Academic vocabulary in use for IELTS

CAMBRIDGE

Academic
Vocabulary in

Use
50 units of

academic
vocabulary
reference and
practice

Self-study and

classroom use

Michael McCarthy
Felicity O'Dell


Academic
Vocabulary in
Use
50 units of
academic
vocabulary
refe

n

and practice
Self-study and

classroom use

Michael McCarthy
Felicity O'Dell

CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS


CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge,

New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Säo Paulo, Delhi

Cambridge University Press
Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU,

The Edinburgh

UK

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title:

www.cambridge.org/9780521689397

O Cambridge University Press 2008

This publication

is

in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First

published 2008

Produced by Kamae Design, Oxford
Printed in the United

Kingdom

at the University Press,

Cambridge

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library
ISBN-13 978-0-521-68939-7 paperback

Cambridge University Press has no
accuracy of

URLs

this publication,
is,

responsibility for the persistence or

for external or third-party internet websites referred to in

and does not guarantee that any content on such websites

or will remain, accurate or appropriate.


Contents
Acknowledgements

To

the student

5

and the teacher

6

Working with academic vocabulary
1

What

is

special

about academic English?

discipline, virtually, quantify

2 Key nouns

theory, model, pattern

Key verbs
4 Key adjectives
5 Key adverbs

attempt, establish, explain

3

relevant, abstract, significant

6 Phrasal verbs in academic English

7 Key quantifying expressions
8 Words with several meanings
9 Metaphors and idioms

comparatively, eventually, simply
put forward, go through, write up

a substantial amount, in excess of, no fewer
than
set, accommodate, issue
shed light on, remain in the dark, the

battle

against

Word combinations
10 Nouns and the words they combine with
11 Adjective and noun combinations
12 Verbs and the words they combine with
13 Prepositional phrases

heated debate, pivotal

role, to collate results

important contribution, major concern,

widespread support
loosely based on, examine the evidence, suggest

an

alternative solution

in

conjunction with, on behalf of, for the most

part

14 Verbs and prepositions
IS Nouns and prepositions

focus on, consent

16 Fixed expressions

in

account for

towards

a variety of ways, with the exception

be that as

At academic

to,

dissertation on, rationale for, progress

it

of,

may

institutions

17 Applications and application forms
18 College and university: the UK system
19 Systems compared: the US and the UK
20 Academic courses
21 Study habits and skills
22 Online learning

entry requirements, referee, deadline

student union, tutorial, research student
dormitory, freshman, fraternity

diploma, credits, defer
reading speed, mind map, rote learning
online community, username, subject header

Ways of talking about
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

Sources
Facts, evidence

and data

primary source, draw on, body of literature
distort the facts, hard evidence, empirical data

Numbers

random,

Statistics

standard deviation, correlate, proportion

tally,

estimate

Graphs and diagrams

pie chart, intersect, decline

Money and

student loan, cost of living, receipt
century, simultaneous, in the near future

education

Time
Cause and

effect

trigger,

give rise

to,

chain reaction

Academic Vocabulary

in

Use

3


Opinions and ideas
31 Talking about ideas

32
33
34

35
36
37

movement, hypothesis, stance

Reporting what others say
Analysis of results

pinpoint, cast doubt on, implication

Talking about meaning
Research and study aims

transparent, comprehend, misinterpret

Talking about points of view

impartial, ideology, hold views

Degrees of certainty

tendency, likelihood, allegedly

deduce, outweigh,

critical

objective, to further, instigate

Functions
38 Presenting an argument

beyond the scope
which

39 Organising your writing
40 Making a presentation
41 Describing research methods
42 Classifying
43 Making connections
44 Comparing and contrasting
45 Describing problems

with a focus on, at

of,

furthermore, the extent to

this point, respectively

address a topic, handout, take questions
carry out a procedure, case study, replicate

component, consist

of,

marital status

correlate with, mutual, interaction
distinction, similarly,

experience

whereas

difficulties,

deal with, resolve a

problem

46
47
48
49
50

Describing situations
Processes and procedures

context, integral, stable

simulation, to supplement, output

Describing change
Evaluation and emphasis

expansion, diminish, perceptible change

Summary and

bring to a close, in the final analysis, finally

inadequate, contradictory, acknowledge

conclusion

Reading and vocabulary
1

Good

friends

2 Australia

110

111

The World Wide Web

112
113
5 Nanotechnology
114
6 International law: an overview

3

4 The human brain

115

Reference
1

2
3

4
5
6

116
Formal and informal academic words and expressions
120
Numbers, units of measurement and common symbols
British and North American academic vocabulary
122
Spelling variations
126
Word formation 128
Abbreviations
132

Key

136

List of

phonemic symbols

Index

4

Academic Vocobulory

167

in

Use

166


Acknowledgements
The authors and

Authors' acknowledgements

publishers

would

like to

thank the

following for permission to reproduce copyright material in

The authors wish

to thank their colleagues at

Cambridge

Academic Vocabulary

University Press, especially Martine Walsh, Caroline Thiriau

and N6irin Burke, whose wise expertise and support have
been invaluable throughout this project. We are also very
thorough and useful input provided by
Bernard Seal from Cambridge University Press New York.

made,

it

in Use.

While every

has been

effort

has not been possible to identify the sources of

the material used and in such cases the publishers

welcome information from copyright

all

would

holders.

grateful for the

We

thank Alison

out so

Silver for the professional job she carried

preparing the

efficiently in

final

0

manuscript for

production and printing. Linda Matthews too deserves our

thanks for organising the production schedules for the book.

We

must also thank the lexicography and computational
team at Cambridge University Press whose work with the
Cambridge International Corpus, the Cambridge Learner
Corpus and the CANCODE corpus of spoken English
(developed at the University of Nottingham in association
with Cambridge University Pres}), enabled us to make a
fully corpus-informed selection of the academic vocabulary
we focus on in these materials.

We acknowledge with
academic word
this

lists

gratitude the pioneering

work on

done by Averil Coxhead. In planning

book we made considerable use of her

lists at

we thank our

domestic partners for their

& Felicity O'Dell

who

Cambridge
on p. 25 (8.4)
from NewScientist, 30 March 2006; p. 113 'The Human
Brain' by Helen Philips, from NewScientist, 4 September
2006; p. 114 'Nanotechnology' by John Pickrell, from
NewScientist, 4 September 2006, reproduced by permission
of NewScientist Magazine; Scientific American for the

Dictionary, reproduced by permission of

University Press; NewScientist for the extracts

extracts

on

Michael

S.

p.

27

p.

(9.3) 'Shutting

down

Alzheimer's' by

Wolfe, from Scientific American, 5

110 'Good

Friends' by Klaus

May

Manhart, from

2006;

Scientific

American, April/May 2006, reproduced by permission of
Scientific American Inc. All rights reserved; Nature for the

on

p.

39

(15.4)

from Nature Vol. 441, 4

May

2006,

for the extract

on

p.

