on the underlying (or "elsewhere") form of this morpheme from which the other
allomorphs are derived. Justify the base form.

d) Write a morphemic rule.
e) State the meaning of the morpheme.

Exercise 4.6: Derivational Prefixes and Suffixes
1. Sort the prefixes in the words below into the following seven categories according to meaning:
a) Time

d) Degree

b) Number

e) Privative

c) Place

f)

g) Size

Negative, and

Each category has two prefixes. After you have classified the prefixes, use a dictionary to identify
whether the prefix is native English, Latin, or Greek in origin.
postdate
bifocal
megawatt
disclose
polygon
subway
ultraconservative

maladjusted
Outdoor
Defrost
foreshadow
Bisexual
Disarm
hyperthyroidism

macrocosm
hyperactivity
polyglot
macroeconomics
postelection
megalosaur
subfloor

forewarn
demilitarize
nonentity
malpractice
nonsmoker
outhouse
ultraviolet

3. Sort the suffixes in the words below according to their class-changing function. The categories
include the following:
a) N > N
b) V > N
c) A > N

d) N/A > V

(There are two examples of each suffix.)

4


e) N > A
f)
V>A
g) N/A > Adv

broaden

syntactic

width

Idealism

participant

falsehood

closure

Straighten

rhetorician

clockwise

refusal

Vaccinate

gangster
stardom
warmth
Tireless
4. a) Can you think of a reason why -en may
attach to some
adjectives, but
not to others,
as
twofold
trial
accidental Selfish
shown below?
blacken
stiffen
ripen
advisorybroadenlikelihood
friendless
Politician
deafen
tighten
soften
loosen
conservatism

kingdom
Facilitate
*thinen
*longen mobster
*slimen
inhabitant
Seizure
*nearen
*slowen contradictory
*narrowen boyish
*highen
*holyen stepwise
*noblen \ thankless Global
manifold
historic

(b) Can you
reason why -ed may
some nouns, but not

brown-haired
left-handed
*brown-coated
*one-childed

kind-hearted
narrow-minded
*heavy-pursed
*two-catted

penniless

low-spirited
strong-headed
*long-skirted
*silly-hatted

think of a
attach to
to others, as shown

below?

5. Which is the proper derivation of unknowledgeable? Explain.
(a)

(b)

(c)

Exercise 4.7: Prefixation
1. Consider the following words:
5


a) What kinds of

disbelief
discomfort
disharmony

disorder
displeasure
dishonest
discharge

dishonorable
dispassionate
dismissive
disgraceful
disorderly
dissimilar
disobey

dislike
disconnect
disclose
disinfect
disown
discontinuous
distrust

roots does the prefix dis-

attach to? Explain.
b) Is it a class-maintaining or class-changing prefix?
c) What are the two meanings of the prefix? Name and give an example from the list above of
each of the two meanings.
d) In addition to derivation, what process of word formation is involved in the formation of the
following words?
disarm

disband

distrust
discolor

dismember
discourage

disfigure
disbar

e) Analyze the following words into morphs and label each morph as R (= root), DP (=
derivational prefix), DS (= derivational suffix), and IS (= inflectional suffix). Specify the
grammatical function of the affixes and the part of speech of the root.
Example: DISCOURAGEMENT dis- (DP) + courage (R - noun) + -ment (DS - nominalizer)
disheartening
disproportionately
disqualification
disenchantments
disinterested
f) Draw a tree diagram showing the derivation of the word disreputable.

2. Consider the following words
antisocial
antibody
anticlimax

antibacterial
antinuclear
antihero

antihistamine
antihygienic
antiseptic

a) What kinds of roots does the prefix anti- attach to? Explain.
b) Is the prefix class-changing or class-maintaining?
c) Give the meaning of the prefix.
6


d) In addition to derivation, what process of word formation is involved in the formation of the
following words?
antiwar
antitrust

antifreeze
antiknock

antislip
antiwrinkle

e) What problem do the following words pose for morphemic analysis? Explain.
antacid

f)

antarctic

antepileptic

Analyze the following words as in (1e) above:
antibacterial antiperspirant antirevolutionary anticommercialization
antidisestablishmentarianism

g) Give a tree diagram showing the derivation of the word antidepressant.

