(LUẬN văn THẠC sĩ) an investigation into students’ willingness to communicate english in speaking lessons of first year students at an institute of education management in vietnam

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST- GRADUATE STUDIES

NGUYỄN THỊ HOAN

AN INVESTIGATION INTO STUDENTS’ WILLINGNESS TO SPEAK
ENGLISH IN SPEAKING LESSONS OF FIRST YEAR STUDENTS AT
AN INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION MANAGEMENT IN VIETNAM

(Nghiên cứu sự sẵn sàng trong các giờ học nói tiếng Anh của sinh viên
năm thứ nhất tại một Học viện Quản lí Giáo dục – Việt Nam)

M.A. MINOR PROGRAM THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 814023101

HA NOI – 2019

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VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST- GRADUATE STUDIES

NGUYỄN THỊ HOAN

AN INVESTIGATION INTO STUDENTS’ WILLINGNESS TO SPEAK
ENGLISH IN SPEAKING LESSONS OF FIRST YEAR STUDENTS AT

AN INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION MANAGEMENT IN VIETNAM

(Nghiên cứu sự sẵn sàng trong các giờ học nói tiếng Anh của sinh viên
năm thứ nhất tại một Học viện Quản lí Giáo dục – Việt Nam)

M.A. MINOR PROGRAM THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 814023101
Supervisor: Dr. Dương Thu Mai

HA NOI – 2019

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DECLARATION
I hereby certify that the thesis entitled “An investigation into
students‟ willingness to speak English in speaking lessons of first-year
students at an Institute of Education Management in Vietnam” is my own
research for the Minor Degree of Master of Arts at University of
Languages and International Studies, VNU – Hanoi. The thesis has not
been submitted for any degree at any other universities or institutions. I
agree that the origin of my paper deposited in the library can be accessible for
the purposes of study.

Hanoi, 2019

Nguyen Thi Hoan

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my deepest thanks to my supervisor, Dr.
Duong Thu Mai for the invaluable support, guidance, and timely
encouragement she gave me while I was doing this research. I am truly
grateful to her for her advice and suggestions right from the beginning
when this study was only in its formative stage.
My special thanks also go to teachers of English and students of
National Institute of Education Management for their participation to the
study as the subjects of the study. Without them, this project could not
have been so successful.
I am particularly grateful to my close friends for their helping me
with valuable reference documents and data for my research.
Last but not least, I owe a great debt of gratitude to my family who
have constantly inspired and encouraged me to complete this research.

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ABSTRACT

This study is an attempt to investigate to the current willingness to
communicate (WTC) in English of freshmen at a university in Vietnam.

This cross-sectional survey research primarily focuses on students‟ level
of WTC and factors affecting WTC in the classroom by means of a
questionnaire survey and a semi-structured interview. In order to
accomplish this thesis, a mixed method design was employed in order to
explore the construct of WTC.
The results revealed that students‟ willingness to communicate was
nearly “sometimes willing to communicate”, mean is 1.9 in the four-value
scale. The factors to encourage and discourage their willingness to
communicate range from social setting, self-perceived communicative
competence, motivation, personality, teacher‟s role to language anxiety.
The results of the study contribute to an understanding of WTC in the
higher education context in Vietnam.
Keywords: Willingness to communicate, social setting, communicative
competence, motivation, communicative competence

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

L2

Second Language

WTC

Willingness to Communicate

NIEM

National Institute of Education Management

ELT

English Language Teaching

EFL

English as Foreign Language

CC

Communicative Competence

CA

Communication Apprehension

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION .............................................................................................. i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................ ii
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................... iii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................... iv