55

(23.4), copyright

0 2004, the

rescen/main_pages/profile.html, reproduced hy permission of

the Centre for Research into Creation in the Performing Arts

would

like to

thank

all

the

ELT

reviewed the material:

Sue Argent, Long Dalmahoy, Scotland; Jennifer Bixby,

USA; Jane Bottomley, Manchester, UK; Cherry
Campbell, California, USA; Anthony Cosgrove, London, UK;
Rosie Ganne, London, UK; Ludmila Gorodetskaya, Moscow,
Russia; Mark Krzanowski, London, UK; Joseph McVeigh,
Vermont, USA; Julie Moore, Bristol, UK; Brendan Ö Sé,
Cork, Ireland; Barbara Roosken, Tilburg, The Netherlands.
California,

112 'The World Wide Web'

p.

p. 70 (3 IA) />ResCen, Middlesex University for the text on p. 78 (35B)
from the Rescen Research website

Cambridge International Corpus (CIC). The CIC is a
computerised database of contemporary spoken and written
English which currently stands at over one billion words. It
includes British English, American English and other varieties
of English. It also includes the Cambridge Learner Corpus,
developed in collaboration with the University of Cambridge
ESOL Examinations. Cambridge University Press has built
up the CIC to provide evidence about language use that
helps to produce better language teaching materials.

professionals

14 (3A

Douglas

on

acknowledgements

publishers

p.

of Indiana University; the Wikipedia website for the extract

Development of this publication has made use of the

The authors and

on

(International) by

Trustees of Indiana University, reproduced by permission

Cambridge, April 2007

Publisher's

1

published by Nature Publishing Group; Indiana University

patience and support during the writing of this book.

Michael McCarthy

for the extracts

from Telecommunications by Stuart Kennedy, copyright O
2001; p. 141 sentences from Cambridge Advanced Learner's

extract

/>
Also, as always,

Cambridge University Press

second text) from Mechanics
Quadling, copyright
2002;

Thomson Learning for the
111 'Australia' from World of Earth Science

(ResCen) at Middlesex University;
extract

on

p.

(Vol 1) by K. Lee Lerner and Brenda

copyright

Wilmoth

(Editor),

0 2003, reprinted with permission of Gale, a

division of

Thomson

Learning: www.thomsonrights.com;

Legal Information Institute for the adapted text on p. 115
'International law:

an overview' from the website www.law.

cornell.edu/wex/index.php/international_law, copyright Legal

Information Institute 1996—2007, reproduced by permission
of Legal Information Institute.

Photographs

The

publishers are grateful to the following for permission

to reproduce copyright photographs
p.

20

0 Thomas Fricke/Corbis; p.

and material:

36

0

Robert E.

Daemmrich/Stone/Getty Images; p. 66 0 John Henley/
CORBIS; p. 74 0 age fotostock/SuperStock; p. 76 0 Helen
King/Corbis; p. 77

0 Jerry

Schatzberg/CORBIS;

p.

88

0

image 100/Corbis.
Illustrations

Kamae Design

pp. 35, 40, 44, 60, 61, 62, 63

Academic Vocabulary

in

Use

5


To the student and the teacher
Who

the book for?

is

is for anyone who wants or needs to learn the kind of English which is used
academic contexts. It deals with the kinds of language used in academic textbooks

This book
in

and

articles as well as in lectures

and seminars.

being a student at a university or college in that

It
it

also presents vocabulary relating to

covers such topics as Applications

and application forms, Money and education and Academic courses associated with
university life. It will be particularly useful for students preparing for IELTS or any other
examination aimed at assessing whether candidates' English is at a high enough level to
study in an academic institution where English is the medium of instruction. It will be
helpful for people who need to attend — or indeed give — lectures and presentations in
English or to participate in international conferences.

It

who have to
much more natural

will enable students

prepare assignments or write up a dissertation in English to do so in a

and appropriate way.

What

kind of vocabulary does the

book deal with?

The book

presents and practises the kind of vocabulary that is used in academic speech
and writing regardless of which discipline you are concerned with. So it considers

words and expressions like concept, cast doubt on, put forward a theory and come to a
conclusion. It does not deal with the specialist vocabulary of any particular subject such
as medicine or physics. Such specialist terms are often relatively easy to master
will

be explained and taught as you study the subject and these words

may

—

they

indeed

sometimes be similar in English and your own language. However, it is the more general
words used for discussing ideas and research and for talking and writing about academic
work that you need to be fully familiar with in order to feel comfortable in an academic
environment. Despite the fact that they are much more frequent than specialist words,
these more general words are often felt to be more difficult to learn. It is, therefore,
extremely useful to approach them in the systematic way suggested by this book.

One

positive aspect of this kind of academic vocabulary

differences depending

on whether you are studying

in

is

that there are relatively few

London or

New York,

Delhi or

Sydney, Johannesburg, Dublin, Wellington, Singapore or Toronto or indeed any other

where you may be using English for academic purposes. Academic English tends
and the units of the book focus on vocabulary that
will be essential for you regardless of where you are studying now or may study in
the future. There are some differences between the words used to describe people and
places and these are highlighted in Units 18 and 19. References 3 and 4 also focus on
some vocabulary and spelling variations. In the units of the book we use British English
spelling conventions except when quoting texts which originally used American spelling.
place

to be a truly international language

Much

book is neutral in the sense that it is equally appropriate
and spoken contexts. We indicate those instances where a word or
too formal for use in speech or too informal for use in academic writing.

of the vocabulary in the

for both written

expression

6

Academic Vocabulary

in

is

Use


How was the vocabulary for the book selected?
The academic vocabulary focused on in this book was all selected from language identified
as significant by the Cambridge International Corpus of written and spoken English and
also the CANCODE corpus of spoken English developed at the University of Nottingham
in association with Cambridge University Press. These enormous corpora include large
collections of written and spoken academic text and so it was possible to identify language
that is distinctive for academic contexts. We also made considerable use of the Cambridge
Learner Corpus, a corpus of tens of thousands of learner scripts from students taking

ESOL exams

Cambridge

all

over the world.

From

this

corpus

we were

able to learn

what

kinds of errors students taking, for example IELTS, were typically making.

book we made considerable use of Averil Coxhead's work on developing
academic word lists. Her lists can be found at />index.shtml and we would highly recommend that students of academic vocabulary
In planning this

investigate this site.

How

is

the book organised?

The book has 50 two-page units. The
to be focused on in the unit. You will

left-hand page presents the academic vocabulary

usually find examples of academic vocabulary

presented in context with, where appropriate, any special notes about their meaning and
usage.

The right-hand page checks

hand page by giving you a

The

that

you have understood the information on the

series of exercises practising the

units are organised into different sections.

The

first

left-

language that was presented.

introductory section includes

nine units which look at basic aspects of academic vocabulary such as

what

is

special

about academic vocabulary, key verbs and key quantifying expressions. The second
section devotes seven units to how words typically combine with one another in
academic English. The third section has six units focusing on aspects of life at academic

The fourth

ways of talking about such
and cause and effect. Then we have seven units exploring aspects
of opinions and ideas and finally there are thirteen units with a functional focus such as
institutions.

section provides eight units discussing

things as numbers, time

organising a text, comparing and contrasting and describing change.

