Individual Rights and Liberties Under the U.S. Constitution The Case Law of the U.S. Supreme Court pot

Individual Rights
and Liberties
Under the
U.S. Constitution
The Case Law of the U.S. Supreme Court
Ioannis G. Dimitrakopoulos
Martinus Nijhoff Publishers
Leiden / Boston
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Dimitrakopoulos, Ioannis G.
Individual rights and liberties under the U.S. Constitution: the case law of the U.S.
Supreme Court / by Ioannis G. Dimitrakopoulos.
p.cm.
Includes index.
ISBN-13: 978-90-04-15791-0
ISBN-10: 90-04-15791-3
1. Civil rights—United States—Cases. 2. United States. Supreme Court.
I. Title.
KF4748.D465 2007
342.7308'5—dc222006048095
Copyright © 2007 Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands.
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Manufactured in the United States of America
SUMMARY OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
Preface—Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi
Chapter 1. The U.S. Supreme Court—An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter 2. General Issues of Constitutional Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Chapter 3. Procedural Rights. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Chapter 4. Dignity and Worth of the Individual—Personal Inviolability
and Liberty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Chapter 5. Substantive Guarantees Against Criminal or Civil Penalties. . . . . . . . 257
Chapter 6. Personal or Family Privacy and Autonomy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Chapter 7. Searches and Seizures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Chapter 8. Freedoms of Conscience, Thought, and Belief—
Religious Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Chapter 9. Freedoms of Speech, Press, Assembly, and Association . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Chapter 10. Substantive Protection of Property Rights and
Economic Interests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817
Chapter 11. Equal Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
The Constitution of the United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033
Table of Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047
Subject Matter Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1101
iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
Preface—Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi
CHAPTER 1: THE U.S. SUPREME COURT—AN OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. The Court as an Institution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. The Court’s Jurisdiction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1. In General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2. The “Case or Controversy” Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
a. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
b. Advisory Opinions—Administrative Duties—Rulemaking . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
c. Ripeness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
d. Standing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
i. Constitutional Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
ii. Non-Constitutional Prudential Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
iii. Particular Questions of Standing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
e. Mootness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
f. Final Judgments—Reopening of Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3. Adequate State Grounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4. The Abstention Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5. The “Not Pressed or Passed Upon Below” Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6. Political Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7. The “Act of State” Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
C. Judicial Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1. Generally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2. Standards of Review in Constitutional Rights Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3. Facial Challenges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4. Avoidance of Constitutional Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
D. Effects of the Court’s Decisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1. Judicial Supremacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2. Declaration of Unconstitutionality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3. Power of Precedent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4. Retroactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
E. How the Court Adjudicates Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
CHAPTER 2: GENERAL ISSUES OF CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS . . . . . . . . . 53
A. Rightholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
1. Fetus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

2. Private Associations and Corporations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3. Governmental Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
v
vi • Individual Rights and Liberties Under the U.S. Constitution
B. Persons Bound by Constitutional Rights—The Concept of “State Action” . . . . . 55
1. Public Authorities and Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2. Private Persons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
a. General Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
b. Particular Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
C. Territorial Application of the Constitutional Provisions About
Individual Rights. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
D. Constitutional Rights in Wartime or in Case of Insurrection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
E. Retroactive Lawmaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
F. Affirmative Obligations of Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
G. Waiver of Constitutional Rights. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
1. In General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2. Waiver of a Constitutional Right as a Condition for Receiving
Discretionary Government Benefits—Doctrine of Unconstitutional
Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
H. Substantive Due Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
I. Constitutional Rights of Particular Categories of Persons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
1. Aliens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2. Prisoners. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3. Minors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4. Public Employees—Military Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
J. Liability for Constitutional Violations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
K. The Enforcement Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
CHAPTER 3: PROCEDURAL RIGHTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
A. Procedural Due Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
1. Introduction—Substantive v. Procedural Due Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