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................ vii
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................... vii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................. 1
1.1. Statements of the problem and the rationale of the study ................... 1
1.2. Aims of the study ...................................................................................... 2
1.3. Objectives of the study ............................................................................. 2
1.4. Significance of the study .......................................................................... 2
1.5. Scope of the study ..................................................................................... 3
1.6. Methods of the study ................................................................................ 3
1.7. Design of the thesis ................................................................................... 3
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW...................................................... 5
2.1. Willingness to communicate .................................................................... 5
2.2. Factors Influencing WTC ........................................................................ 9
2.3. Previous Studies into Willingness to Communicate ........................... 12
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ....................................... 18
3.1. The Context............................................................................................. 18
3.2. Research Design ..................................................................................... 19
3.3. Participants ............................................................................................. 20
3.4. Instrumentations .................................................................................... 20
3.4.1. Questionnaires ....................................................................................... 20
3.4.2. Interviews .............................................................................................. 21
3.5. Data collection procedures .................................................................... 23
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3.6. Data analysis procedures ....................................................................... 23
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ........................................ 25
4.1. Results of the research question 1 ........................................................ 25

4.2. Results of the research question 2 ........................................................ 29
4.2.1. Social settings........................................................................................ 29
4.2.2. Self-perceived communicative competence ......................................... 30
4.2.3. Motivation ............................................................................................. 31
4.2.4. Personality ............................................................................................. 32
4.2.5. Teacher‟s role ........................................................................................ 33
4.2.6. Language anxiety .................................................................................. 33
4.2.7. Speaking activities ................................................................................ 34
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION ..................................................................... 36
5.1. Summary of the study ............................................................................ 36
5.2. Limitations of the study ......................................................................... 37
5.3. Contribution of the research and pedagogical implications .............. 37
5.4. Recommendations for further study .................................................... 38
REFERENCES .............................................................................................. 40
APPENDIXES .................................................................................................. I
Appendix 1: ...................................................................................................... I
Appendix 2: ................................................................................................... III
Appendix 3: .................................................................................................... V
Appendix 4: ................................................................................................... VI
Appendix 5: ..................................................................................................VII

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Descriptive statistics of each degree of willingness (N=115) ........ 26

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: The hypothesized mode (Joe et al., 2017, p. 136) ........................... 13
Figure 2: Cyclical thematic content analysis .................................................. 24

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1. Statements of the problem and the rationale of the study
English used to be studied merely for passing paper exams, which leads
to students‟ major focus on grammar. However, the demand of studying
English as an international means of communication has been escalating
during the last few decades in Vietnam. The awareness that studying a
foreign language as a means of communication has been raised for the
public via many policies of the Ministry of Education and Training. As a
result, more students have special interest in learning English, particularly
speaking skills, when they enter university.
In fact, college students in Vietnam, especially freshmen, have some
problems in English speaking performance. They want to practice speaking
but they still encounter big obstacles to raise their voice. They maintain
some studying habits of focusing on grammar and vocabulary rather than on
speaking skills. This is why they often find it hard to present their ideas or
they feel too shy to speak in front of others.
In the field of second or foreign language acquisition, that students feel
shy in speaking can be defined as “willingness to speak”. Willingness to
communicate has been seen as a crucial factor to boost the communicative
competence and communication apprehension (MacIntyre, 2007). There have

been studies on this theme, however, there are various variables affecting a
successful model of willingness to communicate. Students‟ level of
willingness to communicate may vary and be conditioned by communication
variables (Galajda, 2017).
Despite some research into this issue of students‟ willingness to
communicate, most of the studies have been conducted in different contexts.

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In Vietnam, there have been two studies about willingness to communicate in
2012 and 2014 with limitations in research design and data. All these
conditions have motivated the researcher to conduct “An investigation into
students‟ willingness to speak English in speaking lessons of first year
students at an Institute of Education Management in Vietnam”. This present
study hopes to provide an update of the literature, more in-depth data and a
close look at this issue from the students‟ perception of WTC.
1.2. Aims of the study
The research is designed to investigate the level of the willingness to
communicate (WTC) of the first-year students at the National Institute of
Education Management (NIEM). First, this research investigates the current
levels of WTC in English speaking lessons; its second objective is to find out
about factors affecting WTC basing on the results obtained from survey
questionnaires and interview. Finally, some solutions that encourage students
from participating in speaking lessons will be suggested.
1.3. Objectives of the study
The objectives can be guided by two research questions as follows:
1. What is the level of willingness to communicate in English of NIEM

first-year students?
2. What factors affect their willingness to communicate in English in
speaking lessons?
1.4. Significance of the study
Once having been completed, this research would make a useful
contribution to the existing literature on the issue of willingness to
communicate in Vietnam. This study seeks to help language teachers at NIEM
in particular and higher education teachers in Vietnam in general stay aware
of the need for the factors affecting WTC in the local contexts. Especially, for