Towards the end of
disciplines

the

book you

will find six reading texts relating to different

with exercises based on the vocabulary in those

academic

We hope that you will

examples of how to use texts to expand your knowledge of academic
and would recommend that you read these texts and do the exercises

find these useful

vocabulary

texts.

in English

on them even

if

they relate to an academic subject that

is

very different from your own.

There are six reference sections dealing with some key areas where we felt it would be
useful for you to have lists of items that could not be presented as fully in the main body
of the book, i.e. Formal and informal academic words and expressions; Numbers, units
of measurement and common symbols; British and North American academic vocabulary;
Spelling variations; Word formation and Abbreviations. Where appropriate, these reference
sections provide space for

you to add further examples of your own.

At the end of the book there is a Key with answers to all the exercises and an Index of
the key words and expressions, indicating the units where they can be found. The
pronunciation

is

How should

I

all

provided for standard British English.

use this book?

We recommend

that you work through the nine introductory units first so that you
become familiar with key aspects of academic vocabulary and how best to study it. After
that you may work on the units in any order that suits you.

Academic Vocabulary

in

Use

7


What

else

do

I

need

in

my academic vocabulary?

order to improve

a notebook or file in which you can write down all the academic vocabulary
you study in this book as well as any other words and expressions that you come
across elsewhere. In your vocabulary notebook it is important to record such things as:

You need
that

•

examples of the word or expression

•

typical

in use

word combinations — you might, for example, note down adjectives or verbs
noun that you want to learn or nouns, adverbs or prepositions

typically associated with a

associated with a verb
•

any special features of the word
pronunciation, or

You may
•

also find

it

is it

(e.g. is

there anything special about

particularly characteristic of either written or

its

grammar or

spoken English?).

helpful to record such things as:

any other information that might help you to learn the word (e.g. is it similar to any word
in your own language, or does it, perhaps, share a root with a word that you already

know?)
•

any additional vocabulary that learning this word may help you to learn

have a related noun, or what is the opposite of an adjective?)

•

any extended uses of the word being focused on (e.g. can it be used metaphorically, or does
the same word have other meanings in the way that so many English words do?).

One

very important aspect of learning vocabulary

is

to organise the

expressions you meet; this will help you remember them better.

number of ways. In recording words many learners find
diagrams such as word bubbles, for example:
a

i

AcoechA5ive

it

word forks,

words and

You can do

this in

helpful to include

little

51.yqe5±

for example:
oriqiN

ideft±i$y

does a verb

prelimi

re5LAl±5

or

(e.g.

COMMON
isolated

the

$4c.org

LAAiver%l

You also need to have access to a good dictionary. We strongly recommend the Cambridge
Advanced Learner's Dictionary as this provides exactly the kind of information that you need
in order to be able to understand and use English vocabulary. Through its example sentences
it provides you with the information you need about how the word is used in practice and
which other words it typically combines with. The dictionary also helps you with difficult
items such as phrasal verbs, for example, indicating whether the object can come before the
particle (set up the apparatus / set the apparatus up; go through a set of calculations, but not
This dictionary is available as a book and on a CD-ROM
and can also be accessed online at www.dictionary.cambridge.org. You will need a specialist
dictionary relating to your own subject area as well. Your teacher may also be able to
recommend other dictionaries for your specific needs.

8

Academic Vocabulary

in

Use


working through the units in this book you should read as much English as you
most relevant for you. If you are new to studying in English,
you could start by reading a textbook aimed at students at a slightly lower level than you
are at as far as the subject area is concerned; or you might prefer to read the latest articles
in your field from a journal or the internet. If you have easy access to the web, then there is

an enormous wealth of material available for you to study and learn from; many universities
and other academic institutions have extensive websites, for example, as do professional
organisations and journals.

As

can

well as

in the subject areas that are

good luck with your work in academic English. We hope that the materials in this book
you to enjoy and to benefit fully from your studies. We hope you will be able to
share ideas in a creative, exciting way with scholars from all over the world and we wish you
the very best for a successful and rewarding academic life in English.
So,

will help

Academic Vocabulary

in

Use

9


What

A

about academic English?

special

is

Everyday words and academic uses

Many words

in

academic English are the same as everyday vocabulary, but they are often
which may be specialised.

also used with a slightly different meaning,
everyday or academic use

meaning

Standards of discipline

ability

in

academic use
Nanotechnology

to control

oneself or other

schools have declined.

new

meaning
is

area of study

a relatively

discipline.

people

draw

Underline your family
name on the form.

The research underlines the

a line

under

gives emphasis to

importance of international trade

it

agreements.

The

lake

was frozen

solid.

not

liquid

We have no

or gas

solid evidence that

certain or safe; of a

radiation has caused the problem.

B

good standard

Vocabulary and academic style
•

In writing, academics use

many

expressions which are neutral, but they also use rather

formal expressions which are not
expression

is

neutral
in

is

everyday language. Knowing whether an

in

important.

more formal

short, briefly, basically

only

almost

common

formal or just neutral

/

more or

less

sum, to sum up

more formal

try

attempt

sole(ly)

mainly/mostly

primarily

virtually

typical of

characteristic of

in

However, very informal vocabulary
lectures.

neutral

may

be used in spoken academic styles in classes and

Learn to understand such language when you hear

it

but be careful not to use

it

in

some examples of teachers using informal language.

'0K. Have a shot at doing task number 3.' [more formal: Try/Attempt to do ... )
'There's no way schools can be held responsible for failures of government policy.' [more

essays

and written assignments. Here

formal: Schools cannot in any

Academic language
notebook (see page

tries to

8)

are

way be

held

...l

be clear and prccise, so

it is

important to keep a vocabulary

and learn the differences between similar words, as well

as typical

word combinations (underlined here).
The building is a prime example of 1920s architecture. [excellent in quality or value]
The group's primary concern is to protect human rights. [main / most important]

C

Noun phrases
Academic language puts a lot of information into noun phrases rather than spreading it out
over a whole sentence. For example, instead of saying Radiation was accidentally released
over a 24-hour period, damaging a wide area for a long time, an academic might say The
accidental release of radiation over a 24-hour period caused widespread long-term damage.
It is therefore important to learn the different forms of a word, for example:
noun

verb

accident
quantity/quantification

Finally, be
units.

10

in

adverb(s)

accidental

accidentally

quantitative/quantifiable

quantitatively/quantifiably

aware of 'chunks' or phrases which occur frequently, and learn them as whole
in terms of, in addition, for the most part, in the case of, etc. (See Unit 16.)