2. General Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
a. Deprivation of Protected “Liberty” or “Property” Interests. . . . . . . . . . 112
b. Procedural Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
i. Introduction—The Mathews Balancing Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
ii. Notice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
iii. Hearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
iv. Right to (Retained or Appointed) Counsel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
v. Standard of Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
vi. Legislative Presumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
vii. Impartial Decisionmaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3. Particular Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
a. Takings of Property. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
b. Pre-Judgment Attachments—Civil Forfeitures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
c. Damage to a Person’s Reputation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
d. Deprivation of Public or Private Employment—Exclusion from a
Professional Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
e. Suspension of a Driver’s License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
f. Suspension or Dismissal of Students from Public Schools . . . . . . . . . . 140
g. Termination of Welfare or Disability Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
h. Right to Notice and Hearing in the Civil Trial Context . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
i. Prisoners’ Liberty Interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
B. Right of Access to Courts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
1. In General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
2. Indigents’ Access to Judicial Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
a. Generally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
b. In Criminal Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
c. In Civil Cases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
C. Jury Trial in Civil Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
D. The Fifth Amendment’s Privilege Against Compulsory Self-Incrimination. . . . 160
1. General Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

2. Suspects’ Self-Incriminating Statements During Custodial
Interrogation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
a. Historical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
b. The Miranda Warnings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
c. What Constitutes “Custodial Interrogation”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
d. Procedure to Be Followed When a Suspect Invokes His
Miranda Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
e. The Exclusionary Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
E. Other Basic Procedural Guarantees in the Criminal Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
1. Right to Fair Notice of the Charges and the Grand Jury Clause . . . . . . . . . 175
2. The Sixth Amendment’s Right to Counsel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
a. In General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
b. The Right to Counsel of One’s Choice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
c. Right to Effective Assistance of Counsel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
d. The Defendant’s Right to Self-Representation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
3. Safeguards Regarding Show-Ups, Line-Ups, and Other Pre-Trial
Identification Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
4. The Excessive Bail Clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
5. Standard and Burden of Proof. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
6. The Right to Present Evidence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
a. Generally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
b. Discovery and Disclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
c. The Confrontation Clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
7. Public Trial. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
8. The Right to Jury Trial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
a. General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
b. Jury Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
9. Freedom from Physical Restraints Visible to the Jury. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
10. The Right to a Speedy Trial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
11. Appeals and Post-Conviction Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

a. The Defendant’s Right to Appeal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
b. The “Harmless Error” Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
CHAPTER 4: DIGNITY AND WORTH OF THE INDIVIDUAL—
PERSONAL INVIOLABILITY AND LIBERTY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
A. Dignity and Worth of the Individual. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
B. Personal Inviolability and Liberty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
1. Compulsory Labor and Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
2. The Right to Travel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Table of Contents • vii
viii • Individual Rights and Liberties Under the U.S. Constitution
a. The Right to Travel and Settle in the United States—
Residency Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
b. The Right to International Travel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
3. The Right to Bodily Integrity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
a. Generally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
b. Corporal Punishment in Public Schools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
c. The Right to Refuse Medical Treatment, Vaccination, and the
Administration of Drugs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
4. Termination of Life-Sustaining Medical Treatment—Assisted Suicide . . . . 237
5. Deprivation of Personal Liberty Without Prior Criminal Conviction . . . . . 239
a. In General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
b. Involuntary Commitment to a Mental Institution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
i. Generally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
ii. Civil Commitment of Minors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
iii. Conditions of Confinement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
c. Detention of Aliens Who Are Deportable or Whose Deportability or
Admissibility Is Under Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
d. Detention of “Enemy Combatants” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
e. Deprivation of Personal Liberty During Criminal Proceedings . . . . . . 251
i. In General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

ii. Pre-Trial Detention of Criminally Accused Persons. . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
6. The Right to Keep and Bear Arms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
CHAPTER 5: SUBSTANTIVE GUARANTEES AGAINST CRIMINAL
OR CIVIL PENALTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
A. The Distinction Between Criminal Punishments and Civil Sanctions
or Restraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
1. In General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
2. Forfeitures and Fines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
3. Contempt Sanctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
4. Involuntary Civil Commitment of Sexually Dangerous Persons
and Other Civil Measures Against Such Individuals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
5. Other Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
B. The Bill of Attainder Clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
C. Non-Retroactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
1. In the Criminal Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
a. The Ex Post Facto Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
b. Retroactive Judicial Decisionmaking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
2. In the Civil Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
D. Definiteness and the “Fair Warning” Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
1. In the Criminal Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
a. In General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
b. The “Void for Vagueness” Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
i. Generally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
ii. Vagrancy Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
iii. Restrictions on Expression—Generally. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
iv. Breach of the Peace—“Fighting” Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
v. Protection of Public Morals—Obscenity Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
vi. Prohibition of Assemblies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
vii. Anti-Communist Criminal Legislation—Loyalty Oaths . . . . . . . . . . 288
viii. Contempt of a Congressional Investigatory Committee. . . . . . . . . 289