Exercise 4.8: Compounding

1. Identify the syntactic pattern in each of the following compounds and express it in a lexical rule.
Example: gravedigger N + V + -er > N

2. The

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)

hovercraft
dairyman
bath-towel

goldfish
inroads
bystander
setback
meltdown
blackout
stand-in
turnout
money-hungry

(m)
(n)
(o)
(p)
(q)
(r)
(s)
(t)
(u)
(v)
(w)
(x)

dugout
hardhearted
homesick
proofread
overqualified
overachieve
badmouth

redhead
birth control
breakfast
thoroughgoing
quick-change

(y)
(z)
(aa)
(bb)
(cc)
(dd)
(ee)
(ff)
(gg)
(hh)
(ii)
(jj)

lukewarm
law-abiding
far-reaching
homemade
clean-cut
fighter-bomber
earthenware
driver's seat
baking powder
drip-coffee
wisecrack

snowplow
following

words are compounds which also include derivational affixes. Analyze the words, identifying
the roots and their parts of speech, as well all the affixes and their function as nominalizer,
verbalizer, adjectivalizer, or adverbializer.
Example: housekeeper
house (root - noun) + keep (root - verb) + -er (nominalizer)
a. flightworthiness

c. owner-occupied

b. chatterbox

d. freedom-loving
7


e. handicraft

i.

antiaircraft

f.

j.

machine-readable

broken-hearted

g. safety-tested

k. chartered accountant

h. worldly-wise

8


Exercise 4.9: Minor Processes of Word Formation

1. Identify the process of word formation responsible for each of the following words.
Try to determine the process before you consult a dictionary, though it may be
necessary for you to do so.

2. The words in column A have been created from the corresponding words in column
(a) curio
(j)
serendipity
(s)
(b) (to) laze
(k)
diesel
(t)
the
(c)
(to) network
(l)

(a) ha-ha
(u)
(d) (to) cohere
(m) (to) make up
(v)
(e) (a) sitcom
(n)
(to) total
(w)
(f)
(the) muppets (o)
(the) hereafter (x)
(g) (a) what-not
(p)
amphetamine
(y)
(h) margarine
(q)
(a) construct
(z)
(i)
dystopia
(r)
(the) chunnel
responsible for the creation of each word in column A.
B.

guestimate
canary
brain-gain

boojum
gaffe-slack
psycho
walkie-talkie
bonfire

Indicate
word
formation
process

Column A
Column B
(a)
Stagflation
stagnation + inflation
nosu + thyrl 'hole' (in Old English)
Answer (b)
to Ex. 4.1:Nostril
English Word Division
(c)
Bookie
bookmaker
Prefix(es) Root
Suffix(es)
(d)
Van
caravan
(a)
hospital

(e)
Amerindian
American
Indian -ize -ation
(b) in- compact
vis disc -ible -ly
(f)
CD
(c)
uninterest
-ing
(g)
RAM
random
access memory
cook
-ed
(h)
Televise (d) undertelevision
(e)
transcontinent
(i)
Xerox
xeroxography -al
grammar
-ic -al
(j)
Telethon (f) un- television
+ marathon
(g) re- inforce

(k)
sci-fi
science
fiction -ment
(h)
prototype
-ic -al
(l)
Elect
election
(i) un- forget
-able
(m)
Deli
delicatessen
(j)
improper
-ity
(n)
Scuba
self-contained underwater
breathing apparatus
function -al
(o)
Scavenge(k) dis- scavenger
consider
-ate
(p)
Hazmat (l) in- hazardous
material

(m) postcolony
-al
(n) unlike
-ly -hood
(o)
relate
-ion -ship
(p) asymmetry -ic -al
(q) hypersense
-itive -ity
(r) unfriend
-ly -ness
(s) interdepend -ence
(t) monothe
-ism
Note: It might be possible to break down some of these words further, especially if you have
KEY

a knowledge of Latin, e.g.
(l') in- con- sider -ate
(o') relate -ion -ship
(s') inter- de- pend -ence
If you do so, you will end up with bound roots in most cases.