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teachers who have the same interest in the topic, this would become a helpful
source of references.
1.5. Scope of the study
This present research is concerned with the students‟ level of WTC and
factors affecting their WTC. This study misses out the teacher‟s perceptions
and other institutional factors regarding this issue.
The study targets at first year students, and in English speaking lessons.
They have general knowledge of English but they still have sluggish reactions
to English – speaking environment. Furthermore, having just left high
schools, they still kept some habits of studying of high school: grammar,
vocabulary and pronunciation to pass the national exam which may need time
and environment to change.
1.6. Methods of the study
This is a cross-sectional survey research. There are two instruments to
collect the data: questionnaires and interviews. Firstly, questionnaires help to

collect a considerable amount of information in a short period of time and it
can be used with many people in various situations (Foddy, 1994). The
interviews were taken place in a natural context and were recorded for later
transcriptions (Foddy, 1994).
1.7. Design of the thesis
The thesis includes 3 parts:
Part one, “Introduction” presents the rationale, the objectives, the scope, the
tasks, the methods, the significance and the design of the study.
Part two, “Development” has three chapters:
Chapter 1: Literature review provides the background of the study, including
definition of key concepts such as willingness to communicate in second
language (L2), roles of teachers and students, speaking competence, speaking

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in second language learning and teaching and a critical review of
contemporary related studies.
Chapter 2: Methodology describes the participants and instruments of the
study, as well as the process employed to carry out the research.
Chapter 3: Findings and discussion from the collected data are represented and
in connection with the research questions and previous studies.
Part three: Conclusion summarizes the main issues discussed in the paper, the
limitations of the research, recommendations related to research topic as well
as suggestions for further research.

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

The simplest format of a literature review is a summary of the relevant
literature (Jesson, Matheson, & Lacey, 2011). This format consists of two
main sections. The first section reviews definition of key terms includes the
concept of willingness, communication, willingness to communicate. The
second section presents WTC in history and some related studies. According
to Jesson et al. (2011, p. 92), “it is not necessary to copy out all the
methodological details of each study – you have given a reference so the
reader can do that if it is relevant – but what we need to know are the key
points and that depends on the framework and focus of your research
questions”. In so doing, Appendix 5 shows a table of research instruments
which links the research questions to research objectives, methods, research
tools and to literature review.
2.1. Willingness to communicate
This section reviews key concepts in Willingness to Communicate
(WTC) and it seeks to provide the overall literature of Willingness to
Communicate. It first discusses the term willingness and goes on to present
communication. In WTC, there are four central things we must take into
consideration (Galajda, 2017): the situation of communication; who we
communicate with (interpersonal communication); how much we can
communicate (communicative competence); and the chances that we
communicate (opportunities to communicate).
Oxford Learner Dictionary (Hornby, 2015, p. 1764) defines
“willingness” as the quality or state of being prepared to do something or
emphasizes readiness to act or the quality of being happy and ready to do
something. For example, success in studying depends on a willingness to

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learn. It is also believed to be a communicative behavior to contribute to
interaction as well as to speak and write in the classroom (MystkowskaWiertelak & Pawlak, 2017).
“The word communication has quite a different root meaning” (Barker,
2010, p. 1) but there is an assumption that “communication is about moving
something: about conveying, or sending, or delivering some commodity
called