ix. Abortion Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
x. Economic Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
xi. Military Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
2. In the Civil Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
E. Other Due Process Restrictions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
1. In the Criminal Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
a. Entrapment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
b. Arbitrary Penalties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
c. Mandatory Non-Capital Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
d. Conditions of Imprisonment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
2. In the Civil or Quasi-Criminal Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
a. In General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
b. Excessive Punitive Damages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
F. The Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
1. In General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
2. Kind or Method of Punishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
a. The Death Penalty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
b. Deprivation of Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
c. Prison Deprivations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
i. Generally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
ii. Conditions of Imprisonment—Medical Care of Prisoners . . . . . . . 311
iii. Use of Excessive Force Against Inmates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
3. Proportionality of Sentences—Mandatory Life Imprisonment . . . . . . . . . . 315
4. Punishable Conduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
G. The Excessive Fines Clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
H. The Double Jeopardy Clause. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
1. In General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
2. Attachment and Termination of Jeopardy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
3. The “Dual Sovereignty” Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
4. Same Offense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

5. The Collateral Estoppel Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
6. Sentencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
CHAPTER 6: PERSONAL OR FAMILY PRIVACY AND AUTONOMY. . . . . . . . 331
A. In General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
B. Protection of Personal Data and Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
C. Freedom to Marry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
D. Sexual Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
E. Parental Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
1. Generally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
2. Education of Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
3. Rights of Unwed Fathers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
4. Rights of Foster Parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
5. Visitation Rights of Third Persons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
6. Termination of Parental Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
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F. Living Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
G. Procreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
H. Contraception. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
I. Abortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
1. Generally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
2. Fetal Viability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
3. Informed Consent of the Pregnant Woman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
4. Consent of Notification of the Spouse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
5. Consent or Notification of the Parents of a Pregnant
Unmarried Minor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
6. Methods of Abortion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
7. Persons Performing Abortions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
8. Facilities in Which Abortions May Be Performed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
9. Abortion Funding—Allocation of Public Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363

CHAPTER 7: SEARCHES AND SEIZURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
B. Scope of the Fourth Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
1. Government Conduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
2. What Constitutes “Search” or “Seizure”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
a. Generally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
i. Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
ii. Seizure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
iii. Abandment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
b. Particular Types of Searches and Seizures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
i. Particular Places, Effects, or Papers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
ii. Particular Acts or Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
3. Who May Invoke the Fourth Amendment Safeguards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
C. Legality of Searches and Seizures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
1. General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
a. Warrant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
i. In General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
ii. Particularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
iii. Issuing Officials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
b. Probable Cause—Reasonable Suspicion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
i. Generally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
ii. Informant’s Tip. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
c. Reasonableness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
2. Particular Types of Searches and Seizures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
a. Particular Places, Effects, or Persons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
i. Private Dwellings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
ii. Commercial Premises—Offices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
iii. Fire-Damaged Premises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
iv. Murder Scenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
v. Public Places. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402

vi. Border Searches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
vii. Automobiles—Motorists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
viii. Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
ix. Seizure of Materials Presumptively Protected by the
First Amendment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
x. Searches and Seizures in the Public School Context. . . . . . . . . . . . 414
xi. Patients at Public Hospitals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
xii. Pre-Trial Detainees. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
xiii. Probationers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
b. Particular Acts, Methods, or Forms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
i. Arrests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
ii. Investigatory Stops and Frisks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
iii. Fingerprinting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
iv. Hot Pursuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
v. Search Incident to Lawful Arrest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
vi. The “Plain View” Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
vii. Technological Surveillance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
viii. Drug and Alcohol Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
ix. Administrative Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
x. Caseworkers’ Home Visits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
xi. Inventory Searches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
xii. Consent Searches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
3. Effecting a Search or Seizure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
a. Executing a Warrant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
b. Traffic Stops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
c. Use of Excessive Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
d. High-Speed Automobile Chases—Roadblocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
e. Compelled Surgical Intrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
f. Entry—The “Knock and Announce” Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
g. Presence of Third Parties—Media Ride-Alongs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447