Answer to Ex. 4.2: Inflectional Affixes
should
past
most
supl

neighbors'
pl (+ poss)*
ourselves
pl
took
past
bringing
prsprt
used
pstprt
gathered
past
lying
prsprt
renewed
pstprt
families
pl
returned
pstprt
somebody's poss
brought
past
remember
pres
would
past
its
poss
judged

pstprt
chooses
pres
more
compr
*There is really no inflection for case in the plural. In writing, the apostrophe indicates
possessive.

Answer to Ex. 4.3: Inflectional versus Derivational Affixes
(a) NO: -ly changes the part of speech of the root, deriving adverbs from adjectives:
happily < happy oddly < odd strangely < strange
rarely < rare
loudly < loud
It may also derive adverbs from nouns: weekly < week daily < day yearly < year
It can derive adjectives from nouns or other adjectives:
manly < man
sickly < sick
princely < prince goodly < good
lovely < love
kindly < kind
portly < port
leisurely < leisure
It may also change the meaning of an adjective or adverb: hardly/hard

lately/late

highly/high

(b) NO: -ly normally follows derivational suffixes (adjectivalizers):
famously woodenly usefully

foolishly acceptably
But -ly may precede certain derivational suffixes:
manliness manlier princeliness
loveliness lovelier kindliness
(Since no derivational suffix may be attached to an adverb, we cannot test to see whether
adverbializer -ly can be followed by a derivational suffix.)
Although adverbs inflect for comparison (e.g. fast, faster, fastest or late, later, latest),


adverbs in -ly form comparison with more and most. Hence, -ly is never followed by an
inflection:
more usefully *usefullier
most usefully *usefulliest
(This is accounted for, though, by the fact that -er and -est are generally attached only to
monosyllabic words.)
(c) NO: many adverbs are not formed with -ly:
just
tomorrow always
here
now
then
late
near
slow (or slowly) fast
cheap (or cheaply) hard
Furthermore, many adjectives cannot take -ly:
tall
*tally
Canadian *Canadianly
blue *bluely two-toed *two-toedly

little *littly
this, my
*thisly, *myly
(It seems that when adjectives describe an intrinsic quality, they cannot take -ly because
they cannot modify verbal action.)
Answer to Ex. 4.4: Morphological and Morphemic Analysis
1. (a) least
(b) set

(c) fish

(d) should
(e) hop/ed

{LITTLE} + {supl}
{SET} + {pres}

fusional
null realization

{SET} + {past}

zero

{SET} + {pstprt}

zero

{SET} + {sg}
{FISH} + {sg}

null realization
null realization

{FISH} + {pl}

zero

{FISH} + {pres}
{SHALL} + {past}
{HOPE} + {past}

null realization
fusional
agglutinative

{HOPE} + {pstprt}
(f) hear/ing {HEAR} + {prsprt}

agglutinative
agglutinative

(g) were
(h) elder

{HEAR} + {gerund} + {sg}
{BE} + {past} + {pl}
{OLD} + {compr}

agglutinative and null

fusional
fusional

(i) must

{ELDER} + {sg}
{MUST} + {pres}

null
null realization

{MUST} + {past}
(j) top/most {TOP} + {supl}
(k) our
{1st} + {pl} + {poss}
(l) ring/s
{RING} + {pl}
(m) say/ing/s
(n) brok/en
(o) these
(p) who/se
(q) old/er
(r) her

{RING} + {pres}
{SAY} + {gerund} + {pl}
{BREAK} + {pstprt}
{THIS} + {pl}
{WHO} + {poss}
{OLD} + {compr}