Examples:

Academic Vocabulary

quantify

adjective(s)

Use


Exercises
II

Each word

in the box can be used in two ways, one an everyday way, the other a typically

academic way. Complete each pair of sentences using the same word for both sentences and

making any necessary grammatical changes.
generate

turn

1

A

2

B The events
A It was difficult
B We should

3

A

confirm

solid

identify

She loves to

I

for

underline

photographs

character

in

pose

nature

focus

front of her fabulous house.

a threat to stability in the region.
the

to

camera on the flower as

called the airline

and

my

was so

it

our attention on the most important

small.

issues.

reservation.

B The data
my hypothesis that animal-lovers enjoy better health.
4 A The power plant
electricity for the whole region.
B This issue always
a great deal of debate among academics.
5 A The murderer was
from fingerprints discovered at the scene.
B In this theory of history, progress is closely
with technology.
6 A She became interested in
conservation.
B The first lecture in the series was on the
of human communication.
7

A

Jim's a very interesting

.

I

hope you meet him.

B The book attempts to explain the fundamental
of social life.
8 A I saw her
to her husband and whisper something in his ear.
B Let us now
to the subject of town planning.
9 A He always
every new word when he's reading.
B The study
the fact that very little research exists.
10 A The liquid became
as the temperature was lowered.
B The study lacks
evidence and therefore its conclusions are doubtful.
1.2

Use more formal

alternatives to the

words

in bold.

Make any

necessary grammatical

changes.
1 The book is mainly concerned with the problem of policing the internet.
2 Almost every school in the county had reported problems with the new system.
3 The work of the Institute is not only devoted to cancer research.
4 Basically, we believe we have demonstrated a significant link between the two events.

5

We

tried to find a

6 The study

is

7 The reaction
8 There's

1.3

Read

typical of the

way

sociologists collect their data.

large corporations keep control of their markets.
a place to live

and work.

and then answer the questions.

The production

in

is

of understanding the data.

good example of the way

no way London can be compared to Sydney as

the text

plastics

new way

a really

of plastics

depends

heavily

on petroleum, but a novel way

out of sugar could reduce our reliance on

oil.

The discovery

sugar can be converted relatively easily into a substance similar

material obtained

from petroleum has led to the claim that

of

making

that a chemical

in structure to

plastics

the

could soon be

produced cheaply using the new method.

1 Underline two verbs with adverbs after them which it would be useful to learn as pairs.
2 Underline two adverbs next to each other which it would be useful to learn together.
3 What are the noun forms of the verbs produce, rely, discover and claim?

Academic Vocabulary

in

Use

I

I


2

Key nouns
This unit focuses on some frequent and important nouns in academic English. See also Units
10, 11 and 15.

A

General nouns referring to ideas
example

comment

(with prepositions underlined)

She wrote an

on the

article

subject Of

The theme Of the poem

is

The students were

list

There was a

given a

class.

of essay topics.

debate on the issue Of

lively

thing which

is

being discussed, considered or studied

main subject of a

emigration.

talk,

book,

used to refer to what one

is

etc.

studying or writing about

subject]problem which people are thinking/tatking about

globalisation in the seminar yesterday.

theory

Political

Einstein's

a popular undergraduate subject

is

theory Of gravitation has been

statement of the rules on which a subject of study
based

more

or,

generally,

is

an opinion or explanation

questioned recently.

The model of climate change presented
Stern Review seems to be becoming a

The book

Human

behaviour

the

based on the principle of

is

More

basic idea

Repetition

an important aspect of speech

is

in

one

children.

Automatic backup
political

or rule that explains

how something happens

comment

(with prepositions underlined)

development

The

main characteristic of something

nouns connected with ideas and phenomena

specific

example

in calculations

or works

least effort.

B

a representation of something as a simple description

which might be used

'The Nature gf Intelligence'.

called

is

in

reality.

is

a feature

Of the new software.

beyond the scope Of this

During 2005, the

range of a subject covered by a book, discussion,

essay.

The study revealed a pattern
in

problem, subject,

a typical quality of something

motives for the government's actions are

could be interpreted

individual part of a situation,

etc.

class, etc.

Q.f results

either of

which

showed

a regularly repeated arrangement

two ways.

number Of violent attacks

amount or

level

increased to an alarming degree.

C

Nouns
Read

referring to

these

titles

Micro-organisms

ways of thinking, processes and

of academic books and articles.
in water: their significance

Renewable energy: a

and

Note the key nouns and

identification

their prepositions.

2

assessment3 of recent research

critical

The Case4 for Change: Rethinking Teacher Education. Towards a
Perspectives6 on Ecological Management:
Citizens'

activities

Views on Healthcare Systems

in

A study

of public

New

awareness of

Approach5

river pollution

the European Union

Epidemiological research int08 asthma and allergic disease: establishing a standardised methodology

importance

2 ability

way

4

of considering something

research

7

is

in

different particular or individual
in

Use

js

ways of considering

or experience of something, and so being well informed

often also used with the preposition on

plural

Academic Vocabulory

6

having special interest

Research

12

judgement of the amount, value,
arguments, facts and reasons in support of or against something

to establish the identity of something

quality or importance of

something

9

a system of

ways of studying something

uncountable. Don't say They carried out some interesting reseorches.To

you can

just say 'studies',

or 'research studies' or 'pieces of research'.

make

it


Exercises
2.1

Look

at

A. Choose the most appropriate noun to complete each sentence.

1 Environmental topics / issues / principles should be at the top of today's political agenda.
2 In the exam students had to choose three from a choice of ten essay subjects / theories /

topics.

3 There are

still

people

who

are reluctant to accept Darwin's

model

/ topic / theory of

evolution.

4 The professor decided to take moral courage as the issue / theme / model for

his

inaugural lecture.

5

The London underground map

how

their distances

6

The

from each

best understood as a

model / principle

/ topic

showing

other.

Peter Issue / Principle /

usually end up being

2.2

is

the different stations relate to one another rather than a precise representation of

There are

Theme

states that

promoted to the point

members of

a hierarchical group will
which they become incompetent.

at

six phrases containing errors underlined in this paragraph.

Can you

correct them?

The study showed that local police can play an important role in
crime prevention.

community

It

makes a strong case

police officers although

it

of boosting the

numbers of

warns against increasing police

presence on the streets at an alarming degree.

Its

methodological was

based on a range of interviews asking members of the public
views in

how

best to prevent crime. Unfortunately,

how

for their

to implement

recommendation was out of the scope of the study but at least

this

it

serves a useful purpose in raising awareness to the issue.

2.3

Look

at these titles of

academic books (A—H). Then match them to

A

The Nature of Democracy
B The Significance of Dreams
C The Features of Glaciated Landscapes
D The Assessment of Language Skills
E An Approach to Free Verse
F The Identification of Bees
G Perspectives on Modern Taxation

1

Match

3 literature

4 history
5 geography

6 psychology
7 politics

The
4 The
3

writer

makes

a powerful

I

8

There are many important

awareness of the problem.

approach to

little

little

scope of your research.

world today.

into the environmental effects of nanoparticles.

think you should broaden the

7 To date, there has been

most appropriate ending.

issues facing the

writers take an original

5 Until recently there was
6

8 zoology

the beginning of each sentence with the

1 The study revealed a regular
2 The research focuses on one particular

economics

2 education

H New Perspectives on Cleopatra
2.4

their subject areas (1—8).

research

aspect of

their theme.

modern

society.

pattern of changes in temperature.
case for restructuring parliament.

