Food processing handbook (vol 1 and 2) ( PDFDrive com )

Edited by
James G. Brennan and
Alistair S. Grandison
Food Processing Handbook
Volume 1


Related Titles
Rychlik, Michael (ed.)

Eßlinger, Hans Michael (ed.)

Fortified Foods with Vitamins

Handbook of Brewing

Analytical Concepts to Assure Better and Safer
Products

Processes, Technology, Markets

2011
ISBN: 978-3-527-33078-2
Moscicki, Leszek (ed.)

Extrusion-Cooking Techniques

2009
ISBN: 978-3-527-31674-8
Chen, X. D., Mujumdar, A. S. (eds.)

Drying Technologies in Food
Processing

Applications, Theory and Sustainability
2011

ISBN: 978-1-4051-5763-6

ISBN: 978-3-527-32888-8

Evans, J. (ed.)

Peinemann, K.-V., Pereira Nunes, S., Giorno, L. (eds.)

Frozen Food Science and Technology

Membrane Technology
Volume 3: Membranes for Food Applications

ISBN: 978-1-4051-5478-9

2010

Heredia, N. L., Wesley, I. V. (eds.)

ISBN: 978-3-527-31482-9

Microbiologically Safe Foods

Rijk, R., Veraart, R. (eds.)

2009

Global Legislation for Food Packaging
Materials

ISBN: 978-0-470-05333-1

2010
ISBN: 978-3-527-31912-1
Stanga, Mario

Sanitation

Stadler, Richard H., Lineback, David R.

Process-Induced Food Toxicants
Occurrence, Formation, Mitigation, and Health
Risks
2009
ISBN: 978-0-470-07475-6

Cleaning and Disinfection in the Food Industry
2010

Ziegler, H. (ed.)

ISBN: 978-3-527-32685-3

Flavourings

Popping, Bert, Diaz-Amigo, Carmen, Hoenicke, Katrin
(eds.)

Production, Composition, Applications,
Regulations

Molecular Biological and
Immunological Techniques
and Applications for Food Chemists
2010
ISBN: 978-0-470-06809-0
Wintgens, J. N. (ed.)

Coffee: Growing, Processing,
Sustainable Production
2nd updated edition
2009
ISBN: 978-3-527-32286-2

2007
ISBN: 978-3-527-31406-5
Heller, K. J. (ed.)

Genetically Engineered Food
Methods and Detection
2006
ISBN: 978-3-527-31393-8

Edited by James G. Brennan and Alistair S. Grandison

Food Processing Handbook
2nd edition

Volume 1


The Editors
James G. Brennan, MSc FIFST
16 Benning Way
Wokingham, Berks RG40 1XX
United Kingdom

Dr. Alistair S. Grandison
Department of Food and Nutritional
Sciences
University of Reading
Whiteknights
Reading RG6 6AP
United Kingdom

All books published by Wiley-VCH are
carefully produced. Nevertheless, authors,
editors, and publisher do not warrant the
information contained in these books,
including this book, to be free of errors.
Readers are advised to keep in mind that
statements, data, illustrations, procedural

details or other items may inadvertently be
inaccurate.
Library of Congress Card No.: applied for
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication
Data
A catalogue record for this book is available
from the British Library.
Bibliographic information published by the
Deutsche Nationalbibliothek
The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek
lists this publication in the Deutsche
Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic
data are available on the Internet at
<>.
© 2012 Wiley-VCH Verlag & Co. KGaA,
Boschstr. 12, 69469 Weinheim, Germany

All rights reserved (including those of
translation into other languages). No part
of this book may be reproduced in any
form – by photoprinting, microfilm, or any
other means – nor transmitted or translated
into a machine language without written
permission from the publishers. Registered
names, trademarks, etc. used in this book,
even when not specifically marked as such,
are not to be considered unprotected by law.
Cover Design Adam-Design, Weinheim
Typesetting Laserwords Private Limited,
Chennai, India

Printing and Binding Fabulous Printers
Pte Ltd, Singapore
Printed in Singapore
Printed on acid-free paper
ISBN: 978-3-527-32468-2
ePDF ISBN: 978-3-527-63438-5
ePub ISBN: 978-3-527-63437-8
Mobi ISBN: 978-3-527-63439-2
oBook ISBN: 978-3-527-63436-1


V

Contents
Preface to the Second Edition XV
Preface to the First Edition XVII
List of Contributors XIX
Content of Volume 1
1
1.1
1.2
1.2.1
1.2.1.1
1.2.1.2
1.2.1.3
1.2.1.4
1.2.1.5
1.2.2
1.2.3
1.2.4

