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Principles of
Mobile Communication
Second Edition
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Principles of
Mobile Communication
Second Edition
Gordon L. Stüber
Georgia Institute of Technology

Atlanta
,
Georgia USA
KLUWER ACADEMIC PUBLISHERS
NEW YORK, BOSTON, DORDRECHT, LONDON, MOSCOW
eBook ISBN: 0-306-47315-1
Print ISBN: 0-792-37998-5
©2002 Kluwer Academic Publishers
New York, Boston, Dordrecht, London, Moscow
All rights reserved
No part of this eBook may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, recording, or otherwise, without written consent from the Publisher
Created in the United States of America
Visit Kluwer Online at:
and Kluwer's eBookstore at:
Contents
Preface
1.
2.
INTRODUCTION
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
2.1
1.1.1 First Generation Cellular Systems
1.1.2 Second Generation Cellular Systems

1.1.2.1 GSM/DCS1800/PCS1900
1.1.2.2 IS-54/136 and IS-95
1.1.2.3 PDC
1.1.3 Cordless Telephone Systems
1.1.4 Third Generation Cellular Systems
1.1.5 Wireless LANs and and PANs
Wireless Systems and Standards
Frequency Reuse and the Cellular Concept
Mobile Radio Propagation Environment
Co-channel Interference and Noise
Receiver Sensitivity and Link Budget
Coverage
Spectral Efficiency and Capacity
PROPAGATION MODELING
Frequency-Non-Selective (Flat) Multipath-Fading
2.1.1 Received Signal Correlation and Spectrum
2.1.2 Received Envelope and Phase Distribution
2.1.2.1 Rayleigh Fading
2.1.2.2 Ricean Fading
2.1.2.3 Nakagami Fading
2.1.2.4 Envelope Phase
2.1.3 Envelope Correlation and Spectra
2.1.3.1 Squared-Envelope Correlation and Spectra
2.1.4 Level Crossing Rates and Fade Durations
2.1.4.1 Envelope Level Crossing Rate
2.1.4.2 Zero Crossing Rate
2.1.4.3 Average Envelope Fade Duration
2.1.5 Spatial Correlations
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vi
PRINCIPLES OFMOBILE COMMUNICATION SECOND EDITION
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
3.
4.
2.1.5.1 Received Signal at the Base Station
Frequency-Selective Multipath-Fading
2.2.1 Statistical Channel Correlation Functions
2.2.2 Classification of Channels
2.2.3 Channel Output Autocorrelation
Laboratory Simulation of Multipath-Fading Channels
2.3.1 Filtered Gaussian Noise
2.3.2 Sum of Sinusoids Method
2.3.3 Multiple Faded Envelopes
2.3.4 Simulation of Wide-band Multipath-Fading Channels
Shadowing
2.4.1 Laboratory Simulation of Shadowing
2.4.2 Composite Shadowing-Fading Distributions
2.4.2.1 Composite Gamma-log-normal Distribution
Path Loss Models
2.5.1
2.5.2
2.5.3
Path Loss in Macrocells
2.5.1.1 Okumura-Hata and CCIR Models
2.5.1.2 Lee’s Area-to-Area Model
Path Loss in Outdoor Microcells

2.5.2.1 COST231-Hata Model
2.5.2.2 COST231-Walfish-Ikegami Model
2.5.2.3 Street Microcells
Path Loss in Indoor Microcells
CO-CHANNEL INTERFERENCE
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
Multiple Log-normal Interferers
3.1.1 Fenton-Wilkinson Method
3.1.2 Schwartz-and Yeh-Method
3.1.3 Parley’s Method
3.1.4 Numerical Comparisons
Probability of Outage
Multiple Ricean/Rayleigh Interferers
Multiple Log-normal Nakagami Interferers
3.4.1 Statistically Identical Interferers
Multiple Log-normal Ricean/Rayleigh Interferers
3.5.1 Single Interferer
3.5.2 Multiple Interferers
MODULATED SIGNALS
AND THEIR POWER SPECTRA
Representation of Band-pass Modulated Signals
4.1.1 Vector Space Representations

4.1.2 Gram-Schmidt Procedure
4.1.3 Signal Energy and Correlations
Nyquist Pulse Shaping
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
4.4.1 Offset QPSK (OQSPK)
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5.
6.
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9

6.1
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
4.4.2
Orthogonal Modulation and Variants
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
4.6.1 Multiresolution Modulation
4.6.2 FFT-Based OFDM System
Continuous Phase Modulation (CPM)
4.7.1 Full Response CPM
4.7.1.1 Minimum Shift Keying (MSK)
Partial Response CPM
4.8.1 Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK)
4.8.2 Linearized OMSK (LGMSK)
4.8.3 Tamed Frequency Modulation (TFM)
Power Spectral Densities of Digitally Modulated Signals
4.9.1 Psd of a Complex Envelope
4.9.2
Psd of QAM
4.9.3
Psd of PSK