Academic Vocabulary

in

Use

13


3

Key verbs

In this unit

A

we

look at some important verbs

academic English.

in

Verbs for structuring academic assignments
Look

which students have been given. Note the key verbs.

at these tasks

Discuss some of the problems involvedl

in

investigating attitudes to diet and health.Write a

review of an investigation you have read about, or describe an investigation you yourself could

Consider the advantages and
Starting

from

rest,

lasts.

2
.

disadvantages of different methods.

an aircraft accelerates to

Hence calculate the

take-off speed of

its

Assuming

Illustrate this with a velocity-time graph.

run

critical

conduct

60

m s-

a distance of

in

constant acceleration, find5

900 metres.

how

long the take-off

acceleration.

demonstrates

'The fact that nations agree to follow international law
are trans-national and trans-cultural.'

How far

is

this

statement true?

that

we

Critically

can identify

ideals that

analyse any recent event

which supports or challenges the statement

Examine 10 how

growth has affected any two developing countries. Provide

industrial

evidence where necessary and include a discussion of

likely

n
statistical

future trends.

which are part of/included in

organise and do 3 draw something in order to explain
6
something
accepting something to be true 5 discover by calculating (see 6)
judge the
I

number or amount of something and adding, multiplying, subtracting or dividing numbers
8
show, make clear
recognise someone or something and say or prove who or what they are

7
9

B

questions whether

it is

true

look at or consider carefully and

in detail

give

More key verbs

These extracts from academic books contain other key verbs.
In

developing methods to explain the significance

establishing2 quality of

life

into

The length of time spent on the
seen

in

many of the

of health status

measures, one can classifyi ways of

two main types.
tasks

may account for3

the decrease in motivation which

The data presentedS in Chapter 3 showed6 that the age of the subjects was not the main

theory attempts

Political

7

to build bridges

between

5

given

proved

7

3

explain

see

is

(formal) tries

Verbs which combine with noun forms of key verbs
Often

in

academic

style,

a verb + the

noun form of

+ noun

verb

verb

explain

give/provide/offer an explanation

the key verb

is

used.

example

(of/for)

The model provides an explanation
between the two sets of data.

carry out an exploration (of)

Kumar carried out an exploration of music

emphasise

place/put emphasis (on)

The

describe

give/provide a description (of)

The book gives a description

explore

The verbs affect and effect
make something happen / to

hospital

puts

functioning

Academic Vocabulary

in

Use

a lot of

for the differences

emphasis on
of

genius.

training nurses.

modern Europe.

are different. To affect means to influence, to effect means to
bring about. The burning of fossil fuels has negatively affected

the global climate. The procedure has been successful

14

factor.

different schools of political thought.

divide things into groups according to their type 2 discover or get proof of
often used in the passive in academic style

C

was

participants.

of the engine. See Unit 30 for more on

and has effected a
and effect.

affect

return to

normal


Exercises
3.1

Match each verb from
attempt

affect

identify

3.2

the

the

left

with

from B or

C

synonym from

its

demonstrate

compute

provide

investigate

best verb

box on

challenge

calculate

include

Choose the

A in

the

distinguish

question

involve

box on
give

show

the right.

influence

study

try

to complete these sentences. Put the verb into the correct

form.
1 As can
from Table II, participation figures have been steadily falling since 1970.
2 Different authors have
for the President's actions in different ways.
3 Mendel attempted to devise a system for
the many different types of pea

plant that he grew.

4

It is

often most effective

5 The data

we have

your data

in a chart

or table.

that there has been a

collected

downward

trend with

regard to job satisfaction over the last 50 years.
6 The aim of the research

a

is

aviation engineers design

more

new

software application which will help

sophisticated aircraft.

7 The archaeologists should be able to use carbon dating techniques
how old the bones are.
8 Charles

Darwin attempted

exactly

the existence of different species In terms of

evolution.

3.3

Explain the difference between the sentences in each
1

Greig's article supports Park's theory.

Greig's article challenges Park's theory.

2 Describe the new tax regulations.
3 Lodhi provides new data.
4 Titova conducted four sets of experiments.
5 Lee established why such changes occur.
6 Okaz assumed that the data were reliable.
7 Illustrate the magnitude of the deceleration.
8 The events effected economic development.

3.4

pair.

Discuss the

tax regulations.

Lee investigated why such changes occur.
Okaz proved that the data were reliable.
Find the magnitude of the deceleration.
The events affected economic development.

Rewrite each sentence using the word in brackets and
words.
1

new

Lodhi considers new data.
Titova examined four sets of experiments.

make any

necessary changes to other

Erikson's theory explains the fluctuations in the figures for this period. (PROVIDES)

2 Bevan explored the relationship between family background and

political ambition.

(EXPLORATION)
3 The book describes the

life

and times of Abraham Lincoln. (DESCRIPTION)

4 Cheng's theory emphasises the importance of extensive reading

in

language acquisition.

(PUTS)

3.5

noun phrases can often be used instead of some of the key verbs.
Complete each phrase with the appropriate noun. Use a dictionary if necessary.

In academic style,

1

investigate

2

illustrate

4 affect = have an

= conduct, carry out an

5 attempt =

into/of

= provide an

3 analyse = provide, carry out an

Using the tasks

in

of

on

make an

to/at

of

6 classify = make, provide a
of

A as a model, prepare some

assignment topics for students studying any

subject that you are familiar with.

Academic Vocabulary

in

Use

15


4

Key adjectives
For any adjective

and whether

it

it is

useful to

know whether

it is

by a

typically followed

specific preposition

has any synonyms (adjectives with a similar meaning) or antonyms (adjectives

of opposite meaning).

A

Adjectives and prepositions
Here are some

from academic

extracts

Language development
relative to one's

own

is

with adjectives followed by to or

texts,

conceived as

Some

past performance,

Others were

science relevant

scientists

and

politicians

true to a particular degree

when

happening or being discussed

3

Jt

is

it is

all

the respondents.

was typical of the farmers

in the

study that

they had a negative attitude to technology.
being compared with other things
connected with what
4 only found in s belonging to or

(rather formal) typical of
6

shared by two or more people or things

B

to

need to plan technologies which are
appropriate to the needs of small farmers.

characteristic3 of the situation today.

is

common5

We

to

environmental policy? Poor communication

between

of the responses to the questionnaire

were specific 4 to young male respondents.

or relative to that of others.

How can we make

of.

suitable or right for a particular situation or occasion

Adjectives and their opposites
at this abstract from a dissertation on drug abuse. In most cases you can work out the
meanings of the opposites (which follow each numbered adjective), based on the definitions.