{3rd} + {f} + {sg} + {poss}

zero
agglutinative
fusional
agglutinative
null realization
agglutinative
fusional
fusional
agglutinative
agglutinative
fusional


{3rd} + {f} + {sg} + {obj}
(s) tak/en
{TAKE} + {pstprt}
(t) women/s {WOMAN} + {pl} + {poss}

fusional
agglutinative
fusional and agglutinative

Answer to Ex. 4.5: Writing Morphemic Rules
1. (a) The allomorphs of the past tense all have the orthographic form -ed, but
phonologically they are [əd], [d], and [t].
(b) The [əd] allomorph follows roots ending in [t] or [d]; the [t] allomorph follows roots
ending in voiceless obstruents, and the [d] allomorph follows roots ending in voiced
stops and fricatives, liquids, nasals, and vowels.

(c) The underlying or "elsewhere" form is likely to be [d] since it is found after the
greatest variety of sounds. In addition, it is easy to derive the other allomorphs
from it by natural phonological processes: schwa insertion to break up a cluster of
two alveolar stops will yield [əd], and voice assimilation will yield [t].
(d) {past} → [əd] / after alveolar stops
[t] / after voiceless consonants
[d] / elsewhere
Note that the rule is read downward. Thus, since [t] and [d] occur in the first line,
they are not included among the voiceless consonants in the second line or other
sounds in the third line.
(e) These forms are all grammatically rather than phonologically conditioned. Some
are realized by a vowel change (sing/sang), some by a vowel change plus an
inflectional ending (bring/brought), some by a zero morph (cut/cut), and some by a
(f)
2. (a)

different form entirely (go/went).
These forms are in free variation.
The allomorphs appear to be il-, ir-, im-, and in-. Note, however, that il- and ir- are
both pronounced [ɪ], im- is pronounced [ɪm], in- is pronounced [ɪn] (in intolerant,

(b)

insecure, infamous, etc.) but [ɪŋ] in ingrate and incongruous.
The [ɪ] allomorph is conditioned by a following liquid (as initial sound of the root),
the [ɪm] allomorph by a following bilabial, the [ɪŋ] by a following velar stop, and

(c)

[ɪn] by a following vowel, or labiodental, alveolar, or alveopalatal consonants.

[ɪn] appears to be the underlying form since it is found in the greatest variety of
environments and is the form from which the other forms can be derived most
easily: [ɪm] and [ɪŋ] by assimilation in place of articulation to the place of the
following sound (with no change in manner of articulation), and [ɪ] by loss of the

(d)

nasal.
{IN} → [ɪ] / before liquids
[ɪm] / before labials
[ɪŋ] / before velars

(e)

[ɪn] / elsewhere
The meaning is 'not'.


(f)

Q: Why are the forms ignoble and ignominious, which presumably contain the
same prefix, a problem? Try to account for this problem. (Hint: Look up the
etymologies of these words.)
A: The word ignoble comes from Latin gnōbilis 'noble' (which later lost its initial
consonant to give nōbilis, hence noble). When in- was combined with gnobilis,
the first n dropped out, giving English ignoble. The g is thus part of the root, not
part of the prefix. The word ignominious comes from Latin nōmen 'name'; it
acquired a g by mistaken analogy with gnōsco, a process called "contamination".

Answer to Ex. 4.6: Derivational Prefixes and Suffixes

1. (a) Time

post-

postdate, postelection

(b) Number

forebi-

forewarn, foreshadow
bifocal, bisexual

(c) Place

polyout-

polyglot, polygon
outdoor, outhouse

(d) Degree

subhyper-

subway, subfloor
hyperactivity, hyperthyroidism

(e) Privative

ultrade-

ultraviolet, ultraconservative
demilitarize, defrost

(f)

disnon-

disclose, disarm
nonentity, nonsmoker

malmega-

maladjusted, malpractice
megawatt, megalosaur

Negative

(g) Size

macro- macrocosm, macroeconomics
English: fore-, outLatin: post-, bi-, sub-, ultra-, de-, dis-, non-, malGreek: poly-, hyper-, mega-, macro2. (a) N > N