1.2.5
1.3
1.3.1
1.3.1.1
1.3.1.2
1.3.1.3
1.3.1.4
1.3.2
1.4
1.4.1
1.4.2
1.4.3
1.5

Postharvest Handling and Preparation of Foods for Processing 1
Alistair S. Grandison
Introduction 1
Properties of Raw Food Materials and Their Susceptibility to
Deterioration and Damage 2
Raw Material Properties 3
Geometric Properties 3
Color 4
Texture 4
Flavor 5
Functional Properties 5
Raw Material Specifications 6
Deterioration of Raw Materials 6
Damage to Raw Materials 7
Improving Processing Characteristics through Selective Breeding and
Genetic Engineering 7

Storage and Transportation of Raw Materials 9
Storage 9
Temperature 10
Humidity 11
Composition of Atmosphere 12
Other Considerations 12
Transportation 13
Raw Material Cleaning 13
Dry Cleaning Methods 14
Wet Cleaning Methods 17
Peeling 20
Sorting and Grading 20


VI

Contents

1.5.1
1.5.2
1.6
1.6.1
1.6.2
1.6.3
1.7

Criteria and Methods of Sorting 20
Grading 23
Blanching 25
Mechanisms and Purposes of Blanching

Processing Conditions 27
Blanching Equipment 27
Sulfiting of Fruits and Vegetables 28
References 29

2

Thermal Processing 31
Michael J. Lewis and Soojin Jun
Introduction 31
Reasons for Heating Foods 32
Safety and Quality Issues 33
Product Range 34
Reaction Kinetics 35
Microbial Inactivation 35
Heat Resistance at Constant Temperature 35
Temperature Dependence 37
Batch and Continuous Processing 39
Continuous Heat Exchangers 42
Direct Heating 44
Heat Processing Methods 46
Thermization 46
Pasteurization 47
HTST Pasteurization 48
Tunnel (Spray) Pasteurizers 51
Extended Shelf Life Products 52
Sterilization 52
In-Container Processing 52
UHT Processing 60
Special Problems with Viscous and Particulate Products 65

Ohmic Heating 67
Introduction 67
Fundamental Principles of Ohmic Heating 67
Electrochemical Reaction on Electrodes 68
Heating Pattern of Multiphase Food in Ohmic System 69
Modeling of Ohmic Heating 70
Filling Procedures 72
Storage 72
References 73

2.1
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.2.1
2.4
2.4.1
2.4.2
2.4.2.1
2.4.2.2
2.4.2.3
2.4.3
2.4.3.1
2.4.3.2

2.5
2.6
2.6.1
2.6.2
2.6.2.1
2.6.2.2
2.6.2.3
2.7
2.8
3
3.1
3.1.1

25

Evaporation and Dehydration 77
James G. Brennan
Evaporation (Concentration, Condensing) 77
General Principles 77


Contents

3.1.2
3.1.2.1
3.1.2.2
3.1.2.3
3.1.2.4
3.1.2.5
3.1.2.6

3.1.2.7
3.1.2.8
3.1.3
3.1.4
3.1.5
3.1.5.1
3.1.5.2
3.1.5.3
3.2
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.3.1
3.2.3.2
3.2.3.3
3.2.3.4
3.2.3.5
3.2.3.6
3.2.3.7
3.2.4
3.2.5
3.2.5.1
3.2.5.2
3.2.6
3.2.7
3.2.7.1
3.2.7.2
3.2.7.3
3.2.7.4
3.2.8

3.2.9
3.2.10
3.2.11
3.2.12
3.2.13

Equipment Used in Vacuum Evaporation 79
Vacuum Pans 79
Short Tube Vacuum Evaporators 80
Long-Tube Evaporators 81
Plate Evaporators 82
Agitated Thin-Film Evaporators 83
Centrifugal Evaporators 83
Refractance Window Evaporator 83
Ancillary Equipment 84
Multiple-Effect Evaporation 84
Vapor Recompression 85
Applications for Evaporation 86
Concentrated Liquid Products 86
Evaporation as a Preparatory Step to Further Processing 88
The Use of Evaporation to Reduce Transport, Storage, and Packaging
Costs 89
Dehydration (Drying) 91
General Principles 91
Drying Solid Foods in Heated Air 92
Equipment Used in Hot Air Drying of Solid Food Pieces 94
Cabinet (Tray) Dryer 94
Tunnel Dryer 94
Conveyor (Belt) Dryer 95
Bin Dryer 95

Fluidized Bed Dryer 96
Pneumatic (Flash) Dryer 98
Rotary Dryer 99
Drying of Solid Foods by Direct Contact with a Heated Surface 99
Equipment Used in Drying Solid Foods by Contact with a Heated
Surface 100
Vacuum Cabinet (Tray or Shelf) Dryer 100
Double Cone Vacuum Dryer 100
Freeze Drying (Sublimation Drying, Lyophilization) of Solid
Foods 101
Equipment Used in Freeze Drying Solid Foods 102
Cabinet (Batch) Freeze Dryer 102
Tunnel (Semi-continuous) Freeze Dryer 103
Continuous-Freeze Dryers 104
Vacuum Spray Freeze Dryer 104
Drying by the Application of Radiant (Infrared) Heat 105
Drying by the Application of Dielectric Energy 105
Electrohydrodynamic Drying (EHD) 107
Osmotic Dehydration 108
Sun and Solar Drying 110
Drying Food Liquids and Slurries in Heated Air 111