4.9.4 Psd of OQPSK
4.9.5
Psd of
4.9.6 Psd of OFDM
4.9.7 Psd of Full Response CPM
4.9.7.1 Psd of CPFSK
4.9.7.2 Psd of MSK
4.9.8 Psd of GMSK and TFM
DIGITAL SIGNALING
ON FLAT FADING CHANNELS
Vector Space Representation of Received Signals
Detection of Known Signals in Additive White Gaussian Noise
Probability of Error
5.3.1 Pairwise Error Probability
5.3.2 Upper Bounds on Error Probability
5.3.3 Lower Bound on Error Probability
5.3.4 Bit Versus Symbol Error Probabilities
Error Probability of PSK
Error Probability of M-QAM
Error Probability of Orthogonal Signals
Error Probability of OFDM
Error Probability of MSK
Differential Detection
5.9.1 Differential Detection of
Non-coherent Detection
Detection of CPM Signals
5.11.1 Coherent CPM Demodulator
5.11.2 Non-coherent CPM Demodulator
ANTENNA DIVERSITY
Diversity Combining

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PRINCIPLES OFMOB1LE COMMUNICATION SECOND EDITION
7.
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7

7.8
Selective Combining
Maximal Ratio Combining
Equal Gain Combining
Switched Combining
Differential Detection with Equal Gain Combining
Transmitter Diversity
6.7.1 Space-Time Transmit Diversity
EQUALIZATION
AND INTERFERENCE CANCELLATION
Overview
7.1.1 Symbol-by-symbol Equalizers
7.1.2 Sequence Estimation
7.1.3 Co-Channel Interference Cancellation
Modeling of ISI Channels
7.2.1 Vector Representation of Received Signals
Optimum Receiver for ISI Channels with AWGN
7.3.1 Discrete-Time White Noise Channel Model
7.3.1.1 Time Varying Channels with Diversity
7.3.1.2 T/2-Spaced Receiver
Symbol-by-Symbol Equalizers
7.4.1 Linear Equalizer
7.4.1.1 Zero-Forcing (ZF)
7.4.1.2 Minimum Mean-Square-Error (MMSE)
7.4.2 Decision Feedback Equalizer (DFE)
7.4.3 Comparison of Symbol-by-symbol Equalizers
Sequence Estimation
7.5.1 MLSE and the Viterbi Algorithm
7.5.1.1 Adaptive MLSE Receiver
7.5.1.2 T/2-spaced MLSE Receiver

7.5.2 Delayed Decision-Feedback Sequence Estimation
7.5.3 Reduced-State Sequence Estimation
Error Probability for MLSE on ISI Channels
7.6.1 Static ISI Channels
7.6.2 Fading ISI Channels
7.6.3 Computing the Union Bound
7.6.3.1 Error-State Diagram
7.6.3.2 The Stack Algorithm
7.6.4 Examples
Error Probability for T/2-spaced MLSE Receiver
7.7.1 T-spaced MLSE Receiver
7.7.2 T/2-spaced MLSE Receiver
7.7.3 Practical T/2-spaced MLSE Receiver
7.7.4 Timing Phase Sensitivity
MIMO MLSE Receivers
7.8.1 System and Channel Model
7.8.2 Joint Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimation
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Contents
ix
8.
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
7.8.3
7.8.4
7.8.5
7.8.6
7.8.7
7.8.8
8.1.1
8.2.1
8.2.2
8.2.3
8.3.1
8.3.2
8.4.1
8.5.1
8.6.1
8.6.2
8.6.3
8.6.4

8.7.1
8.7.2
8.7.3
8.7.4
Discrete-time MIMO Channel Model
The Viterbi Algorithm
Pairwise Error Probability
T
/2-Spaced MIMO MLSE Receiver
7.8.6.1 Error Probability
7.8.6.2 Timing Phase Sensitivity
7.8.6.3 Practical Receiver
Interference Rejection Combining MLSE
Examples
ERROR CONTROL CODING
Block Codes
Binary Block Codes
8.1.1.1 Minimum Distance
8.1.1.2 Syndromes
8.1.1.3 Error Detection
8.1.1.4 Weight Distribution
8.1.1.5 Probability of Undetected Error
8.1.1.6 Error Correction
8.1.1.7 Standard Array Decoding
8.1.1.8 Syndrome Decoding
Convolutional Codes
Encoder Description
State and Trellis Diagrams, and Weight Distribution
Recursive Systematic Convolutional (RSC) Codes
Trellis Coded Modulation