(b) V > N

-dom

kingdom, stardom

-ster

gangster, mobster

-(ic)ian politician, rhetorician
-al
refusal, trial
-ant

inhabitant, participant

-ure
-th

seizure, closure
warmth, width

-ism

conservatism, idealism

(d) N/A > V

-hood
-en

falsehood, likelihood
broaden, straighten

(e) N > A

-ate
-ic

facilitate, vaccinate
historic, syntactic

-less

friendless, penniless

(c) A > N


(f)

V>A

-ish
-ory

-less
(g) N/A > Adv -wise
-fold

selfish, boyish
advisory, contradictory
tireless, thankless
stepwise, clockwise
twofold, manifold

3. (a) The reason here is phonological: -en may attach only to monosyllabic adjectives
ending in obstruents (stops and fricatives), not to those ending in vowels, nasals,
or liquids.
(b) The reason here is semantic: -ed may attach only to adjectives denoting
inalienable possession (things that are possessed intrinsically) and not to those
denoting alienable possession (things that may be separated from the
possessor).
4. (a) This is incorrect because un- does not attach to nouns; it produces the nonword
of English *unknowledge.
(b) This is correct; every stage in the derivation produces a word of English.
(c) This is incorrect because while un- does attach to verbs, this also produces the
nonword of English *unknowledge.
Answer to Ex. 4.7: Prefixation
1.

(a)

dis- attaches only to noun and verb roots. The adjectives in the list
given are all derived from nouns by the addition of adjectivalizers (-

(b)
(c)

ate, -ive, -ful, -able, -ly).
The prefix is class-maintaining.
The two meanings are privative (as in disconnect, disinfect) and

(d)

negative (as in disharmony, disorder).

All of these words involve a shift in the part of speech (from N to V)
as well as derivation.

(e)
dis- heart (R -

-en (DS - verbalizer) -ing (IS - prsprt)

(DP) + noun) +
dis- pro- (DP) +

+
portion (R - noun) +

(DP) +
dis- qual (R -

adjectivalizer) +
-ify (DS - verbalizer) + -cation (DS -

(DP) + noun) +
dis- en- (DP -

chant (R - noun) +

(DP) + verbalizer) +
dis- interest (R - -ed (DS (DP) + noun) +

adjectivalizer)

-ate (DS -

nominalizer)
-ment (DS nominalizer)+

-ly (DS _
adverbializer)

-s (IS - pl)


(f)

2.

(a)

anti -attaches only to noun roots. The adjectives in the list given are all derived

(b)
(c)
(d)

from nouns by the addition of adjectivalizers (-al, -ic, -ar).
The prefix is class-maintaining.
The meaning is 'counter, opposite, inverse'.
These words all involve a conversion, either from N > A (antiwar, antitrust,

(e)

antiwrinkle) or from V > N (antifreeze, antiknock, antislip).
These words show an allomorph ant- of the morpheme occurring with roots
beginning in a vowel. However, this allomorph is not consistently used in this
context, as evidenced by antiaircraft, antiallergenic, antienzyme, anti-

inflammatory.
(f)
bacteria (R - -al (DS -

anti-

(DP) + noun) +
adjectivalizer)
antiperspire (R - -ant (DS (DP) + verb) +
antirevolve (R -

nominalizer)
-ution (DS -

(DP) + verb) +
nominalizer) +
anticommerce (R -ial (DS -

-ary (DS adjectivalizer)
-ize (DS -

-ation (DS -

(DP) + - noun) +
antidis -(DP) +

adjectivalizer) + verbalizer) +
establish (R -ment (DS -

nominalizer)
-arian (DS -

(DP) +

verb) +

adjectivalizer) + nominalizer)

nominalizer) +

(g)

Answer to Ex. 4.8: Compounding
1. (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