VII


VIII

Contents

3.2.13.1

3.2.14
3.2.14.1
3.2.14.2
3.2.14.3
3.2.15
3.2.16
3.2.16.1
3.2.16.2
3.2.16.3
3.2.16.4
3.2.16.5
3.2.16.6
3.2.17

4
4.1
4.2
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.2.4
4.3
4.3.1
4.3.1.1
4.3.1.2
4.3.2
4.3.2.1
4.3.2.2
4.3.2.3
4.3.2.4

4.3.2.5
4.3.3
4.3.3.1
4.3.3.2
4.3.3.3
4.3.3.4
4.3.3.5
4.4
4.4.1
4.4.2

Spray Drying 111
Drying Liquids and Slurries by Direct Contact With a Heated
Surface 116
Drum (Roller, Film) Dryer 116
Vacuum Band (Belt) Dryer 117
Refractance Window Drying System 118
Other Methods Used for Drying Liquids and Slurries 118
Applications of Dehydration 119
Dehydrated Vegetable Products 119
Dehydrated Fruit Products 121
Dehydrated Dairy Products 122
Instant Coffee and Tea 123
Dehydrated Meat Products 123
Dehydrated Fish Products 123
Stability of Dehydrated Foods 124
References 126
Freezing 131
Jos´e Mauricio Pardo and Keshavan Niranjan
Introduction 131

Refrigeration Methods and Equipment 131
Plate Contact Systems 132
Gas Contact Refrigerators 132
Immersion and Liquid Contact Refrigeration 133
Cryogenic Freezing 134
Low Temperature Production 135
Mechanical Refrigeration Cycle 135
The Pressure and Enthalpy Diagram 137
The Real Refrigeration Cycle (Standard Vapor Compression
Cycle) 138
Equipment for a Mechanical Refrigeration System 139
Evaporators 139
Condensers 140
Compressors 141
Expansion Valves 142
Refrigerants 142
Common Terms Used in Refrigeration System Design 143
Cooling Load 144
Coefficient of Performance 144
Refrigerant Flow Rate 144
Work Done by the Compressor 145
Heat Exchanged in the Condenser and Evaporator 145
Freezing Kinetics 145
Formation of the Microstructure during Solidification 146
Mathematical Models for Freezing Kinetics 147


Contents

4.4.2.1

4.4.2.2
4.4.2.3
4.4.2.4
4.5

Neumann’s Model 148
Plank’s Model 148
Cleland’s Model 149
Pham’s Model 149
Effects of Refrigeration on Food Quality 150
References 151

5

Irradiation 153
Alistair S. Grandison
Introduction 153
Principles of Irradiation 153
Physical Effects 154
Chemical Effects 158
Biological Effects 158
Equipment 160
Isotope Sources 160
Machine Sources 162
Control and Dosimetry 162
Safety Aspects 165
Effects on the Properties of Food 165
Detection Methods for Irradiated Foods 167
Applications and Potential Applications 168
General Effects and Mechanisms of Irradiation 169

Inactivation of Microorganisms 169
Inhibition of Sprouting 170
Delay of Ripening and Senescence 171
Insect Disinfestation 171
Elimination of Parasites 171
Miscellaneous Effects on Food Properties and Processing 172
Combination Treatments 172
Applications to Particular Food Classes 172
Meat and Meat Products 172
Fish and Shellfish 173
Fruits and Vegetables 174
Bulbs and Tubers 174
Spices and Herbs 175
Cereals and Cereal Products 175
Other Miscellaneous Foods 175
References 176

5.1
5.2
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.2.3
5.3
5.3.1
5.3.2
5.3.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7

5.7.1
5.7.1.1
5.7.1.2
5.7.1.3
5.7.1.4
5.7.1.5
5.7.1.6
5.7.1.7
5.7.2
5.7.2.1
5.7.2.2
5.7.2.3
5.7.2.4
5.7.2.5
5.7.2.6
5.7.2.7
6
6.1
6.2
6.2.1
6.2.2

High Pressure Processing 179
Margaret F. Patterson, Dave A. Ledward, Craig Leadley, and Nigel Rogers
Introduction 179
Effect of High Pressure on Microorganisms 182
Bacterial Spores 182
Vegetative Bacteria 183

IX

X

Contents

6.2.3
6.2.4
6.2.5
6.2.6
6.2.7
6.2.8
6.2.9
6.2.10
6.2.11
6.2.12
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.8.1
6.9
6.9.1
6.9.2
6.10

