(LUẬN văn THẠC sĩ) attitudes of vietnamese teachers of english in universities toward world englishes in the classroom

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST GRADUATE STUDIES
****************

DƢƠNG HUYỀN THẮM

ATTITUDES OF VIETNAMESE TEACHERS OF ENGLISH IN
UNIVERSITIES TOWARDS WORLD ENGLISHES IN THE CLASSROOM
(THÁI ĐỘ CỦA GIẢNG VIÊN TIẾNG ANH Ở CÁC TRƢỜNG ĐẠI
HỌC CỦA VIỆT NAM VỀ WORLD ENGLISHES TRONG LỚP HỌC)

M.A. COMBINED PROGRAM THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60140111

HANOI – 2016

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VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST GRADUATE STUDIES
****************

DƢƠNG HUYỀN THẮM

ATTITUDES OF VIETNAMESE TEACHERS OF ENGLISH IN
UNIVERSITIES TOWARDS WORLD ENGLISHES IN THE CLASSROOM

(THÁI ĐỘ CỦA GIẢNG VIÊN TIẾNG ANH Ở CÁC TRƢỜNG ĐẠI
HỌC CỦA VIỆT NAM VỀ WORLD ENGLISHES TRONG LỚP HỌC)

M.A. COMBINED PROGRAM THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60140111
Supervisor: Đỗ Thị Thanh Hà, PhD.

HANOI – 2016

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CERTIFICATE OF AUTHORSHIP
This is to certify that the thesis entitled ―Attitudes of Vietnamese teachers of

English in universities toward World Englishes in the classroom” has been written
by me and the work in it has not previously been submitted for a degree. In addition, I also
certify that all information sources and literature have been indicated in the thesis.

Hanoi, August 2016

Dƣơng Huyền Thắm

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express the deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Đỗ Thị Thanh
Hà, for her invaluable encouragement and useful comments and advice during the whole
process of this master thesis. Without her immense help, this study could not have been
completed.
Also, I am thankful to all my lecturers at Faculty of Post Graduate Studies,
University of Languages and International Studies, VNU for their great support and
suggestions.
Finally, my special thanks go to my beloved family and friends for their love, care
and support during my MA course, especially on the completion of this thesis.

Hanoi, August 2016

Dƣơng Huyền Thắm

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ABSTRACT
The growth of English worldwide has led to the emergence of English
as a Lingua Franca (EFL) in English Language Teaching (ELT). This study
concentrates on cognitive and behavioral aspects of teachers‘ attitude towards
ESL and EFL
A questionnaire was delivered to 111 teachers from seven state
universities in Vietnam; a semi-structured interview then was carried out with
eleven volunteer teachers. Data reveal the following phenomena which apply
for both Outer and Expanding Circle varieties. First, the vast majority of
Vietnamese teachers are aware of English varieties and/or implications of

EFL/EIL in TESOL. Second, they express a positive opinion towards both
Outer Circle and Expanding Circle varieties of English and the introduction of
them to students. They also believe that it is important to introduce these
varieties. Finally, the study indicates that teachers are likely to introduce these
varieties to students but it depends on many variables. Implications of this
study are expected to be beneficial for researchers, educators, and policy
makers in ELT, especially in ELT in Vietnam,

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Number of participants in each university
Table 2: Biographic Information of Participants
Table 3: Vietnamese students will use English to communicate more often
with
Table 4: Outer Circle varieties are wrong English
Table 5: Outer Circle varieties of English should be introduced to students.
Table 6: Importance of being aware of Outer circle varieties of English
Table 7: Likeliness of introducing Outer varieties of English to students
Table 8: How teachers would introduce Outer circle varieties to students
Table 9: Expanding Circle varieties are wrong English
Table 10: Expanding Circle varieties of English should be introduced to
students.
Table 11: Importance of being aware of Expanding circle varieties of English
Table 12: Outer vs. Expanding
Table 13: Likeliness of introducing Expanding Circle varieties of English to
students