h. Reasonable Mistakes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
D. Remedies for Fourth Amendment Violations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
1. The Exclusionary Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
2. Bivens Actions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
CHAPTER 8: FREEDOMS OF CONSCIENCE, THOUGHT, AND BELIEF—
RELIGIOUS FREEDOM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
A. Freedoms of Conscience, Thought, and Belief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
1. In General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
2. Compelled Expression of Objectionable Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
3. Compulsory Disclosure of Beliefs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
4. Freedom of Thought in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
5. Exclusion from a Profession or Public Employment on the Basis of
Political Beliefs or Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
6. Oaths of Office . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
7. Conscientious Objection to Military Service or Instruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
8. Beliefs of the Defendant in the Sentencing Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
B. Freedom of Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
1. The Free Exercise Clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
a. In General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
b. Ecclesiastical Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
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c. Internal Government Affairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
d. Polygamy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
e. Religious Upbringing of Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
f. Sunday Closing Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
g. Denial of Government Benefits Because of Conduct Mandated by
Religious Belief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
h. Exclusion of the Pursuit of a Devotional Theology Degree from a
Scholarship Aid Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475

i. Taxation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
j. Military Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
k. Prison Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
2. The Establishment Clause. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
a. In General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
b. Relation Between the Two Religious Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
c. Applicable Standards of Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
d. Aid to Religion and Religious Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
i. In General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
ii. Aid to Religious Schools or to Their Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
iii. Funding for Services Relating to Pregnancy and Parenthood . . . . 503
e. Taxation—Tax Exemptions or Deductions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
f. Government Sponsorship of Religion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
i. In the Public School Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
ii. Display of Religious Symbols by the Government—
Religious Speech on Public Property. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
g. Permissible Forms of “Ceremonial Deism” (Legislative Prayers—
National Motto—Pledge of Allegiance) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
h. Delegation of Governmental Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
i. Exemption from Military Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
j. Labor Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
k. Church Property Disputes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
CHAPTER 9: FREEDOMS OF SPEECH, PRESS, ASSEMBLY, AND
ASSOCIATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
PART I: FREEDOM OF SPEECH AND OF THE PRESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
B. Prior Restraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
1. In General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
2. Licensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
3. Injunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539

C. Vagueness and Overbreadth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
D. The Distinction Between Content-Based and Content-Neutral Regulation
of Speech. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
1. General Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
2. Particular Categories of Content-Based Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
a. Advocacy of the Use of Force or of Law Violation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
i. The World War I Cases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
ii. State Sedition Laws—Anti-Communist Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
iii. The Modern “Incitement” Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
b. Injury to Reputation or Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
i. Defamation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
ii. Information Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
c. Unwelcome and Offensive Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
i. In General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
ii. Breach of Peace—“Fighting” Words. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
iii. Hostile Audiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
iv. Captive Audiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
v. Threats of Violence—Hate Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
d. Sexually Explicit Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
i. Obscenity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
ii. Child Pornography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
iii. Pornography and Sexism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
iv. Public Nudity Bans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
v. Zoning Legislation Dealing with Adult Entertainment Uses . . . . . 599
vi. Sexually Explicit Expression on Communications Media . . . . . . . 602
e. Commercial Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
i. Generally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
ii. Specific Types of Advertising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
iii. Trade Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
f. Campaign-Related Speech—Lobbying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638

E. Speech in the Public Sector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
1. Speech of Government Employees or Contractors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
a. In General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
b. Military Personnel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
c. Disclosure of Confidential Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
2. Legislators’ Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
3. Speech in Public Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
4. Speech Rights in the Prison Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
5. Government Funding of Speech—Tax Exemptions or Deductions . . . . . . 657
F. The Right Not to Speak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
1. Generally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
2. Anonymous Speech—Compelled Disclosure of the Speaker’s Identity. . . . . 664
3. Compelled Contributions to Objectionable Speech. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
4. Compelled Access for the Speech of Others. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668
G. Freedom of the Press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
1. General Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
2. Newsgathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
a. In General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
b. Justice and the Press. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
i. Access to Judicial Proceedings and Records—
Free Press and Fair Trial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
ii. Sanctions for Out-of-Court Publications that Comment upon
a Pending Case. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
iii. Judicial Disciplinary Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
c. Access to Prisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
3. Taxation of the Press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
4. Government-Enforced Access to the Press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
5. Governmental Demand of Information from the Press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
6. The Electronic Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
a. Radio—Television. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690