Yeasts and Molds 183
Viruses 184

Parasites 184
Strain Variation within a Species 185
Stage of Growth of Microorganisms 185
Magnitude and Duration of the Pressure Treatment 185
Effect of Temperature on Pressure Resistance 185
Substrate 186
Combination Treatments Involving Pressure 186
Effect of High Pressure on the Microbiological Quality of Foods 187
Ingredient Functionality 188
Enzyme Activity 189
Foaming and Emulsification 191
Gelation 193
Organoleptic Considerations 195
Equipment for HPP 196
HPP Systems 196
Pressure Vessel Considerations 197
High Pressure Pumps 198
Control Systems 199
Current and Potential Applications of HPP for Foods 200
References 201

7

Emerging Technologies for Food Processing 205
Liliana Alamilla-Beltr´an, Jorge Welti-Chanes, Jos´e Jorge Chanona-P´erez,
Ma de Jesus
´ Perea-Flores, and Gustavo F. Guti´errez-L´opez
Introduction 205
Pulsed Electric Field Processing 206
PEF Treatment Chambers 207

Effects of PEF on Microorganisms 208
Factors Affecting the Ability of PEF to Inactivate Microorganisms 209
Processing Factors 209
Microorganism Factors 210
Food Factors 210
Effects of PEF on Enzymes 212
Other Applications of PEF 214
Ultrasound Power 215
Applications of Ultrasound in the Food Industry 216
Low-Intensity Ultrasound 216
High-Intensity Ultrasound 217
Enzymes 217
Microorganisms 218
Fruits and Vegetables 218
Other Technologies 218
High-Pressure Carbon Dioxide 218

7.1
7.2
7.2.1
7.2.2
7.2.3
7.2.3.1
7.2.3.2
7.2.3.3
7.2.4
7.2.5
7.3
7.3.1
7.3.1.1

7.3.1.2
7.3.2
7.3.3
7.3.4
7.4
7.4.1


Contents

7.4.2
7.4.3
7.5

Ozonization 219
Plasma Processing 220
Conclusions 220
References 221

8

Packaging 225
James G. Brennan and Brian P.F. Day
Introduction 225
Factors Affecting the Choice of a Packaging Material and/or Container
for a Particular Duty 226
Mechanical Damage 226
Permeability Characteristics 226
Greaseproofness 228
Temperature 228

Light 229
Chemical Compatibility of the Packaging Material and the Contents of
the Package 229
Protection against Microbial Contamination 230
In-Package Microflora 231
Protection against Insect and Rodent Infestation 231
Taint 232
Tamper-Evident/Resistant Packages 232
Other Factors 233
Materials and Containers Used for Packaging Foods 233
Papers, Paperboards, and Fiberboards 233
Papers 233
Paperboards 235
Molded Pulp 236
Fiberboards 236
Composite Containers 236
Wooden Containers 237
Textiles 237
Flexible Films 237
Regenerated Cellulose 238
Cellulose Acetate 239
Polyethylene 239
Polyvinyl Chloride 240
Polyvinylidene Chloride 240
Polypropylene 240
Polyester 241
Polystyrene 241
Polyamides 241
Polycarbonate 242
Polytetrafluoroethylene 242

Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate Copolymers 243

8.1
8.2
8.2.1
8.2.2
8.2.3
8.2.4
8.2.5
8.2.6
8.2.7
8.2.8
8.2.9
8.2.10
8.2.11
8.2.12
8.3
8.3.1
8.3.1.1
8.3.1.2
8.3.1.3
8.3.1.4
8.3.1.5
8.3.2
8.3.3
8.3.4
8.3.4.1
8.3.4.2
8.3.4.3
8.3.4.4

8.3.4.5
8.3.4.6
8.3.4.7
8.3.4.8
8.3.4.9
8.3.4.10
8.3.4.11
8.3.4.12

XI


XII

Contents

8.3.5
8.3.6
8.3.7
8.3.8
8.3.9
8.3.9.1
8.3.9.2
8.3.9.3
8.3.9.4
8.3.10
8.3.10.1
8.3.10.2
8.3.10.3
8.3.10.4

8.3.10.5
8.3.11
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.6.1
8.6.2
8.6.3
8.6.4
8.6.5
8.6.6
8.6.7
8.6.8
8.6.9
8.6.10
8.6.11
8.6.12
8.6.13
8.7
8.7.1
8.7.2
8.7.3
8.7.3.1
8.7.3.2
8.7.3.3
8.7.4
8.7.5
8.7.6
8.8