Table 14: How teachers would introduce Expanding Circle varieties to
students

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LIST OF FIGURES AND CHARTS
Figure 1: The Kachru‘s Circle
Figure 2: The Kachru‘s Circle revised
Figure 3: The British Empire at its greatest extend Table 1: Number of
participants in each university
Chart 1: Varieties of English teachers are teaching
Chart 2: Vietnamese students will use English to communicate more often
with
Chart 3: Outer Circle varieties are wrong English
Chart 4: Outer Circle varieties of English should be introduced to students.
Chart 5: Importance of being aware of Outer Circle varieties of English
Chart 6: Likeliness of introducing Outer Circle varieties of English to students
Chart 7: Expanding Circle varieties are wrong English
Chart 8: Expanding Circle varieties of English should be introduced to
students.
Chart 9: Importance of being aware of Expanding circle varieties of English
Chart 10: Likeliness of introducing Expanding Circle varieties of English to
students

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
WEs

World Englishes

ELT

English Language Teaching

ENL

English as a Native Language

ESL

English as a Second Language

EFL

English as a Foreign Language

EIL

English as an International Language

ELF

English as a Lingua Franca

NS

Native speaker

NNS

Non-native speaker

TESOL Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATE OF AUTHORSHIP ....................................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... ii
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... iii
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... iv
LIST OF FIGURES AND CHARTS ................................................................................. v
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................... vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................ vii
Chapter I - INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 1
Chapter II: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................ 4
2.1. An Overview of World Englishes ........................................................................... 4
2.1.1. The Concept of World Englishes ...................................................................... 4
2.1.2. Models of World Englishes and Kachru's Circle ............................................... 5
2.1.3 The past, present, and future of English worldwide ........................................... 9

2.1.4. English in South East Asia ............................................................................. 13
2.1.5 The implications of World Englishes for ELT ................................................. 16
2.1.6. ELT in Vietnamese context ............................................................................ 20
2.2. Attitude and the importance of studies on attitude ................................................. 22
2.2.1. Concept, components, and measurement of attitude ....................................... 22
2.2.2 The importance of studies on attitude .............................................................. 24
2.3. Overview of previous researches on attitude toward WEs ..................................... 25
2.3.1. Studies on attitude toward WEs ...................................................................... 25
2.3.2. Studies on attitude toward WEs in Vietnam.................................................... 27
2.4. Concluding remarks .............................................................................................. 28
Chapter III: Research Methodology ................................................................................. 30
3.1 Research questions ................................................................................................ 30
3.2. Participants ........................................................................................................... 30
3.3. Data collection procedure ..................................................................................... 32
3.3.1. Survey ........................................................................................................... 32
3.3.2. Interview ........................................................................................................ 34
Chapter IV: Findings and Discussion ............................................................................... 36
4.1. Attitudes towards Outer Circle varieties ................................................................ 36

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4.1.1. Cognitive attitude ........................................................................................... 39
4.1.2. Behavioral attitude ......................................................................................... 44
4.2. Attitudes towards Expanding Circle varieties ........................................................ 46
4.2.1. Cognitive attitude ........................................................................................... 46
4.2.2. Behavioral attitude ......................................................................................... 53
Chapter V: CONCLUSION ............................................................................................. 60

5.1. Conclusion............................................................................................................ 60
5.2. Recommendation .................................................................................................. 63
5.3. Limitations of the study ........................................................................................ 64
REFERENCES................................................................................................................ 66
APPENDIXES ................................................................................................................... I

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Chapter I - INTRODUCTION
English has become the international language which performs the role
of a lingua franca for global communication. The number of non-native
speakers of English exceeds that of native speakers. Braine (2006) estimated
that ―80 per cent of the English speakers in the world are non-native English
speakers.” Together with this phenomenon is the rise in number of countries
which adopt English as a Second/Foreign language and use it in the new era
and influence it in their own way. As a result, English has been transformed
into Englishes (i.e. different varieties of English) and non-native speakers of
English are predicted to ―decide the global future of the language” (Crystal
2000, p.10).
World Englishes refers to at least two senses: Englishes of different
areas in the world (the Caribean, East, South, and West Africa, and Asia, etc.)
and the field of study Englishes worldwide (Bolton & Kachru 2005).