V+N>N
N+N>N
N+N>N
N+N>N

Prt + N + -s > N
Prt + V + -er > N
V + Prt > N (conversion)

(s)
(t)
(u)
(v)
(w)
(x)
(y)

A + N > V (conversion)
A+N>N
N + N/V > N/A
V+N>N
A + V + -ing > A
A + V > A (conversion)
A+A>A

-ism (DS -


(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
(m)
(n)

(o)
(p)
(q)
(r)

V + Prt > N (conversion)
V + Prt > N (conversion)
V + Prt > N (conversion)
V + Prt > N (conversion)
N+A>A
V + -en + Prt > N (conversion)
A + N + -ed > A
N+A>A
N+V>V
Prt + V + -en > V/A
Prt + V > V

(z)
(aa)
(bb)
(cc)
(dd)
(ee)
(ff)
(gg)
(hh)
(ii)
(jj)

N + V + -ing > A

A + V + -ing > A
N + V + -en > A
A + V + -en > A
V + -er + V + -er > N
N + -en + N > N
V + -er + 's + N > N
V + -ing + N > N
V+N>N
A + V > V/N
N + V/N > V/N

2.
(a) flight (root -

worth (root - noun) +

-y (adjectivalizer) -ness (nominalizer)

noun) +
(b) chat (root -

-er (nominalizer) +

+
box (root - noun)

verb) +
(c) own (root -

-er (nominalizer) +

occupy (root -

verb) +
(d) free (root -

-dom (nominalizer) +

verb) +
participle/adjectivalizer)
love (root - verb) -ing (present

adjective) +
(e) hand (root -

-y (adjectivalizer) +

+
participle/adjectivalizer)
craft (root - noun)

(f)

noun) +
break (root - -en (past

verb) +
(g) safe (root -

heart (root - noun) -ed (adjectivalizer)

participle/adjectivalizer) + +
-ty (nominalizer) +
test (root - verb)

adjective) +
(h) world (root - -ly (adjectivalizer) +

+
wise (root -

(i)

noun) +
anti -(prefix) air (root - noun) +

adjective)
craft (root - noun)

(j)

+
machine (root read (root - verb) +

-able (suffix -

- noun) +
adjectivalizer)
(k) charter (root - -ed (suffix - adjectivalizer) account (root
noun) +

+

-en (past

-ed (past
participle/adjectivalizer)

-ant (suffix - nominalizer)

verb) +

Answer to Ex. 4.9: Minor Processes of Word Formation
1. (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)

clipping < curio(sity)
back formation < lazy — -y
conversion N > V
back formation < coherence — -ence
clipping < sit(uation) com(edy)
blend < m(arionette) (p)uppets
phrasal compound

clipping < (oleo)margarine (N.B. oleo is an alternate clipped form)
false morphological division < dis- + -topia < u/topia


(j)
(k)
(l)
(m)
(n)
(o)
(p)
(q)
(r)
(s)
(t)
(u)
(v)

literary coinage (by Horace Walpole)
commonization < Rudolf Diesel
reduplication < French
phrasal verb
conversion N > V
compounding, conversion Prt + Prt > N
acronym < a(lpha) m(ethyl) phe(ngl) t(hyl)amine
conversion V > N
blend < ch(annel) (t)unnel
blend < gu(ess) + estimate or guess + (es)timate
commonization < Canary Islands
reduplication

root creation (used by physicist N. David Mermin following creation by Lewis

(w)
(x)
(y)
(z)

Carroll)
reduplication
clipping < psycho(path)
reduplication, diminutive, conversion
amalgamated compound < bān' 'bone' + fyr 'fire' in Old English)

2. (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
(m)
(n)
(o)
(p)

blending
amalgamated compound
clipping, diminutive
clipping
blending
initialism
acronym
back formation
clipping, commonization
blending, false morphological analysis
clipping
back formation
clipping, false morphological analysis (delicat/essen)
acronym
back formation
clipping