Encoder Description
Mapping by Set Partitioning
Coded Performance on AWGN Channels
Union Bound for Convolutional Codes
Coded Performance on Interleaved Flat Fading Channels
Design Rules for TCM on Flat Fading Channels
8.5.1.1 Multidimensional TCM
8.5.1.2 Multiple TCM (MTCM)
8.5.1.3 2-D Trellis Codes
Coded Performance on ISI Channels
TCM on Static ISI Channels
TCM on Noninterleaved Fading ISI Channels
Examples
8.6.3.1 Static ISI Channels
8.6.3.2 Multipath Fading ISI Channels
Evaluation of Union Bounds for TCM
Turbo Codes
PCCC Encoder
PCCC Decoder
SCCC Encoder and Decoder
Weight Distribution
8.7.4.1 Weight Distribution of PCCCs
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x
PRINCIPLES OFMOBILE COMMUNICATION SECOND EDITION
9.
10.
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
8.7.4.2 Weight Distribution of SCCCs
SPREAD SPECTRUM TECHNIQUES
Basic Principles of Spread Spectrum
9.1.1 Direct Sequence (DS) Spread Spectrum
9.1.2 Frequency Hop (FH) Spread Spectrum
Spreading Sequences
9.2.1 Spreading Waveforms

9.2.2 m-sequences
9.2.3 Gold Sequences
9.2.4 Kasami Sequences
9.2.5 Barker Sequences
9.2.6 Walsh-Hadamard Sequences
9.2.6.1 Orthogonal and Bi-orthogonal Modulation
9.2.7 Variable Length Orthogonal Codes
9.2.8 Complementary Code Keying (CCK)
Power Spectral Density of DS Spread Spectrum Signals
Performance of DS/OPSK in Tone Interference
DS Spread Spectrum on Frequency-Selective Fading Channels
9.5.1 RAKE Receiver
Error Probability for DS CDMA on AWGN Channels
9.6.1 Standard Gaussian Approximation
9.6.2 Improved Gaussian Approximation
9.6.3 Simplified Gaussian Approximation
TDMA CELLULAR ARCHITECTURES
Cell Sectoring
10.1.1 Cell Sectoring with Wide-beam Directional Antennas
10.1.2 Sectoring with Switched-beam Antennas
10.1.3 Trunkpool Techniques
10.1.4 Cellular Performance with Switched-beam Antennas
10.1.4.1 Reverse Channel
10.1.4.2 Forward Channel
10.1.4.3 Performance Criteria and Results
Conventional Cell Splitting
10.2.1 Reuse Partitioning
10.2.1.1 Cell Splitting with Reuse Partitioning
Cluster Planned Hierarchical Architecture
10.3.1 System Architecture

10.3.2 Underlaid Microcell Planning Algorithm
10.3.3 Performance Analysis of Cluster Planned Architecture
10.3.3.1 Macrocell Performance
10.3.3.2 Microcell Performance
10.3.3.3 Adjacent Channel Interference Analysis
Macrodiversity Architectures
10.4.1 Probability of Co-channel Interference Outage
10.4.2 Shadow Correlation
10.4.3 Numercial Examples
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Contents
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12.
13.
11.2

12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8
12.9
13.1
13.2
13.3
11. CDMA CELLULAR ARCHITECTURES
11.1 Capacity of Cellular CDMA
11.1.1 Reverse Link Capacity
11.1.2 Forward Link Capacity
11.1.3 Imperfect Power Control
Error Probability with RAKE Reception
11.2.1 Maximal Ratio Combining
LINK QUALITY MEASUREMENT
AND HANDOFF INITIATION
Signal Strength Based Hard Handoff Algorithms
Pilot-to-interference Ratio Based Soft Handoff Algorithms
Signal Strength Averaging
12.3.1 Choosing the Proper Window Length
12.3.2 Choosing the Proper Number of Samples to Average
Velocity Estimation in Cellular Systems
12.4.1 Level Crossing Rate Estimators
12.4.2 Covariance Approximation Methods
12.4.3 Velocity Estimator Sensitivity