„information‟” (Barker, 2010, p. 1). First and foremost, Take

communication in English as an example. Speaking is the productive skill in
the oral mode (Lazaraton, 2001). It is not simply pronouncing words but it
includes many other skills. In order to make listeners understand what is
being said, speaker should follow certain rules in terms of content and
pronunciation. Firstly, in terms of pronunciation, speakers have to pronounce
clearly, use stress, rhythm and intonation patterns. Secondly, to make
meaningful utterance, appropriate vocabulary, word orders and word forms
should be paid attention to. In addition, the idea of speaking should be
comprehensible thanks to the close relationship of main idea and supporting ones
(Peck, 2001).
The notion of Willingness to Communicate itself was originally
investigated in a study from the perspective of communication in the first
language (L1) (Burgoon, 1976), MacIntyre, Clement, Dornyei, and Noels
(1998) were coined for its first introduction and application of the WTC
concept into L2 communication. They view WTC as the “readiness to enter

into discourse at a particular time with a specific person or persons, using a
L2” (MacIntyre et al., 1998, p. 547).
Willingness to communicate can be understood as the probability of
engaging in communication when the students are free to choose to do so. In
simple words, WTC just means an individual‟s intention to the behaviors of
communication.

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Willing to Communicate was first used to measure the speaker‟s
tendency to approach or avoid starting communication because it was defined
as an individual‟s general personality orientation towards talking according to
McCroskey and Richmond (1987). McCroskey and Richmond (1990) latter
identified

introversion,

self-esteem,

communication

competence,

communication apprehension, and cultural diversity as antecedents that lead
to differences in L1 WTC. To further specify the conceptualization of WTC,
Levine and McCroskey (1990) restated and defined that the WTC trait is an
individual‟s predisposition to initiate communication with others. Therefore,

WTC was initially treated as a personality-based or trait-like predisposition
which showed stable individual differences over time and across varied
situations.
The situation of communication is also crucial; speaker have to take
credit of the relationship with listeners. It is in this sense, the personal needs are
taken into account. Every time people communicate with each other, they need
to realize their aims and needs (Galajda, 2017). Personal goals can be the drive
of self-presentation, therefore, when people communicate, they need to have a
shared feelings, norms, respect or the desire to keep the relationship going. Thus,
interpersonal communication is formed and “serves as an instrument to
manipulate others and accomplish personal goals” (Galajda, 2017, p. 2).
Interpersonal communication is defined as “communication between and
among members of a task group who meet for a common purpose or goal” (West
& Turner, 2011, p. 5 as cited in Galajda, 2017, p2). In this sense, to have a
successful communication in a group, group members should have common
goals, and the language used in the group, or in a narrower sense, in the
classroom should represent the society. A variety of communicative activities are
needed at this point of time to bond the group members together and to help

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them realize their personal goals by sharing meaning with the others in the group
and searching for common ground (Galajda, 2017). At this point, in order to
understand the whole communication process, one need to consider all nonverbal signals beside verbal ones. In the context of a classroom, non-verbal
communication even plays a more vital role when it is used for dealing with
situations in which verbal communication is hesitated.
Communicative competence (CC) is a difficult concept to define. From

an unambitious definition, CC can come close to the construct of an effective
communication (McCroskey & Richmond, 1990). From the historical point of
view, Hymes (1972) discusses the notion of “an ideal speaker-listener with
perfect linguistic knowledge” (Chomsky, 1965, 2014) as not the nature of CC.
He defines CC as practical needs and natural communication or the ability for
performance (Hymes, 1972). From a more modern perspective, Rodriques
(2000, as cited in Galajda, 2017) looks at language proficiency as both
competence and performance since it is the actual realization of the competence.
Opportunities to communicate in the classroom has become a central
part of communicative language teaching (CLT) and it is a core principle in
the post method era, as well as contemporary approaches to instructed
language learning (Ellis, 2014). Even when there are opportunities for
meaningful oral practice in the teaching material, most teachers have
experienced their careful lesson preparations with not much fruitfulness for
their students and there seem to have willingness to engage in the speaking
activities in an English classroom context. This may find the explanations in
various underlying reasons such as speaking anxiety (Jackson, 2002; Liu &
Jackson, 2008; Roach, 2009), the time assigned to in-class communicative
activities (MacIntyre, Burns, & Jessome, 2011), class size (Sun, 2012), outof-class language learning opportunities (Lai, Zhu, & Gong, 2015) or a lack