Look

We
of

cannot discuss drug abuse as an abstractl problem without considering concrete examples

abuse and

complex

their social

consequences. Abuse

is

set of circumstances. Both quantitative

rarely

a simple issue;

it

usually results from a

and qualitative research

is

necessary to gain

By combining research methods, we may obtain an accurate picture
of the causes and results of abuse, in contrast with the inaccurate assessments which often

result from purely quantitative studies. A significant4 amount of fear and prejudice surrounds the
notion of abuse, and the media have a role which is also not insignificant in promoting such fears.
The dissertation concludes that rough5 estimates of the number of drug addicts need to be made
a

full

picture of the situation.

more precise by properly

defining addiction.

existing as an idea, not as a material object; opposite: existing in a
2

having or

made

of only one or a few parts

3

form that can be seen or

based on numbers and

statistics;

methods such as interviews, focus groups, etc.
correct but not exact or detailed; opposite: exact and accurate

research using non-number-based

noticeable

C

5 fairly

Other important, frequent adjectives and

typical

4

important or

combinations with nouns

There was an apparentl discrepancy between the two sets of results.
We noted a potentia12 problem with the experimental design which we had to deal with
The principaP cause of the failure was a sudden temperature change.
The research used a rigorous4 methodology which had been tested on many occasions.
seeming to exist or be true
importance

possible

Remember to

Academic Vocabulary

in

Use

the necessary conditions exist

careful to look at or consider every part of something to

say typical of,

often follow them, as

16

when

in

A.

NOT typical for.

felt

opposite: usually

make

3 first

in

certain

first.

order of
it is

correct

Learn adjectives with the prepositions that


Exercises
4.1

Look
1

at A. Correct the preposition errors in these sentences.

A lengthy

discussion of the advantages of solar

required you to focus on

2

It is

wind

typical to the disease for

power

is

not relevant with an essay that

turbines.

it

to start with an itchy rash.

3 This methodology is not appropriate about the kind of research you are planning.
4 The use of original metaphors is characteristic from the writer's style.
5 Relative with previous attempts to explain the phenomenon, this interpretation is quite
persuasive.

common

6 The dark hair and eyes are

4.2

for

all

people from the region.

Rewrite each sentence using the opposite of the adjective

in italics.

1 Karlsson checked the figures and agreed with me that they were accurate.
2 The solution to the problem is a simple one.
3 Make rough calculations before you begin to write up your results.
4 The army played a significant role in events.
5 Hernandez prefers to discuss ideas in abstract terms.

4.3

Match the
1

adjective

on the

apparent

3 principal

Now use one of the combinations from 4.3
1 There is an
2 Management's refusal to

3

Lamaque

We

1

figures.

listen to the

complex

The

is difficult

potential

critical

to

we changed

it

in

two

areas.

rigorous

specific

grow and needs very
work for not being

conditions to survive.

of his

on the

enough.

tribes of the south as

enemies.

approach to our research and interviewed individuals personally.

a
set

When

of the riots.

from the box to complete these sentences.

3 In the past the northern tribes looked

We chose

workers' demands was the

with our procedure and so

qualitative

plant

to complete these sentences.

which has since been used successfully by many other

best adjective

2 His tutor was
4

often combines with on the right.

field.

spotted a

Choose the

your

in

devised a

researchers in the

4

it

discrepancy
cause

4 potential

4.5

with the noun

methodology
problem

2 rigorous

4.4

left

of circumstances led to a

you come across any of the key

civil

adjectives

war

from

in

1897.

this unit in

your reading, note

it

down

in

phrase so you build up a set of useful phrases using the adjective.

Academic Vocobulary

in

Use

a


5

Key adverbs
This unit deals with
context.

A

You

some of the adverbs that are particularly frequent
more in other units throughout this book.

just

will find

in

an academic

Adverbs that compare
adverb

meaning

comparatively/

in

example

comparison with something else

relatively

especially/particularly

more than

usual

Our sample was

relatively/

comparatively

small.

The process was not especially/
particularly

more than

specially

usual (spoken English only)

for a specific

somewhat

(opposite:

(slightly

formal) a

The exam was specially hard

We used

purpose

obtained

this year.

specially designed equipment.

When we

little, slightly

considerably)

difficult.

tested younger boys,

we

somewhat/considerably

different results.

primarily

mostly/largely

mainly

Amir

almost completely (but not

The

totally so)

is

primarily interested

in bio-physics.

research was largely/mostly

successful.

without anything else being involved

directly (opposite:

B

The

illness is

(in)directly linked to poor

housing.

indirectly)

Adverbs that relate to numbers or time
There are approximately 20

varieties of bird in this species. [roughly, about]

There are precisely 48 different managerial posts in the company. [exactly]
Interviewees frequently misunderstood one of the questions. [often]
We eventually obtained the results we were hoping for. [in the end, after some time]
Ultimately

C

we

plan to repeat the experiment.

[finally, after

other things have been completed]

Adverbs that relate to how things are stated
Hall's latest article essential[yl differs

from his earlier work

in

that

it

is

explicitly2 critical of the

government. Generally3, his disapproval of their policies was only conveyed implicit(y4
previous writing, but here he specifically

referring to
4

D

not

its

directly,

main

condemns

their handling of a

characteristics; also basically

openly

in his

number of issues.

usually, also

on the whole

suggested or implied rather than stated

Adverbs that

or limit

restrict

merely = exactly and nothing more: The medication will merely
bearable; it will not cure the disease.

make

the

symptoms

simply Note that simply can have different meanings. To put it simply, the risks of this
approach would seem to outweigh its advantages. [plainly] The book presents difficult ideas
simply, ill a way appropriate for the layman. [easily; someone who isn't a specialist in the

field] The exam results were simply dreadful. [absolutely, without doubt]
hardly ever = almost never: The tribe has hardly ever had contact with the outside world.
Eventually

We

means

'in

the end'.

It

does not mean 'perhaps/possibly'.

perhaps/possibly (NOT eveneea-Hy) discover life on other planets
Eventually [in the end], we were able to interview all 20 children involved

18

Academic Vocabulary

in

Use

will

in the future.

in

the test


Exercises
5.1

Look

A

at

and B. Explain the difference between the sentences

in

each pair.

Heinrich's experiments were mostly successful.

1

Heinrich's experiments were most successful.

2 The results were somewhat surprising given the circumstances.

The results were especially surprising given the circumstances.
3 First-year students are directly affected by the new rules relating to tuition fees.

First-year students are particularly affected by the

primarily concerned with urban alienation.

The study

is

ultimately concerned with urban alienation.