Table of Contents • xiii
xiv • Individual Rights and Liberties Under the U.S. Constitution
b. Cable TV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
c. Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
PART II: FREE SPEECH PLUS CONDUCT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701
A. In General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701
B. Time, Place, or Manner Restrictions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701
C. Expressive Activity on Property Owned or Controlled by the Government
(The “Public Forum” Doctrine) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
1. Types of Fora—Standards of Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
2. Permit Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708
3. Particular Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
a. Court Grounds and Adjacent Sidewalks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
b. “No-Campaign Zone” Around Polling Places. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
c. Military Bases—Streets and Sidewalks Located Within Military
Reservations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
d. Prisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712
e. Public Libraries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712
f. Airport Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713
g. Property Owned or Controlled by the U.S. Postal Service . . . . . . . . . . 715
i. Mail Boxes—Mail Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
ii. Postal Sidewalks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
h. School Newspaper—School Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718
i. School’s Internal Mail System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718
j. School Administration Meetings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719
k. Charity Drive in the Federal Workplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
l. Public Fairgrounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
m. Advertising Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721
i. Advertising on City Buses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721
ii. Advertising on Utility Poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721

n. Government Funding of Expressive Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722
o. Broadcasting Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
p. Camping in Parks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724
q. Anti-Noise Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724
r. Religious Speech on Public Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
D. Particular Types of Expressive Conduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
1. Assembly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
2. Picketing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
a. In General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
b. Residences or Dwellings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
c. Schools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
d. Courthouses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
e. Embassies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730
f. Abortion Clinics—Health Care Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730
g. Business Places—Labor Picketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734
3. Leafletting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
4. Financial Solicitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737
5. Door-to-Door Canvassing, Pamphleteering, and Soliciting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742
6. Display of Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744
7. Symbolic Conduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
a. In General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
b. Contemptuous Treatment of the American Flag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
8. Access to Private Property for Speech Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
PART III: FREEDOM OF EXPRESSIVE ASSOCIATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754
A. General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754
B. Guilt or Liability by Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755
C. Associational Privacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
D. Restrictions on Particular Associational Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761
1. Boycott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761
2. Litigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762

3. In the Prison Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764
E. The Right Not to Associate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764
1. Generally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764
2. Compelled Membership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764
3. Compulsory Fees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768
a. Compelled Contributions to Trade Unions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768
i. In General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768
ii. Procedural Safeguards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774
iii. Appropriate Remedies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775
b. Compulsory Dues to State Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776
F. Freedom of Political Association. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
1. General Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
2. Organization and Internal Affairs of Political Parties—
Selection of Party Nominees. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
3. Ballot Access. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783
4. Freedom of Political Association of Public Employees. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790
5. Campaign Finance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792
a. Contributions or Expenditures Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792
i. In General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792
ii. Contribution Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793
iii. Expenditure Restrictions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796
iv. Party Contributions and Expenditures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800
v. Corporate Financing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808
vi. Contributions by Minors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810
vii. Referenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
b. Record-Keeping and Disclosure Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812
c. Government Funding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816
CHAPTER 10: SUBSTANTIVE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY RIGHTS AND
ECONOMIC INTERESTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817
A. The Takings Clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817