Metallized Films 243
Flexible Laminates 243
Heat-Sealing Equipment 244
Packaging in Flexible Films and Laminates 245
Rigid and Semi-rigid Plastic Containers 247
Thermoforming 247
Blow Molding 247
Injection Molding 248
Compression Molding 248
Metal Materials and Containers 248
Aluminum Foil 248
Tinplate 249
Electrolytic Chromium-Coated Steel 250
Aluminum Alloy 252
Metal Containers 252
Glass and Glass Containers 255
Modified Atmosphere Packaging 258
Aseptic Packaging 261
Active Packaging 264
Introduction 264
Oxygen Scavengers 264
Carbon Dioxide Scavengers 267
Carbon Dioxide Emitters 267
Ethylene Scavengers 268
Ethanol Emitters 268
Moisture Absorbers 269
Flavor/Odor Absorbers 269
Antioxidant Release 270
Antimicrobial Packaging 270
Lactose and Cholesterol Removers 271

UV Light Absorbers 271
Other Active Packaging Systems 272
Intelligent Packaging 272
Introduction 272
Time–Temperature Indicators (TTIs) 272
Quality Indicators and Sensors 273
Chemical Indicators 273
Microbial Indicators 273
Gas Concentration Indicators 273
Radiofrequency Identification Devices (RFID) 274
Other Intelligent Packaging Devices 274
Consumer Attitudes, Safety, and Legal Aspects of Active and Intelligent
Packaging 275
The Role of Nanotechnology in Food Packaging 276
References 276


Contents

Content of Volume 2
9

Separations in Food Processing Part 1 281
James G. Brennan and Alistair S. Grandison

10

Separations in Food Processing: Part 2 – Membrane Processing, Ion
Exchange, and Electrodialysis 331
Michael J. Lewis and Alistair S. Grandison

11

Mixing, Emulsification, and Size Reduction 363
James G. Brennan

12

Baking 407
Stanley P. Cauvain

13

Extrusion 429
Paul Ainsworth

14

Food Deep-Fat Frying 455
Pedro Bouchon

15

Safety in Food Processing 491
Carol A. Wallace

16

Traceability in Food Processing and Distribution 515
Christopher Knight

17

The Hygienic Design of Food Processing Plant
Tony Hasting

18

Process Control in Food Processing 559
Keshavan Niranjan, Araya Ahromrit, and Ashok S. Khare

19

Environmental Aspects of Food Processing 571
Niharika Mishra, Ali Abd El-Aal Bakr, Keshavan Niranjan, and Gary
Tucker

20

Water and Waste Treatment 593
R. Andrew Wilbey

21

Process Realisation 623
Kevan G. Leach

22

Microscopy Techniques and Image Analysis for the Quantitative

Evaluation of Food Microstructure 667
Maria de Jesus
´ Perea-Flores, Ang´elica Gabriela Mendoza-Madrigal, Jos´e
Jorge Chanona-P´erez, Liliana Alamilla-Beltr´an, and Gustavo Fidel
Gutierrez-L´opez

533

XIII


XIV

Contents

23

Nanotechnology in the Food Sector
Christopher J. Kirby

24

Fermentation and the Use of Enzymes 727
Dimitris Charalampopoulos
Index 753

693


XV

Preface to the Second Edition
In this second edition of Food Processing Handbook the chapters in the first edition
have been retained and revised by including information on recent developments
in each field and updating the reference lists. Some of the most notable changes
are: the inclusion of a new section on ohmic heating in the Chapter on thermal
processing (Chapter 2); extending the packaging chapter to cover intelligent packaging (Chapter 8); explaining the calculation of greenhouse gas emissions (carbon
footprints) and providing a case study in the chapter on environmental aspects of
food processing (Chapter 19). The original chapter entitled Baking, Extrusion and
Frying has been split into three individual chapters providing extended coverage of
these three important processes (Chapters 12, 13, and 14). Several new topics have
been added to reflect recent trends and concerns in the food industry. These include
chapters on: traceability in food processing and distribution (Chapter 16); hygienic
design of food processing plant (Chapter 17); process realisation (Chapter 21);
microscopy techniques and image analysis for the quantitative evaluation of food
microstructure (Chapter 22); nanotechnology in the food sector (Chapter 23) and
fermentation and the use of enzymes (Chapter 24). These changes have necessitated dividing the book into two volumes, the first consisting of the more basic
food preservation processes and packaging, while volume 2 includes other manufacturing processes and other considerations relating to safety and sustainable
manufacturing.
It is hoped that this much extended edition will be of interest to scientists and
engineers involved in food manufacture and research and development in industry,
and to staff and students participating in food related courses at undergraduate and
postgraduate levels.
James G. Brennan,
Alistair S. Grandison