The team
Choose

are saying

no

one of them writes

in a

Change

the options.

merely

essentially /

is

specially / basically

true.

significant difference

simply

more impressive

possibly a

results.

frequently obtained unpredicted results.

more appropriate adverb from

the

What you

5.3

rules relating to tuition fees.

is

5 The team eventually obtained unpredicted

5.2

new

4 The study

/ precisely

style

To put

it

basically / simply, there

between the two writers'

theories.

is

However,

dreadful style while the other has eventually /

than any other contemporary

scientist.

which mean the opposite of the underlined ones.

the sentences using adverbs

1 There were roughly 350 people living in the village in 1958.
2 Parents seldom complained that the school authorities failed to inform them of changes.
3 We investigated the problem and initially found some small errors in the calculations.
4 The temperature was exactly half a degree lower than the average.
5 Singh (1998) is explicitly. critical of existing theories of economic growth.
6 Soil erosion is specifically caused by water or wind.
7 Senior citizens almost always use the internet to communicate with one another.

The

8

5.4

disease

is

directly linked to environmental factors.

Underline the adverbs in these

texts.

Then answer

Marine conservationists are currently attempting
to save the world's coral reefs.
literally

glue the

using coral

damaged

artificially

activity

recent

is

raised

in

UN

to

underwater

under attack from

as well as from events occurring

such as hurricanes and tsunamis.

naturally,

A

plan

reefs back together,

labs. Reefs are increasingly

human

One

report warns that

world's coral reefs have

30%

of the

been completely

destroyed or are severely damaged.

the questions.

Scientists

have recently discovered that ants

can remember

Which
4 Which
5 Which
6 Which

steps they have

the legs of ants, the team observed that
short-legged ants apparently
could not easily find their

became

way home

lost

and

to the

nest. Similarly, ants with longer legs typically

travelled

were
It

50%

further than they

needed to and

also temporarily unable to find the nest.

seems ants can

1 Which adverb means 'in the same way'?
2 Find two pairs of adverbs that mean the opposite of each

3

how many

taken. By carefully shortening or lengthening

definitely

count their steps.

other.

adverb means the opposite of 'a long time ago'?
adverb means 'more and more'?
adverb could be substituted by seriously?
adverb means 'for a limited time'?

Find an article of interest to you in your discipline and underline

all

the key adverbs. Then check

that you understand their meaning.

Academic Vocabulary

in

Use

19


6

Phrasal verbs

academic English

in

Although phrasal verbs occur most frequently in more informal spoken and written English,
they are also not uncommon in an academic context. You will hear them used in lectures and

them

will read

in serious journals.

From

only go/look back over and work out are

this unit

not appropriate for a formal written assignment.

A

Phrasal verbs and one-word synonyms
Phrasal verbs often have one-word synonyms. These are usually of Latin origin and sound

more formal than

both are appropriate when writing or

their phrasal verb equivalent but

talking about academic subjects. Vary your language by using both.
phrasal verb

synonym

put forward (an idea/view/opinion/

present

example
In

her

latest article

theory which

theory/plan)

carry out (an experiment

/

research)

make up

conduct

I

constitute

consist of

point out

observe

point up

Kaufmann puts forward a

likely

intend to carry

to prove controversial.

out

a series of experiments.

Children under the age of 15
half of

be made up of

is

Parliament

made up

is

Grenne points out

highlight

make up

nearly

the country's population.

of two houses.

that the increase in

life

expectancy has led to

some economic problems.

The study points up

the weaknesses

in

the

current school system.
In his article

describe

The document sets out the terms

go

discuss

In this

do something)

into

Civil

*

go/look back over

revise,

go through

check

Revise

is

the

BrE synonym and review

or change something to
a test as focused

B

Losanov sets out to prove that

aim

set out

set out (to

on

make

it

better;

review*

the

AmE

review

is

book Sergeant goes into the causes
in some depth.

of the

War

Please

Go

.

of the treaty.

go/look back over

through your

synonym. (Revise

this term's notes.

calculations carefully.

in

AmE only

means

to edit

not used in BrE in the context of preparing for

here.)

Carrying out research
After completing her

first

degree

tol apply to graduate school. She

in

behaviour at a well-known institute
series of experiments investigating

noticed

some

zoology Meena

went on

wanted to work on animal
in

New Zealand.

how

She set up a

bees communicate. She has

curious behaviour patterns but has not yet

worked

out 4 why her bees behave as they do. What she has observed
seems to go against5 current theories of bee behaviour. When she
6

has completed all her research she will have to write it all up
.

4

do something after doing something else 2 study, work in the field of 3 prepared, arranged
come to a conclusion about not be in agreement with 6 (of an important document) write

a final form
Consult a good dictionary when you use phrasal verbs in your writing. For example, a good
dictionary tells you when the object can be used before the particle (e.g. write your results up) and

when
20

Academic Vocabulary

in

it

cannot

Use

(e.g. this

goes against current theories).

in

Exercises
6.1

Rewrite the sentences replacing the underlined word in each sentence with a phrasal verb

from A. Note that both versions of each sentence are equally appropriate.
1

We

series of experiments to test out our hypothesis.
you should revise Chapters 7 and 8 of your textbooks.
on the American Civil War Kingston discusses the reasons why the situation

conducted a

2 Before the

test

3 In his article

developed in the

way

it

did.

4 Cole presents some fascinating theories on the development of language in his latest book.
5 The psychologist observed that it was very unusual for a young child to behave in this way.
6 Please check your work again carefully before handing it in.
7 In this article Simpson aims to prove that the Chinese reached America long before the
Vikings.
8

Women now

constitute over half the student population in

most

universities in this

country.

6.2

Fill in

the missing

words

in this

paragraph.

MA I've

As part of my
working (1 )

been doing some research on language acquisition. I've been
how young children learn their mother tongue. I've, been
some experiments to see how much reading to young
carrying (2)
children affects their language development. I've had a great supervisor who has
helped me set (3)
my experiments and she's also pointed (4)
lots of interesting things in my data that I hadn't noticed myself. I'm busy writing my
some
now and I think I should be able to put (6)
work (5)
useful ideas.

It's

do a doctorate
a PhD.

to

6.3

Match

been really fascinating and I hope I may be able to go
in the saine field although I certainly never set (8)

to

do

the beginning of each sentence with the most appropriate ending.

1 Feudal society was made
2 Carlson was the first to put

forward a convincing theory with regard to this question.
up the flaws in the school's testing methods.

3 Her results appear to go
4 The investigation pointed
5 It took him a long time to work
6 The geography book sets

out the solution to the algebra problem.
out a lot of basic information about all the world's
countries.

against

up of
6.4

(7)

Answer

what she had found

in her earlier studies.

clearly defined classes of people.

these questions.

1

What

2

If

might a scientist carry out?
you want to study something in more depth, what might you go on to do

a

first

sort of things

after getting

degree?

3 What do postgraduate students typically have to write up at the end of their studies?
4 What sort of things do good students regularly look back over?
5 What sorts of things do scholars typically put forward in their lectures or articles?
6 Why is it sensible to go through any maths calculations that you had to make as part of a
research study before you draw any conclusions?