1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817
2. The “Public Use” Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817
3. What Constitutes “Property”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820
4. What Amounts to a “Taking” of Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822
a. Formal Condemnation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822
b. Physical Intrusions and Regulatory Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
Table of Contents • xv
xvi • Individual Rights and Liberties Under the U.S. Constitution
i. General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
ii. Physical Takings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824
iii. Regulatory Takings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
c. Destruction of Property in Emergency Situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
d. Government Liability for Property Damage Caused by Others . . . . . . 849
e. Forfeiture of Property Used Illegally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849
f. Abandoned Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
5. Just Compensation—Remedial Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852
6. Standing—Recipient of the Compensation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861
B. Other Limits on Economic Regulations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862
1. In General—Substantive Economic Due Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862
2. Restrictions on Professional Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864
3. Restrictions on Freedom of Contract. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866
a. Generally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866
b. Impairment of Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866
i. Federal Legislation and Due Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866
ii. State Legislation and the Contract Clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868
4. Utility Regulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876
5. Governmental Price Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877
6. Liability Limitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 879
7. Retroactive Economic Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880
a. In General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880

b. Retroactive Taxation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880
c. Imposition of Retroactive Liability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882
8. Limitations on Fiscal Powers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 886
9. The Commerce Clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 891
a. Federal Commerce Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 891
b. Restrictions on State Regulatory Powers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894
10. The Bankruptcy Clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 898
11. The Patent and Copyright Clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900
CHAPTER 11: EQUAL PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
A. General Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
B. Classifications Based on Race or Ethnic Ancestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906
1. Historical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906
a. The Fourteenth Amendment and the “Separate but Equal”
Doctrine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906
b. The Fifth Amendment and Anti-Japanese Measures During
World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907
2. Applicable Standard of Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 908
3. Racial Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 908
4. Differential Treatment of Indian Tribes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
5. Affirmative Action—Benign or Remedial Racial Discrimination . . . . . . . . 910
6. De Jure/De Facto Racial Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919
a. Generally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919
b. Selective Prosecution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 921
c. Jury Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923
d. Capital Sentencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927
e. In the School Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 929
7. Remedying Segregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 929
a. Public Schools and Universities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 929
b. Desegregation and Private Schools that Discriminate Racially . . . . . . . 936
c. Public Parks and Other Recreational Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 938

d. Prisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 938
e. Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 939
8. Repeal of Remedies and Restructuring of the Political Process . . . . . . . . . 940
C. Gender Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943
1. In General—Standard of Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943
2. Particular Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 944
a. Family Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 944
i. Distinctions Between Unwed Mothers and Fathers . . . . . . . . . . . . 944
ii. Management of Joint Property of Spouses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 948
iii. Child Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 948
b. Pregnancy Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949
c. Welfare Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950
d. Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 954
e. Athletic Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 954
f. Prohibition of Liquor Sales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 954
g. Statutory Rape. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 955
h. Employment as a Prison Guard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956
i. In the Military Context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957
j. Jury Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 958
3. Benign or Compensatory Gender Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 959
4. De Jure/De Facto Gender Discrimination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961
D. Classifications Based on Illegitimacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963
E. Alienage Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 968
1. Federal Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 968
2. State Legislation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 969
a. The Supremacy Clause. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 969
b. The Equal Protection Clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 970
i. Generally—Standard of Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 970
ii. Economic Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971
iii. Occupational Activity—The “Public Function” Exception. . . . . . . 972

iv. Illegal Aliens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974
F. Age Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 977
G. Classifications Based on Mental Retardation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 979
H. Classifications Based on Sexual Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981
I. Electoral Franchise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 982
1. The Right to Vote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 982
a. In General—Standard of Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 982
b. Voter Residency and Registration Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983
c. Poll Taxes—Property Qualifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986
d. Literacy Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 988
e. The Fifteenth Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989
f. Absentee Voting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 990
g. Disenfranchisement of Convicted Felons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 991
Table of Contents • xvii
xviii • Individual Rights and Liberties Under the U.S. Constitution
2. Candidacy Qualifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992
3. The “One-Person, One-Vote” Principle—Apportionment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 993
a. Congressional Elections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 993
b. State Elections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996
c. Judicial Redistricting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1002
4. Racial Gerrymandering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1002
5. Political Gerrymandering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006
6. Equality in the Counting and Recounting of Votes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1008
J. Economic and Social Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1010
1. In General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1010
2. Protection of Legitimate Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1010
3. Regulation of Economic Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1012
4. State Taxation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014
5. Welfare Benefits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019
6. Wealth Discrimination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024

7. Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027
K. Government Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029
L. Remedial Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030
M. State Laws Against Private Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031
The Constitution of the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033
Table of Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047
Subject Matter Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1101
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Ioannis G. Dimitrakopoulos was born in 1971 in Athens, Greece. In 1993, he
received his Law degree (with Honors) from Athens Law School. In 1994, he obtained
his Masters degree, in the field of Internal Public Law, from the University Panthéon—
Assas (Paris II). In 1998, he graduated at the top of his class from the National School
for the Judiciary and was appointed Junior Judge to the Council of State, the Supreme
Administrative Court of Greece, which deals mainly with cases involving questions of
constitutional, administrative, or European Community law.
During the academic year 2003–2004, he was a Senior Visiting Fellow in the
University of California, Berkeley (Earl Warren Legal Institute). In 2005, he was pro-
moted to Associate Judge of the Council of State. He is currently detached to the
European Union, serving as a Principal Legal Adviser of the European Ombudsman.
His previous publications include the following books (in Greek): Case Law of the Court
of Justice of the European Communities and Essential Community Legislation Concerning
Environment and European Community Law on Public Procurement.
xix

PREFACE—ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This is a treatise on individual rights and liberties, under the U.S. Constitution, as
interpreted by the federal Supreme Court. It contains references to more than 2,500
opinions of the Court, and covers, in a comprehensive way, ten major decisional areas:
• general issues of constitutional rights (e.g., rightholders, state action, affir-
mative obligations of government, substantive due process, waiver of rights);

• procedural rights (including fundamental rights in criminal procedure);
• personal inviolability and liberty;
• substantive guarantees against criminal or civil penalties;
• personal or family privacy and autonomy;
• searches and seizures;
• freedoms of conscience, thought, belief, and religion (including the
Establishment Clause);
• freedoms of speech, press, assembly, and association;
• substantive protection of property rights and economic interests;
• equal protection.
It also includes an introductory chapter on the Supreme Court, its organization,
jurisdiction, and procedures and the exercise of judicial review. The cut-off date is
January 1, 2006.
The book has been based on an exhaustive research of the relevant materials, con-
ducted mostly through computer databases. In the interest of accuracy, the text stays
close to, and often reproduces, the actual language of the Court’s opinions. In many
cases, the presentation and analysis are based on the Court’s own analysis and under-
standing of its prior decisions.
This book was written, in great part, while I was a Senior Visiting Scholar (for the
2003–2004 academic year) in the Earl Warren Legal Institute (renamed as “Institute for
Legal Research”), at the University of California, Berkeley. I cannot thank enough
Professor Harry Scheiber, Director of the Institute, Riesenfeld Professor of Law and
History, and former President of the American Society of Legal History, for his friendship,
valuable guidance, and multiple efforts to make my visit to Boalt Hall, School of Law, as
profitable as possible. I also wish to express my thanks to all the others Faculty Members
of Boalt Hall who offered me their support, especially to Jesse Choper, Earl Warren
Professor of Public Law and to Laurent Mayali, Lloyd M. Robbins Professor of Law.
Ioannis G. Dimitrakopoulos
Strasbourg, November 2006
xxi

1
CHAPTER 1
THE U.S. SUPREME COURT—AN OVERVIEW
A. THE COURT AS AN INSTITUTION
[A1] Article III, Section 1, of the U.S. Constitution states that the “judicial power of
the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court and in such inferior Courts as
Congress may from time to time ordain and establish.” The federal judiciary constitutes
one of the three co-equal branches of federal government and is independent from the
executive and the legislature. Article III, Section 1, “serves both to protect the role of
the independent judiciary within the constitutional scheme of tripartite government, . . .
and to safeguard litigants’ right to have claims decided before judges who are free from
potential domination by the other branches of government.”
1
The Supreme Court of
the United States is at the top of the country’s judicial branch.
[A2] The Court consists of nine members, the Chief Justice of the United States and
eight Associate Justices. Justices of the Supreme Court are appointed for life by the
President of the United States and must be confirmed by a majority vote in the Senate.
All of them have been lawyers, although the Constitution does not so require. During
the last decades, most of them have been selected among law professors and judges of
state or lower federal courts. Usually they are appointed in their 50s and retire (volun-
tarily) after age 80. They may be removed from office only by first being impeached by
a majority vote of the U.S. House of Representatives and then convicted by a two-thirds
vote of the Senate. Every Justice is aided by four law clerks, usually recent top graduates
of law schools.
B. THE COURT’S JURISDICTION
1. In General
2
[A3] A federal court lacks jurisdiction over the subject matter if the cause does not