Since its background was constructed by Kachru, Crystal, Bolton, Jenkins,
and other scholars several decades ago, a considerable number of researchers
have contributed to the recognition of World Englishes and its study. Thus,
the field of World Englishes has been expanded with new branches and more
interest from scholars such as Jenkins, Seidlhofer, Firth, etc. on Phonetics and
Phonology, Pragmatics, Lexicogrammar; Jenkins, Matsuda, Timmis, etc. on
teachers‘ and learners‘ attitude, and so on.
Teachers‘ and learners‘ attitude is one of the key factors that contribute
to shape the future of English language teaching and learning of a country, as
Kachru & Nelson stated:
―It is essential for us to have more sociolinguistic information about the
attitudes towards, and domains and functions of English in each context,
especially as the use of English intersects with local languages. Users‘ and
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policy-makers‘ attitudes have impacts on the domains and functions of the
language, and all three — attitudes, domains and functions — together
determine the future developments in nativization and acculturation of the
medium.‖ (Kachru & Nelson 2011, p.323)
Therefore, attitudes have attracted attention from a great number of
researchers in different countries, such as Chiba, Matsuura, & Yamamoto
(1995), Kawanami & Kawanami (2009), and Tokuboto & Shibata (2011) on
Japanese‘s attitude. Another example is Ahn (2014) on Korean‘s. However, a
small number of studies have been done on attitude of Vietnamese teachers
and learners toward World Englishes.
In Vietnam, English has become the primary foreign language and the
teaching and learning of English is encouraged by the government all over the

country. Therefore, the number of Vietnamese with the ability to speak
English has been significantly increased. However, few researches have been
done about the English of Vietnamese, which belongs to The Expanding
Circle in Kachru‘s model of English, or attitude of Vietnamese towards
Englishes.
This study, based on background theory and researches on attitude
towards different varieties of English in other countries, aims to fill in the gap
in the study of the attitudes towards World Englishes in Vietnam. It is an
attempt to describe the attitudes of Vietnamese university teachers of English
towards the introduction of World Englishes into English teaching and
learning in Vietnam.
Therefore, the results of this study would contribute to the description
of what Vietnamese teachers think about the introduction of World Englishes
to their students. Findings of the research would also have implications on
ELT in Vietnam in terms of the teaching and learning of EIL. Last but not

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least, it would provide empirical evidence to support or decline results of
previous researches on attitudes of Vietnamese teachers and students, for
example, Ton & Pham (2012), Ngo (2012), Tran & Moor (2015).
The research concentrates on describing attitudes of teachers of English
in Vietnamese universities, with focus on leading universities in foreign
languages and international studies. They are the ones with the most influence
to current situation and future direction of ELT in Vietnam. The goal of the
research is interpreted into two research questions as following:
1. What are attitudes of Vietnamese university teachers of English towards the

introduction of Outer Circle varieties of English to their students?
2. What are attitudes of Vietnamese university teachers of English towards the
introduction of Expanding Circle varieties of English to their students?
The thesis has the following chapters:
Chapter I: INTRODUCTION, presents statement of the problem and
rationale for the study, aims, scope, significance, and outline of the study.
Chapter II: LITERATURE REVIEW, clarifies theoretical background
and related studies relevant for the research.
Chapter III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, elicits information
related to research questions, research methods, data collection, data
procedure, and data analysis.
Chapter IV: FINDINGS AND DISSCUSION includes the core of the
study. Their results of the survey and interview will be presented and
discussed to describe teachers‘ cognitive and behavioral attitude.
Chapter V: CONCLUSION, summarizes essential findings, provides
some linguistic and pedagogical implications, and gives suggestions for
further studies.
Besides, there are REFERENCES and APPENDIXES at the end of the research.

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Chapter II: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. An Overview of World Englishes
2.1.1. The Concept of World Englishes
World Englishes (WEs), also alternatively used in singular form by a
number of scholars, has been used to present a number of concepts. Different
scholars suggest and favor different terms which are often duplicated and

overlapping, though confusions and misinterpretations are probably limited as
Jenkins (2006) pointed out. For example, World English(es), Global
English(es), English as an International Language, English as Global
Language, etc. This section, therefore, is an attempt to briefly summarize
them and identify one that would be the most appropriate and beneficial for
purposes of this paper.
Bolton (2006, p.241) summarized three major interpretations of WEs
among “a plethora of terminology”. First, the notion of WEs includes ―a
wide range of differing approaches to the description and analysis of
English(es) worldwide.” In other words, WEs in this broad sense refers to
different varieties of English worldwide and the branch of research on issues
related to them.
Second, the term specifies varieties of English in former British
colonies including English in the Caribbean, West and East Africa, and some
countries and territories in Asia. This sense is regularly used in both research
works of the field, such as in Jenkins (2006), and teaching methods
publications, such as Celce-Murcia et. al. (2014). Within the scope of this
terminology, WEs refers to the varieties of English which are also indicated
as ―New Englishes‖ by scholars such as Crystal (1997, 2003) and Schneider
(2011), as Kachru‘s ―Outer Circle‖, or as English as a Second Language
(ESL).