Academic Vocabulary

in

Use

2

1


7

Key quantifying expressions
Quantifying expressions are important in academic English as it is often necessary to
figures or trends. You will find more useful language for talking about numbers
in Units 25 and 26 and in Reference 2, which focuses on measurement.

comment on

A

Number and amount
wrong noun

For example, you
amount of an uncountable noun
money, interest or influence. However, you say a large number of a plural noun
articles, books or words. Both a number and an amount can be described as small,

Learners of English often choose the

relating to quantity.

say a great (not large) deal (informal) or a large/great

such as
such as

considerable, substantial, significant, enormous, total, surprising, excessive [too much/many],
fair [quite a lot] and reasonable [acceptable].

B

Other nouns

relating to quantity

The size of our survey was
in totall.

relatively small-scale.

We

sent out 2,500 questionnaires

Although a couple2 of people did not respond, the bulk3 of those sent

questionnaires have completed them. The survey shows that, as a whole4, the
population

becoming more aware

is

of the importance of recycling. Only

respondents said that he recycled less than he used

two or

in all

2

notice

how

5

three, a

respondents

few
is

3

the maJority

in the plural;

of ... (respondents/surveys/conclusions,

C

Comparing numbers and

it is

to.

considered as a group rather than individually
a

common

error to write a singular

Results

exceeding

noun

one

after

etc.)

quantities
comment

example

expression

one of our

exceeding 5 cm were

eliminated from the

(formal)

means higher than

survey.

in

excess of

People

who

drive in

excess of the speed

limit will

be

fined.

fewer and

Fewer and fewer

fewer

throughout their

and

/ less

and

less

more and
more

people are staying

lives. Young

in

che same job

people are becoming less

means

over, used mainly in

official

or

legal writing

a steadily declining/decreasing

number

of, decreasingly

less interested in politics.

There

is

more and more interest in the topic.
more and more aware of the

People are becoming

a steadily increasing amount
increasingly

environment.

more or

The experiment was more or

less

less a success.

(slightly informal)

means

mostly or approximately

no fewer than

No fewer than

200 people responded.

used to suggest the number

was unexpectedly

Note the

significant difference

Few [Not many]
much] response
few/little has a

22

Acodemic Vocobutory

in

Use

between few and a few and between

people enjoy X's music.

to our survey.

more

We

hod a

A few
little

negative tone than

little

large

and a

little.

[Some] people enjoy it. We hod little [not
[some] response to our survey. In other words,

a few

I

a

little.

of,


Exercises
7.1

Complete the sentences using the correct forms of the words

number of

In a

1

cases, there

was no reaction

in italics.

at all to the drug. surprise

2 The analysis demanded an
amount of computer time. exceed
3

numbers of birds inhabit the lake during the winter. consider
4 The course requires a
amount of prior knowledge of computers. reason
5 The survey took a
amount of research time and costs were high. substance
6 The two dams can hold in
of two cubic kilometres of water. exceed
7 In
12 areas of the Southern Indian Ocean are now closed to deep-sea
fishing. totality

8

four people were considered too large for the experiment. exceed

Groups

than 2,000

10 In a

7.2

new computer

number of cases,

surface

viruses are created every year.

damage was

few

noticed. signify

The

sentences below are typical of spoken English. Replace the underlined words
them sound more appropriate for a written assignment.
1

The bulk of our work

2

We

to

make

is concerned with carbon emissions.
have noticed that fewer and fewer students are joining the course.

3

Our team

4
5

In a couple of cases,

spent a fair

amount of time

we

getting funding for the research.

could not find any reason for the outbreak.

We spent a great deal of time on the project.
6 As you repeat the experiment, use less and less water each time.

7.3

Read
For

the text and answer the questions.

some years now,

scientists

have been using a powerful new machine to recreate the

number
what happened in the first few
microseconds of the beginning of the universe. After no more than ten microseconds, the
particles of matter joined together, like water freezing into ice, forming the origin of more or

conditions that existed at the birth of the universe, The machine generates a massive

of hot, dense, bursts of matter and energy, simulating

less

1

everything

we

see

Which expression

2 Which expression

in

the universe today.

how long scientists have been using this machine?
how many bursts of matter and energy the machine

explains
tells

us

Which time period does the machine simulate?
4 Which expression states how long it was before the particles of matter
5 Which expression in the last sentence means approximately?

generates?

3

7.4

joined together?

Rewrite the paragraph using the opposites of the underlined words or expressions.
There have been a small number of studies investigating the impact of email on interpersonal

communications. None of the studies has been large-scale but they suggest some interesting
trends

in

patterns of email use. From one of the older studies

people send

in

excess of 50 emails daily. Moreover,

citizens use email a lot

it

seems that more and more

appears that a substantial number of senior

more frequently than younger people

Find five quantifying expressions from

it

do.

one of your textbooks and write your own sentences

using them.

Academic Vocabulary

in

Use

23


8

Words with
A

meanings

several

Set

Many words
word with

in English

have more than one meaning. The word

a particularly large

number of distinctly

set, for

different meanings.

example,

is

As our focus

one
is

academic English, some key uses of set are illustrated by these examples.
a) Set the instruments to zero. [get something ready so it can be operated]

would like to set some ground rules for the course. [establish]
The decision set a number of changes in motion. [caused to be in
d) We must set a time for our next meeting. [arrange]
b) I

c)

e)

Concrete

sets as

it

a stated condition]

cools. [becomes solid]

The students entered the room and immediately set to work. [started work]
g) The condition is associated with a particular set of symptoms. [group]
h) We have a number of set books to study in our literature class. [that must be
f)

B

More academic meanings
Here are some more words which

for familiar

words

an academic context

in

studied]

may have

a different meaning from

those you are familiar with from your knowledge of general English.

word

academic meaning(s)

accommodate

(verb)

example

change to allow something to

fit in

He

had to adapt

his

theory to

accommodate new
contract (verb)

shorten,

occur (verb)

exist

become

As the metal

smaller

Some

cools

it

information.

contracts.

occur

valuable minerals

naturally in these rocks.

author or book mentioned

reference (noun)

writing to

show where

in

a piece of

information was found

You must provide a
references

at the

list

of

end of your

assignment

complete turn

revolution (noun)

(e.g.

of a wheel)

Time

is

measured by the revolution

of the earth around the sun.

way

structure (noun)

in

which parts of a system or object are

organised or arranged

C

Words with
Many

several different

academic words have

specific

The structure of
particularly

this

element

is

complex.

academic meanings

meanings according to

their discipline.

Channel, for

meanings in electronics, linguistics, biology, physics and geography.
So you will, of course, need a specialist dictionary for your own subject.
Other words, e.g. issue and point have several generally important academic meanings.
The writer takes issue with Kwame's interpretation. [raises arguments against]
In your essay you should address a number of key issues. [topics]
Have you seen the latest issue of the Malaysian Medical Journal? [edition]
Jackson raises some interesting points in his article. [opinions, ideas, information]
example, has

The

specific

writer takes a long time to get to the point. [most significant part]

If

you come across a word that you think you know but it does not seem to make sense in that

it has another distinct meaning. If so, write it down with both (or

context, check to see whether
its

24

Academic Vocabulary

meanings

in

Use

in

your vocabulary notebook.

all)