“arise under” the federal Constitution, laws, or treaties
3
(or falls within one of the other
enumerated categories of Article III), or if it is not a “case or controversy” within the
meaning of that phrase in Article III, or if the cause is not one described by any juris-
dictional statute.
4
Only in a few cases, such as actions between states or disputes between
1
Commodity Futures Trading Comm’n v. Schor, 478 U.S. 833, 848, 850 (1986).
2
See also para. B89 (Eleventh Amendment).
3
“Dismissal for lack of subject matter jurisdiction because of the inadequacy of the fed-
eral claim is proper only when the claim is so insubstantial, implausible, foreclosed by prior
decisions of th[e] Court, or otherwise completely devoid of merit as not to involve a federal
controversy.” See Steel Co. v. Citizens for a Better Environment, 523 U.S. 83, 89 (1998).
4
Baker v. Carr, 369 U.S. 186, 198 (1962).
2 • Individual Rights and Liberties Under the U.S. Constitution
a state and the federal government, does the Supreme Court have original jurisdiction.
For the most part, the Court adjudicates appeals on decisions of lower federal courts
and state supreme courts.
5
2. The “Case or Controversy” Requirement
a. Introduction
[A4] The “case or controversy” limitation serves two complementary purposes. It
“limit[s] the business of federal courts to questions presented in an adversary context
and in a form historically viewed as capable of resolution through the judicial process,”
and it “define[s] the role assigned to the judiciary in a tripartite allocation of power to

assure that the federal courts will not intrude into areas committed to the other branches
of government.”
6
The several doctrines that have grown up to elaborate that require-
ment—not only standing but mootness, ripeness, political question, and the like—are
“founded in concern about the proper—and properly limited—role of the courts in a
democratic society.”
7
b. Advisory Opinions—Administrative Duties—Rulemaking
[A5] The judicial power to decide cases and controversies does not include the pro-
vision of purely advisory opinions to the executive.
8
Indeed, as a general rule, “execu-
tive or administrative duties of a nonjudicial nature may not be imposed on judges
holding office under Art. III of the Constitution.”
9
The purpose of this limitation is “to
In Steel Co. v. Citizens For Better Environment, 523 U.S. 83 (1998), the Court declined to
endorse the “doctrine of hypothetical jurisdiction,” under which a federal court may proceed
immediately to the merits question despite jurisdictional objections, at least where (1) the mer-
its question is more readily resolved, and (2) the prevailing party on the merits would be the
same as the prevailing party were jurisdiction denied. The Court concluded that “[h]ypotheti-
cal jurisdiction produces nothing more than a hypothetical judgment—which comes to the same
thing as an advisory opinion, disapproved by this Court from the beginning. . . . The statutory
and (especially) constitutional elements of jurisdiction are an essential ingredient of separation
and equilibration of powers, restraining the courts from acting at certain times, and even
restraining them from acting permanently regarding certain subjects. For a court to pronounce
upon the meaning or the constitutionality of a state or federal law when it has no jurisdiction
to do so is, by very definition, for a court to act ultra vires.” Id. at 101–02.
5

Interpretation of state law: Where the Court is dealing with a state statute on direct review
of a state court decision that has construed the statute, such a construction is binding on the
Court. See New York v. Ferber, 458 U.S. 747, 769, n.24 (1982).
Since “district courts and courts of appeals are better schooled in and more able to inter-
pret the laws of their respective States” (see, e.g., Brockett v. Spokane Arcades, Inc., 472 U.S. 491,
500, n.9 (1985)), the Court normally follows lower federal court interpretations of state law (see
McMillian v. Monroe County, 520 U.S. 781, 786 (1997)).
6
Flast v. Cohen, 392 U.S. 83, 95 (1968).
7
Allen v. Wright, 468 U.S. 737, 750 (1984), quoting Warth v. Seldin, 422 U.S. 490, 498
(1975).
8
Clinton v. Jones, 520 U.S. 681, 700 (1997).
9
Morrison v. Olson, 487 U.S. 654, 677 (1988), quoting Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1, 123
(1976).