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Third, WEs is used to describe the “pluricentric approach” (Jenkins
2006, p. 159) of Kachru and the Kachruvian scholars. This approach
inclusively explores aspects of global Englishes with respect to their

diversities.
To serve the purposes of this research, the researcher would like to
adopt the term WEs to refer to varieties of English in former British colonies
and in countries where English is used as a foreign language. That means
Kachru‘s Outer and Expanding Circle, or ESL and EFL. Other terms such as
non-native varieties of English would also be used simultaneously.
2.1.2. Models of World Englishes and Kachru's Circle
English has spread to almost every part of the world together with the
rapid globalization and industrialization of the world‘s economy. It has been
globalized and become the lingua franca for the purpose of international
communications. Meanwhile, it has also been localized by a growing number
of speakers and their cultures; thus different varieties of English, or Englishes,
were created. Scholars hold different opinions toward the glocalization of
English; however, Englishes flourish and attempts to distinguish them have
yet withered away.
Native vs. Non-native
The most commonly-known model of Englishes is probably the Native
– Non-native model which categorize Englishes into English as a Native
Language (ENL), English as a Second Language (ESL), and English as a
Foreign Language (EFL).
This model, based on the ―long-asserted requirement of exposure in
early childhood‖ (Kachru &Nelson, 2011), is a pioneer attempt to
differentiate Englishes.

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 ENL refers to English in countries where English is used by the

majority of population as the primary language for every aspect of life,
for example, The United Kingdom and The United States.
 ESL is the varieties of English in countries where English is used as an
important language in communication. In those countries, English
could be the official language (for instance, Singapore) or not (for
example, Malaysia).
 EFL, which has highest number of speaker, refers to varieties of
English in countries where English is used primarily in education and
international communication. In everyday situations, a native language
is in charge.
It does have, however, its own issues. The first one is that it suggests a
sense of superiority of ENL over ESL and EFL (Kirkpatrick 2007), and
apparently, also ESL over EFL. This distinction also affects the learners‘
advance contact with English, learners‘ expectation of success, average level
of achievement, and learners‘ and teachers‘ goals for success (Strevens, 1992,
cited in Kachru & Nelson, 2011, p. 26).
Kachru’s Model of World Englishes, or Kachru’s Circle
Based on ―types of spread, the patterns of acquisition and the
functional domains in which English is used across cultures and languages
(B. Kachru (1985, p.12), he proposed a model of World Englishes in which he
divided Englishes into the Inner Circle, the Outer Circle, and the Expanding
Circle.

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Fig. 1: The Kachru‘s Circle, cited in Graddol (2007, p. 100)
Kachru himself, as cited in Kirkpatrick (2007, p.28), explained his

Circle as followed. First, Inner Circle includes “traditional cultural and
linguistic bases of English,” like British English, American English, etc.
Second, Outer Circle indicates “institutionalized non-native varieties in the
regions that have passed through extended period of colonization,” for
example, South Africa, Malaysia, India, etc. Finally, Expanding Circle refers
to English in countries where it is used “essentially in EFL context.” In other
words, English is used primarily in educational context and in global
communication (Schneider, 2011); and another language (in this case is the
native language) plays its irreplaceable role in everyday life situations.
The Kachru‘s Circle is probably the most influential model by far for
researchers of World Englishes. One advantage of this model over the Native
– Non-native one is that it does not suggest inequality among varieties of
English (Kachru & Nelson, 2011; Kirkpatrick, 2007). This implication of

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equality, as stated by Schneider (2011, p. 32), contributes to the increase of
“self-confidence in localized varieties of English and strongly influenced
language teaching and applied linguistics.” In fact, through recognition and
description of English in pluralistic context, it proposes and enhances the
diversities of English.
This model, on the other hand, has its limitations as varieties of English
changes together with its rapid expansion. For example, a number of
researchers (Graddol, 2007; Jenkins, 2008; Schneider, 2011) stated that the
boundary among circles has been blurred and the Circle has failed to take into
account growing phenomena like bilingualism.
Kachru, therefore, proposed a revised model of Englishes based solely

on user‘ proficiency of English.