XVII

Preface to the First Edition

There are many excellent texts available which cover the fundamentals of food
engineering, equipment design, modelling of food processing operations etc.
There are also several very good works in food science and technology dealing with
the chemical composition, physical properties, nutritional and microbiological
status of fresh and processed foods. This work is an attempt to cover the middle
ground between these two extremes. The objective is to discuss the technology
behind the main methods of food preservation used in today’s food industry
in terms of the principles involved, the equipment used and the changes in
physical, chemical, microbiological and organoleptic properties that occur during
processing. In addition to the conventional preservation techniques, new and
emerging technologies, such as high pressure processing and the use of pulsed
electric field and power ultrasound are discussed. The materials and methods used
in the packaging of food, including the relatively new field of active packaging, are
covered. Concerns about the safety of processed foods and the impact of processing
on the environment are addressed. Process control methods employed in food
processing are outlined. Treatments applied to water to be used in food processing
and the disposal of wastes from processing operations are described.
Chapter 1 covers the postharvest handling and transport of fresh foods and
preparatory operations, such as cleaning, sorting, grading and blanching, applied
prior to processing. Chapters 2, 3 and 4 contain up-to-date accounts of heat processing, evaporation, dehydration and freezing techniques used for food preservation.
In Chapter 5, the potentially useful, but so far little used process of irradiation is
discussed. The relatively new technology of high pressure processing is covered in
Chapter 6, while Chapter 7 explains the current status of pulsed electric field, power
ultrasound, and other new technologies. Recent developments in baking, extrusion
cooking and frying are outlined in Chapter 8. Chapter 9 deals with the materials
and methods used for food packaging and active packaging technology, including
the use of oxygen, carbon dioxide and ethylene scavengers, preservative releasers
and moisture absorbers. In Chapter 10, safety in food processing is discussed and
the development, implementation and maintenance of HACCP systems outlined.
Chapter 11 covers the various types of control systems applied in food processing.

Chapter 12 deals with environmental issues including the impact of packaging
wastes and the disposal of refrigerants. In Chapter 13, the various treatments


XVIII

Preface to the First Edition

applied to water to be used in food processing are described and the physical,
chemical and biological treatments applied to food processing wastes are outlined.
To complete the picture, the various separation techniques used in food processing
are discussed in Chapter 14 and Chapter 15 covers the conversion operations of
mixing, emulsification and size reduction of solids.
The editor wishes to acknowledge the considerable advice and help he received
from former colleagues in the School of Food Biosciences, The University of
Reading, when working on this project. He also wishes to thank his wife, Anne,
for her support and patience.
Reading, August 2005

James G. Brennan


XXIII

List of Contributors
Araya Ahromrit
Assistant Professor
Department of Food Technology
Khon Kaen University
Khon Kaen 40002

Thailand
Paul Ainsworth
Manchester Metropolitan
University
Retired Professor of Food
Technology
and Director of the Manchester
Food Research Centre
Old Hall Lane
Manchester M14 6HR
UK
Liliana Alamilla-Beltr´an
National School of Biological
Sciences-National Polytechnic
Institute
Department of Food Science and
Technology
Carpio y Plan de Ayala s/n Sto.
Tom´as 11340
Mexico City

Pedro Bouchon
Pontificia Universidad Cat´olica
de Chile
Department of Chemical and
Bioprocess Engineering
P.O. Box 306
Santiago 6904411
Chile
James G. Brennan

16 Benning Way
Wokingham
Berkshire
RG40 1XX
UK
Stanley P. Cauvain
BakeTran
1 Oakland close
Freeland
Witney
OX 29 8AX
UK
Jos´e Jorge Chanona-P´erez
National School of Biological
Sciences-National Polytechnic
Institute
Department of Food Science and
Technology
Carpio y Plan de Ayala s/n Sto.
Tom´as 11340
Mexico City


XXIV

List of Contributors

Dimitris Charalampopoulos
University of Reading
Department of Food and

Nutritional Sciences
PO Box 226
Reading RG6 6AP
UK
Brian P.F. Day
8 Cavanagh Close
Hoppers Crossing
VIC 3029
Australia
Ali Abd El-Aal Bakr
Food Science and Technology
Department
Faculty of Agriculture
Minufiya University
Shibin El-Kom
Egypt
Alistair S. Grandison
University of Reading
Department of Food and
Nutritional Sciences
P.O. Box 226
Whiteknights
Reading RG6 6AP
UK
Gustavo Fidel Gutierrez-L´opez
National School of Biological
Sciences-National Polytechnic
Institute
Department of Food Science and
Technology

Carpio y Plan de Ayala s/n Sto.
Tom´as 11340
Mexico City

Tony Hasting
37 Church Lane
Sharnbrook
Bedford
MK44 1HT
UK
Soojin Jun
University of Hawaii at Manoa
College of Tropical Agriculture
and Human Resources
Department of Human Nutrition
Food and Animal Sciences
1955 East West Rd. 302F
Honolulu, HI 96822
USA

Ashok S. Khare
University of Reading
Department of Food and
Nutritional Sciences
P.O. Box 226
Whiteknights
Reading RG6 6AP
UK
Christopher J. Kirby
Pharmaterials Ltd.