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of learning community (Reid & Trofimovich, 2018), the students‟ neglect in
research on computer-mediated foreign language learning (Buckingham &
Alpaslan, 2017); student‟s motivation (Hashimoto, 2002; Joe, Hiver, & AlHoorie, 2017; Yoko, 2016) and so on.
In conclusion, this section helps to form the theoretical framework for
the present studies and it also present an awareness on four important

conditions of WTC.
2.2. Factors Influencing WTC
This section reviews the factors affecting Willingness to Communicate
in English. These factors are not all but they are the most relevant and crucial
to WTC (MacIntyre et al., 1998).
Noticeably, there are various researchers who have investigated the
teacher’s roles on WTC (Frymier, 2009; Gol, Zand-Moghadam, & Karrabi,
2014; Joe et al., 2017; Khodarahmia & Nia, 2014; Kuutila, 2014; Sari, 2016;
Skinner & Belmont, 1993). The role of a teacher as an interlocutor in the
process of facilitating a group is crucial and a teacher who wants to become
successful in this process should be well-aware of the different leadership
styles (Galajda, 2017). What a teacher say or do can have an intermediate
influence on students‟ WTC (Frymier, 2009).
Besides, self-perceived communicative competence is believed to be
another crucial factor in the way students behave as a self-reported trait-based
construct. Donovan and MacIntyre (2005) focused on self-perceived
communicative competence of junior high school and university students and
concluded that university females have more negative perception while the
males self-perceived CC as a good predictor to WTC. Dilbeck, McCroskey,
Richmond,

and

McCroskey

(2009)

investigated

self-perceived

communication competence in relation with WTC and concluded that people

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with high self-perceived CC are more likely to be willing to communicate.
While, Covin, Donovan, and MacIntyre (2003) looked into the relationship
between self-esteem and performance and concluded that student‟s perception
of one‟s self-esteem might have a strong influence on WTC.
Language anxiety, in WTC as a third factor, may well lead to both
personal and social issues, especially in the context of second or foreign
language education. The relationship between language anxiety and WTC has
also been of interest to many scholars (Gregersen, Meza, & MacIntyre,
2014; Jackson, 2002; Liu & Jackson, 2008; MacIntyre, 1995; MacIntyre,
Baker, Clement, & Donovan, 2003; MacIntyre & Gardner, 1989; Roach,
2009). Communication apprehension (CA), the term itself is a part of
language anxiety, was coined by McCrosky (1970) and this has been a
crucial interest to scholars, which is the level of anxiety triggered by the real
or anticipated communication act. This issue has been investigated in
correlation with WTC by a number of scholars (Burgoon, 1976; Donovan &
MacIntyre, 2005; Levine & McCroskey, 1990; Sallinen-Kuparinen,
McCroskey, & Richmond, 1991).
The fourth factor affecting WTC is social setting of a classroom,
various interaction processes take place, which decide the interpersonal
relationship of the group (Clement, Baker, & MacIntyre, 2003). The central
aims of group dynamics are to maintain positive classroom climate,
disciplines and norms, which has a strong influence on WTC (Ark, 1981; Cao

& Philp, 2006; Clement et al., 2003; Clement, Dornyei, & Noels, 1994 ;
Dornyei & Kormos, 2000; Khodarahmia & Nia, 2014).
Personality, the fifth factor, is seen essentially as a trait because WTC
reflects that stable conditions that makes someone likely to talk in various
situations (MacIntyre et al., 1998). Personality is also „the basis or platform

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on which the rest of the influences operate, the foundation on which the
pyramid is built‟ (MacIntyre et al., 1998, p. 546). In a more recent study,
Zeng (2010) explored factors influencing WTC and he concluded that the
familiarity with the environment, the effect of the relaxing classroom,
teacher support, personality, self-confidence, fear of making mistakes and
being embarrassed or having bad impressions were top factors. In a most
recent work into WTC, Reid and Trofimovich (2018) found out that the
extent of communicative interactions, and various speaker personality
variables such as shyness, nervousness or extraversion resulting in varying
levels of L2 WTC. MacIntyre et al. (1998, p. 548) conclude that “at the
center of our model of Willingness to Communicate is an individual who
has some control over his or her actions and is behaving in a reasoned
manner to achieve his or her goals.”
Motivation, the sixth factor, has its root in the amount of interest in
establishing a relationship with the other speakers or with the interlocutor
(MacIntyre et at., 1998). In a another study, Liu and Park (2012) found out
that the motivation of students for English language learning is the key in
WTC and there is a path between motivation and WTC. It is also the desire to
communicate with a person in the classroom. Motivation can be understood as