Fig. 2: The Kachru‘s Circle revised, cited in Graddol (2007, p. 100)
However, this revised model has not received plethora of applications
in the field; thus not as influential as its old version.
Generally, multiple models of English varieties have been proposed
and discussed. However, the two model summarized above are the most
common and influential ones to scholars of the field. To serve the purposes of
this study, the researcher would like to adopt the Kachru‘s Circle of Inner,

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Outer, and Expanding Circle. First, this model categorizes Englishes
varieties and proposes equality while retaining diversity as well as the culture
associated with them, which other models such as the revised version has
failed to describe. Second, its disadvantages is not a considerable hindrance
because the study does not particularly involve with bilingualism. Finally,
World Englishes/Global English(es) is a new concept to many of the teachers
in Vietnam; therefore, this model, which based on the ENL-ESL-EFL model
would become more familiar to them.
2.1.3 The past, present, and future of English worldwide
This section provides a brief review of the historical background for the
spread of English worldwide and description of current situations and
predictions about the future of English.
The spread of English worldwide
Crystal (2003, p.59) addressed two primary elements for the current
status of English as a global language: the expansion of the British colonial

power and the emergence of the United States as the leading economic power.
The spread of English globally started in the 16th century along with the
expansion of the British Empire to North America, the Caribbean, and
Australia and New Zealand, South Africa, South Asia, and South East Asia.

Fig. 3: The British Empire at its greatest extend (Schneider 2011, p. 50)
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After the Empire collapsed in the end of the 19th century, some
countries like the U.S., Canada, Australia, New Zealand continued to use
English as their main language, which created new versions of ―native
English.‖ In some other colonies, English was adopted as the official
language (Singapore), or continued to be used as an alternative language
beside their mother tongue (India, Malaysia, South Africa, etc.).
In the 20th century, the rise of the United States further encouraged the
use of English as a lingua franca for the purpose of international
communication worldwide. Thus the role of English in this century is settled.
English in the present
It is undeniable that English is a global language. Schneider (2011)
estimated that there were approximately 350 and 380 million speakers of
English as the first language, 600 million of speakers of English as a second
language, and 500 million and 1500 million speakers of English as a foreign
language at various levels fluency. This number is rapidly growing as more
and more countries, especially in Asia, adopt English as their primary foreign
language, for example, China and Vietnam.
Schneider also described two main trends in the development of
English: Internationalization and Localization. First, English is being

internationalized, associated with the term English as an Internal Language,
English as a Global Language, or English as a Lingua Franca regardless of
origins and other social factors related to the speakers. In fact, the majority of
communication is among non-native participants and between non-native and
native participants, which was caused by the fact that the number of nonnative speakers of English nowadays exceeds that of native speakers. EIL or
ELF has received considerable attentions from researchers and multiple works
on the topic have been published on its characteristics and implications in

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ELT, for example, Jenkins (2006, 2009a, 2009b, 2009c, 2012), Seidlholfer
(2003, 2009), Kirkpatrick (2007, 2012).
The other trend, which seems to contradict the first one, is the
“localization, indigenization, and nativization of English” (Schneider 2011,
p.53). As English spreads to different cultures, it develops its own forms
under the influence of local languages and cultures, thus generates localized
English, or English in the Outer and Expanding Circle. In the Outer Circle,
this localized English is cherished by indigenous people and becomes the
―symbol of regional identities” (p. 54). In other words, these speakers
consider this English part of their characteristics and use it to distinguish
themselves from other speakers of English. In the Expanding Circle,
especially in East Asia, younger speakers seem to be promoting their
localized English as a mean to express their own identity, as well as to
establish their global identity (Jenkins 2009c, p.54). A large number of
researches have been carried out on non-native varieties of English, for
example, Kirkpatrick (2012a, 2012b), Bolton (2002), and contributors from
different countries.