Unit B
5 Boulton Road
Reading RG2 0NH
UK
Christopher Knight
Head of Agriculture
Campden BRI
Chipping Campden
Glos. GL55 6LD
UK


List of Contributors

Kevan G. Leach
Leach Associates Ltd.
Edgecumbe Lodge
Greenway Park
Chippenham
Wilts SN15 1QG
UK
Craig Leadley
Campden BRI
Food Manufacturing
Technologies
Chipping Campden
Gloucestershire GL55 6LD
UK
Dave A. Ledward
University of Reading

Department of Food and
Nutritional Sciences
Whiteknights
Reading RG6 6AP
UK
Michael J. Lewis
University of Reading
Department of Food and
Nutritional Sciences
P.O. Box 226
Whiteknights
Reading RG6 6AP
UK

Jos´e Mauricio Pardo
Universidad de la Sabana
Ingenieria de Produccion
Agroindustrial
A. A. 140013 Chia
Colombia
Ang´elica Gabriela
Mendoza-Madrigal
National School of Biological
Sciences-National Polytechnic
Institute
Department of Food Science and
Technology
Carpio y Plan de Ayala s/n Sto.
Tom´as 11340
Mexico City

Niharika Mishra
Agricultural and Biological
Engineering
717 W. Cherry lane
Apt # 2
State College, PA 16803
USA
Keshavan Niranjan
University of Reading
Department of Food and
Nutritional Sciences
P.O. Box 226
Whiteknights
Reading RG6 6AP
UK

XXV


XXVI

List of Contributors

Margaret F. Patterson
Agri-Food and biosciences
Institute
Newforge Lane
Belfast BT9 5PX
Northern Ireland
UK

Maria de Jes´us Perea-Flores
National School of Biological
Sciences-National Polytechnic
Institute
Department of Food Science and
Technology
Carpio y Plan de Ayala s/n Sto.
Tom´as 11340
Mexico City
Nigel Rogers
Avure Technologies AB
Quintusvăagen 2
Vasteras
SE 72166
Sweden
Gary Tucker
Head of Baking & Cereal
Processing Department
Campden BRI
Chipping Campden
Glos, GL55 6LD
UK

Carol A. Wallace
University of Central Lancashire
International Institute of
Nutritional Sciences and Applied
Food Safety Studies
School of Sport
Tourism and the Outdoors

Preston
Lancashire PR1 2HE
UK
Jorge Welti-Chanes
Technological Institute of
Advanced Studies of Monterrey
Food and Biotechnology Unit
Av. Eugenio Garza Sada 2501 Sur
Col. Tecnol´ogico
64849 Monterrey
N.L.
Mexico
R. Andrew Wilbey
The University of Reading
Department of Food and
Nutritional Sciences
Whiteknights
Reading RG6 6AP
UK


1

1
Postharvest Handling and Preparation of Foods for Processing
Alistair S. Grandison

1.1
Introduction

Food processing is seasonal in nature, both in terms of demand for products
and availability of raw materials. Most crops have well-established harvest times
– for example, the sugar beet season lasts for only a few months of the year
in the United Kingdom, so beet sugar production is confined to the autumn
and winter, yet demand for sugar is continuous throughout the year. Even in
the case of raw materials that are available throughout the year, such as milk,
there are established peaks and troughs in volume of production, as well as
variations in chemical composition. Availability may also be determined by less
predictable factors, such as weather conditions, which may affect yields or limit
harvesting. In other cases demand is seasonal, for example, ice cream or salads
are in greater demand in the summer, whereas other foods are traditionally eaten
in the winter months, or even at more specific times, such as Christmas or
Easter.
In an ideal world, food processors would like a continuous supply of raw
materials, whose composition and quality are constant and whose prices are
predictable. Of course this is usually impossible to achieve. In practice, processors contract ahead with growers to synchronize their needs with raw material
production.
The aim of this chapter is to consider the properties of raw materials in relation
to food processing, and to summarize important aspects of handling, transport,
storage, and preparation of raw materials prior to the range of processing operations
described in the remainder of this book. The bulk of the chapter will deal with solid
agricultural products including fruits, vegetables, cereals, and legumes, although
many considerations can also be applied to animal-based materials such as meat,
eggs, and milk.

Food Processing Handbook, Second Edition. Edited by James G. Brennan and Alistair S. Grandison.
© 2012 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Published 2012 by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.