if a teacher asks his or her students a question, several students may raise their
hands to show their desire to answer the question. Even if only one student
among many has the opportunity to answer the question in L2, all of the
students raising their hands can be considered as expressing L2 WTC and
regarded as a communicative behavior in the L2 (MacIntyre et al., 1998).
In conclusion, this section recognizes six crucial factors affecting WTC
and we will take these factors for granted that they will occur in WTC and it
becomes the goals of our research.

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2.3. Previous Studies into Willingness to Communicate
The section reviews the previous studies into WTC, in which various
aspects of previous research are described such as methods, research designs
or approaches and their findings. Then, it focuses on previous studies in Asian
context so that we can have a clear picture of WTC in the local context.
In the past decade, a number of studies into L2 WTC have been carried
out in order to explore the relationships between L2 WTC and various
variables, such as personality, self-confidence, attitudes, and motivation
(Lialikhova, 2018; MacIntyre & Charos, 1996). Among a number of
individual variables, self-confidence has been frequently, by many researchers
found to be the most immediate antecedent of L2 WTC (Clement et al., 2003;
MacIntyre & Charos, 1996). A number of factors have also been identified as
directly or indirectly a predictive of WTC, including personality (Cetinkaya,
2005; Lim, 1994; MacIntyre & Charos, 1996; McCroskey & Richmond,
1987), gender and age, and social support and learning contexts (Asmali,
2016; Bergil, 2016; Clement et al., 2003; MacIntyre et al., 2003). Some other

factors such as security, excitement, responsibility, and classroom
environment have also been discovered to have an influence on WTC (Joe et
al., 2017; Kang, 2005; Khodarahmia & Nia, 2014).
Besides, there have been several studies that still based on the literature
of the MacIntyre et al.‟s (1998) model but uncovered additional significant
variables not included in the MacIntyre‟s heuristic model. Compton (2007)
qualitatively examined how content and context affects the WTC of the
international teaching assistants at U.S. universities, and their participation in
the classroom. The study partially supported MacIntyre et al.‟s (1998) model
in their claim that perceived confidence increases WTC in L2. However, indepth exploration of the results found that international posture and cultural

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factors were identified as important content variables influencing the
participant‟s WTC. In a study of L2 learners‟ own perceptions of factors
contributing to WTC, House (2004) suggests other factors such as perceived
politeness, the role of physical locality, the presence of the opposite sex,
mood and the topic under discussion were also found to be minor influences
affecting WTC in different contexts.
Most recently, scholars have continued to investigated WTC from
different perspectives and different variables (Buckingham & Alpaslan,
2017; Galajda, 2017; Joe et al., 2017; Lialikhova, 2018; MacIntyre,
Gregersen, & Mercer, 2019; Reid & Trofimovich, 2018; Zhang, Beckmann,
& Beckmann, 2018). Joe et al. (2017) investigate classroom social climate,
self-determined motivation, WTC and achievement in the structural
relationship with instructed second language learning in a school setting in
Korea. The study sought to test the hypothesis of WTC to motivation and

classroom social climate.

Figure 1: The hypothesized mode (Joe et al., 2017, p. 136)
The results show that the classroom social climate would exert an effect

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on the satisfaction of learners‟ basic needs, and influence the development of
the intrinsic forms of motivation, which would boost higher levels of WTC
and achievement.
In a true experimental study in 2017 in a Turkish context, Buckingham
and Alpaslan (2017) investigated whether the provision of out-of-class
speaking practice could contribute to improving speaking proficiency and
have positive impact on WTC. The study shows that the integration of out-ofclass activities is “potentially particularly useful in contexts where parents
lack sufficient English skills to support children with their English-language
homework tasks” (Buckingham & Alpaslan, 2017, p. 25).
WTC Studies in Asian Context
In most Asia countries, a foreign language is learned in a place where
that language is not typically used as a means of daily communication
because foreign language learners are surrounded by their own native
language, and they receive stimulation in the target language only within the
language classroom (Baker & MacIntyre, 2003). Therefore, a great deal of
research on WTC in the foreign language context focused on the English
language. In the past few years, research on English WTC has become
particularly productive in East Asia.
Kim (2004) applied the MacIntyre et al.‟s (1998) model to the Korean
context. The findings of this research proved the reliability of the MacIntyre