The future of English
Current developing trends of English may lead to different outcome for
the future of the language. There are both optimistic and less optimistic
predictions on the position of English in the future and for speakers of the
language in all three Circles.
As Jones and Bradwell (2007, p.19) describe have described, British
and other native-speaking countries may meet three challenges in the future.
First, it is the “risk of becoming outdated and possibly resented.” Second, it
is possible that they will miss out on opportunities that knowing another
language may bring. Finally, it may be disadvantaged for them to “operate

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multilingually in a globalised world” compared with other non-native
speakers. In other words, speakers of English in Outer and Expanding Circle,
who are bilingual or trilingual and experienced in a multi-lingual and multicultural environment, will be in favored position in competition for
opportunities in a flatten world. Graddol (2007, p. 117) also confirmed that
the cultural flows are now multi-directional and that native speakers may be
seen as “an obstacle to the free development of global English”.
In Outer and Expanding Circle, Graddol has emphasized that English is
growing vigorously, especially in Asia where English is becoming “an Asian
lingua franca” or English as an Asian language. Moreover, it is expected that
speakers of English will signal their identity through their English accent and
a non-native accent will no longer be seen as “a sign of poor competence.”
This means that the status of non-native speakers will be enhanced. English
will no longer be the language of native speakers; instead, it will truly become
the language of the world.

On the other hand, there might be a more pessimistic vision for
English. Ostler (2010) has pointed out that English might lose its position as a
lingual franca, if its localization process creates new varieties which is
intelligible for speakers of other varieties – the same case as Latin in ancient
time. However, he has also stated out that this scenario is unlikely to happen.
In conclusion, the past and the present of English demonstrate the fact that the
expansion of English has been and is inevitable, and that this expansion is
likely to continue in the future. English is becoming a global language. There
are positive expectations for the future of English and its international
speakers. English as a global language may become barriers for the
development and integration of countries with lower proficiency of English.

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2.1.4. English in South East Asia
Due to the dominance of ASEAN (Associations of Southeast Asian
Nations) in the region, this chapter will focus on status of English in the
education system and in societies of ASEAN countries.
English functions as the lingua franca for the political, economic, and
cultural co-operations of ASEAN members. It was stated in Article 34 of
ASEAN Charter (2008) that “The working language of ASEAN shall be
English.” Therefore, it is vitally important for citizens of ASEAN countries to
learn English and those who speak fluent English will certainly have
advantages over those who do not.
The majority of countries in the South East Asia belong to the
Expanding Circle, except for Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and
Brunei which were former colonies of the British Empire, and by definition

belong to the Outer Circle of World Englishes.
Outer Circle Countries
In Outer Circle countries in South East Asia, English is used as a
second language, mostly by the middle and upper classes. Governments of
these countries are implementing bilingual or multi-lingual language policy to
ensure that their future generations are able to use English and their mothertongue.
Singapore
English is the dominant language of the country and is used widely in
every aspect of their citizens‘ life. Schneider (2011, p.159) reported that it has
become the native language for a large number of young Singaporean. He
also stated that there is “a recognizable standard form” of Singaporean
English being used along with an “informal indigenous variety” which is
usually referred to as Singlish (p.160). This highly localized variety, which is

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usually used in everyday communication, is prevented by the government
(Hung 2009, Schneider 2011). In education, the government of Singapore
promotes a language policy that all subjects are taught in English while other
languages become subjects. In other words, Singaporean children are
expected to learn at least two languages (English and their mother-tongue).
Malaysia
Bahasa Malaysia or Malaysian was adopted as the official language
after the country regained their independence in 1957. The role of English
was decreased and nowadays it is used prominently by people with wealth
and status.
In education, Malaysian is used as the medium of instruction in the

education system. English had been used as the medium of instruction for
several years until its implementation was terminated in 2012, because
students from disadvantaged backgrounds could not keep up with
mathematics and science when they are taught in English (Kirkpatrick 2012b)
The Philippines
In the Philippines, the national language is Tagalog, or Filipino while
there are 100 languages spoken in different regions of the Philippines
(Kirkpatrick 2012b). According to Schneider (2011), approximately 75% of
the population is able to use English and more than 50% speaks the language.
In education, the government attempts to implement a multi-lingual language
policy which emphasizes the role of mother-tongue as the language of
instruction.
Brunei
In Brunei, English and Malay are the most popularly used languages. In
the education system, the government implements a bi-lingual language
policy of English and Malay with the former being the primary medium of

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