2

1 Postharvest Handling and Preparation of Foods for Processing

1.2
Properties of Raw Food Materials and Their Susceptibility to Deterioration and
Damage

The selection of raw materials is a vital consideration to the quality of processed
products. The quality of raw materials can rarely be improved during processing,
and while sorting and grading operations can aid by removing oversize, undersize,
or poor-quality units, it is vital to procure materials whose properties most closely
match the requirements of the process. Quality is a wide-ranging concept and
is determined by many factors. It is a composite of those physical and chemical
properties of the material which govern its acceptability to the ‘‘user.’’ The latter may
be the final consumer, or more likely in this case, the food processor. Geometric
properties, color, flavor, texture, nutritive value, and freedom from defects are the
major properties likely to determine quality.
An initial consideration is selection of the most suitable cultivars in the case
of plant foods (or breeds in the case of animal products). Other preharvest
factors (such as soil conditions, climate, and agricultural practices), harvesting
methods and postharvest conditions, maturity, storage, and postharvest handling
also determine quality. These considerations, including seed supply and many
aspects of crop production, are frequently controlled by the processor or even the
retailer.
The timing and method of harvesting are determinants of product quality.
Manual labor is expensive, therefore mechanized harvesting is introduced where
possible. Cultivars most suitable for mechanized harvesting should mature evenly,
producing units of nearly equal size that are resistant to mechanical damage.
In some instances, the growth habits of plants (e.g., pea vines, fruit trees) have
been developed to meet the needs of mechanical harvesting equipment. Uniform

maturity is desirable as the presence of over-mature units is associated with
high waste, product damage, and high microbial loads, while under-maturity is
associated with poor yield, lack of flavor and color, and hard texture. For economic
reasons, harvesting is almost always a ‘‘once over’’ exercise, hence it is important
that all units reach maturity at the same time. The prediction of maturity is
necessary to coordinate harvesting with processors’ needs, as well as to extend
the harvest season. It can be achieved primarily from knowledge of the growth
properties of the crop combined with records and experience of local climatic
conditions.
The ‘‘heat unit system,’’ first described by Seaton [1] for peas and beans, can
be applied to give a more accurate estimate of harvest date from sowing date
in any year. This system is based on the premise that growth temperature is
the overriding determinant of crop growth. A base temperature, below which no
growth occurs, is assumed, and the mean temperature of each day through the
growing period is recorded. By summing the daily mean temperatures minus base
temperatures on days where mean temperature exceeds base temperature, the
number of ‘‘accumulated heat units’’ can be calculated. By comparing this with
the known growth data for the particular cultivar, an accurate prediction of harvest


1.2 Properties of Raw Food Materials and Their Susceptibility to Deterioration and Damage

date can be computed. In addition, by allowing fixed numbers of accumulated heat
units between sowings, the harvest season can be spread, so that individual fields
may be harvested at peak maturity. Sowing plans and harvest date are determined
by negotiation between the growers and the processors, and the latter may even
provide the equipment and labor for harvesting and transport to the factory.
An important consideration for processed foods is that it is the quality of the
processed product, rather than the raw material, that is important. For minimally
processed foods, such as those subjected to modified atmospheres, low dose

irradiation, mild heat treatment, or some chemical preservatives, the characteristics
of the raw material are a good guide to the quality of the product. For more
severe processing, including heat preservation, drying, or freezing, the quality
characteristics may change markedly during processing. Hence, those raw materials
which are preferred for fresh consumption may not be most appropriate for
processing. For example, succulent peaches with delicate flavor may be less
suitable for canning than harder, less flavorsome cultivars, which can withstand
rigorous processing conditions. Similarly, ripe, healthy, well-colored fruit may be
perfect for fresh sale, but may not be suitable for freezing due to excessive drip
loss while thawing. For example, Maestrelli [2] reported that different strawberry
cultivars with similar excellent characteristics for fresh consumption, exhibited a
wide range of drip loss (between 8 and 38%), and hence would be of widely different
value for the frozen food industry.
1.2.1
Raw Material Properties

The main raw material properties of importance to the processor are geometry,
color, texture, functional properties, and flavor.
1.2.1.1 Geometric Properties
Food units of regular geometry are much easier to handle and are better suited to
high-speed mechanized operations. In addition, the more uniform the geometry
of raw materials, the less rejection and waste will be produced during preparation
operations such as peeling, trimming, and slicing. For example, potatoes of smooth
shape with few and shallow eyes are much easier to peel and wash mechanically
than irregular units. Smooth-skinned fruits and vegetables are much easier to clean
and are less likely to harbor insects or fungi than ribbed or irregular units.
Agricultural products do not come in regular shapes and exact sizes. Size and
shape are inseparable, but are very difficult to define mathematically in solid food
materials. Geometry is, however, vital to packaging and controlling fill-in weights.
It may, for example, be important to determine how much mass or how many

units may be filled into a square box or cylindrical can. This would require a vast
number of measurements to perform exactly, and thus approximations must be
made. Size and shape are also important to heat processing and freezing, as they
will determine the rate and extent of heat transfer within food units. Mohsenin [3]
describes numerous approaches by which the size and shape of irregular food units

3