et al.‟s model in the Korean context. Thus, Kim suggested WTC is more
likely to be a trait-like, rather than a situational variable. He also indicated
that Korean students‟ low WTC in English probably explains why they are
not so successful in English learning. In contrast, Kang‟s (2005) study
adopted a qualitative approach in order to examine how situational L2 WTC
could dynamically emerge and fluctuate during a conversation situation

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between non-native speaking learners and native speaking tutors. In this
study, L2 WTC was described as a dynamic situational concept rather than a
trait-like predisposition.
In a Chinese EFL context, Wen and Clement (2003) examined Chinese
indigenous cultural influence on learners‟ WTC. According to Wen and
Clement (2003), Chinese Confucian heritage with elements such as otherdirected self, face concerns, and a submissive way of learning is the driving
force shaping Chinese students‟ perceptions and learning behaviors in class.
In addition, Peng (2014) identified eight factors that influence WTC:
communication competence, language anxiety, risk-taking, and learners‟
beliefs, classroom climate, group cohesiveness, teacher support, and
classroom organization. Asker (1998) compared the WTC of Hong Kong
students with students from western countries and discovered that the WTC is
lower in the former than in their western counterparts.
The study on WTC in English as a foreign language in the Japanese
context was conducted by Yashima (2002). The study investigated variables
underlying the WTC using MacIntyre‟s (1998) model and Gardner‟s socioeducational model. She discovered that WTC is directly and indirectly
influenced by an attitude related construct called “international posture”.
International posture was also an important predictor of WTC in EFL in

Matsuoka‟s (2005) study, together with other factors, including motivation,
anxiety,

perceived

competence

and

personal

traits,

such

as

extroversion/introversion. Hashimoto (2002) conducted a study with Japanese
ESL students to investigate the effects of WTC and motivation on actual L2
use. Matsubara (2005) investigated WTC and L2 motivation in relation to
classroom group dynamics, and revealed that student-centered approach and
intergroup approach tendency had significant influences on WTC in EFL.

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From the studies about L2 WTC carried out in different contexts, it can
be seen that rapid progress in WTC conceptualization and its measurement

have been made, and many influencing factors such as self-confidence,
international posture, personality, gender and age have been identified
through empirical researches. Studies on WTC in an EFL context have also
been carried out in a number of countries, including Japan, Korea, China and
Thailand (Dilbeck et al., 2009; Hashimoto, 2002; Kim, 2004; Liu & Jackson,
2008; Peng, 2014; Wen & Clement, 2003; Yashima, 2002).
In a more recent study in the context of New Zealand, Vongsila and
Reinders (2016a) concluded that there were ten factors affecting WTC in their
context: group size, cultural backgrounds, self-perceived speaking ability,
class atmosphere, selection of task type, reducing shyness, self-confidence,
familiarity with the interlocutor, reducing anxiety, and topic familiarity.
In Vietnam, this concept of WTC has become an academic interest to a
number of researches since 2012 (Anh, 2012; Bùi & Dương, 2017; Hương,
2014). Bùi and Dương (2017) conducted a study into WTC in the context of a
university in the south of Vietnam. The data were from questionnaires,
students‟ diaries, teacher‟s diaries and an interview of the students. The study
shows that students experienced a number of factors affecting WTC such as
language proficiency, inferiority, fixed setting, limited partners and an
uninteresting forum. In the north of Vietnam, Anh (2012) and Hương (2014)
investigated into WTC at higher education level. Anh (2012) looked into
student‟s perception of WTC, she gathered the data from student interviews
and diaries and she concluded that in-group peer influence, topics of
discussion, knowledge and communicative proficiency as well as teacher‟s
support played an important role in affecting WTC.

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