12.4.3.1 Effect of the Scattering Distribution
12.4.3.2 Effects of Additive Gaussian Noise
Velocity Adaptive Handoff Algorithms
12.5.1 Effect of
12.5.2 Corner Effects and Sensitivity to a and
12.5.3 Velocity Adaptive Handoff Performance
Hard Handoff Analysis
12.6.1 Simulation Results
Soft Handoff Analysis
12.7.1 Simulation Results
CIR-based Link Quality Measurements
12.8.1 Discrete-Time Model for Signal Quality Estimation
12.8.1.1 Estimation of (I+N)
12.8.1.2 Estimation of C/(I+N)
12.8.2 Training Sequence Based C/(I+N) Estimation
Summary
CHANNEL ASSIGNMENT TECHNIQUES
Centralized DCA
13.1.1 Maximum Packing (MP)
13.1.2 MAXMIN Scheme
Decentralized DCA
13.2.1 First Available (FA) and Nearest Neighbor (NN)
13.2.2 Dynamic Resource Acquisition (DRA)
Fully Decentralized DCA
13.3.1 Channel Segregation (CS)
13.3.2 Channel Segregation with Variable Threshold
13.3.3 Minimum Interference (MI) Schemes
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xii
PRINCIPLES OFMOBILE COMMUNICATION SECOND EDITION
13.4
13.5
13.6
13.7
13.8
13.9
13.10Example DCA Schemes for TDMA Systems
13.10.1 The Simple DCA (SDCA) Strategy
13.10.2 A Queueing DCA Strategy
13.10.3 An Aggressive DCA Strategy
13.10.4 Simulation Model, Results, and Discussion
13.11 Concluding Remarks
A.1
A.2
A.3
A.4
A.5

13.3.4 Aggressive and Timid DCA Strategies
Hybrid FCA/DCA Schemes
Borrowing Schemes
13.5.1 Borrowing with Channel Ordering (BCO)
13.5.2 Borrowing with Directional Locking
13.5.3 Borrowing without Locking
13.5.4 Compact Pattern Based DCA
Directed Retry and Directed Handoff
Moving Direction Strategies
Reduced Transceiver Coverage
13.8.1 Reuse Partitioning
Handoff Priority
Appendix A Probability and Random Processes
Conditional Probability and Bayes’ Theorem
Means, Moments, and Moment Generating Functions
Some Useful Probability Distributions
A.3.1 Discrete Distributions
A.3.2 Continuous Distributions
Upper Bounds on the cdfc
Random Processes
A.5.1 Moments and Correlation Functions
A.5.2 Crosscorrelation and Crosscovariance
A.5.3 Complex-Valued Random Processes
A.5.4 Power Spectral Density
A.5.5 Random Processes Filtered by Linear Systems
A.5.6 Discrete-time Random Processes
A.5.7 Cyclostationary Random Processes
References
Index
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Preface
This book follows from my first edition and is intended to provide a thor-
ough, up to date, treatment of wireless physical communications. The book is
derived from a compilation of course material that I have taught in a graduate-
level course on physical wireless communications at Georgia Tech over the past
decade. This textbook differs from others on the subject by stressing mathe-
matical modeling and analysis. My approach is to include detailed derivations
from first principles. The text is intended to provide enough background ma-
terial for the novice student enrolled in a graduate level course, while having
enough advanced material to prime the more serious graduate students that
would like to pursue research in the area. The book is intended to stress the
fundamentals of mobile communications engineering that are important to any
mobile communication system. I have therefore kept the description of existing
and proposed wireless standards and systems to a minimum. The emphasis on
fundamental issues should benefit not only to students taking formal instruc-
tion, but also practicing engineers who are likely to already have a detailed
familiarity with the standards and are seeking to deepen their knowledge of the
fundamentals and principles of this important field.
Chapter 1 begins with an overview that is intended to introduce a broad
array of issues relating to wireless communications. Included is a description
of various wireless systems and services, basic concepts of cellular frequency
reuse, and the link budget for cellular radio systems.
Chapter 2 treats propagation modeling and was inspired by the excellent
reference by Jakes. It begins with a summary of propagation models for
narrow-band and wide-band multipath channels, and provides a discussion
of channel simulation techniques that are useful for radio link analysis. It

concludes with a discussion of shadowing and path loss models. Chapter 3 is
a related chapter that provides a detailed treatment of co-channel interference,
the primary impairment in high capacity cellular systems.
xiv PRINCIPLES OF MOBILE COMMUNICATION SECOND EDITION
Chapter 4 covers the various types of modulation schemes that are used
in mobile communication systems along with their spectral characteristics.
Chapter 5 discusses the performance of digital signal on narrow-band flat
fading channels with a variety of receiver structures, while Chapter 6 includes
a treatment of antenna diversity techniques.
Chapter 7 provides an extensive treatment of digital signaling on the fading
ISI channels that are typical of mid-band land mobile radio systems. The
chapter begins with the characterization of ISI channels and goes on to discuss
techniques for combating ISI based on symbol-by-symbol equalization and
sequence estimation. The chapter concludes with a discussion of co-channel
demodulation and co-channel interference cancellation.
Chapter 8 covers bandwidth efficient coding techniques. The chapter begins
with a discussion of basic block and convolutional coding. It then goes on to
a detailed discussion on the design and performance analysis of convolutional
and trellis codes for additive white Gaussian noise channels, and interleaved flat
fading channels. The chapter concludes with an introduction to Turbo coding.
Chapter 9 is devoted to spread spectrum techniques. The chapter begins
with an introduction to direct sequence and frequency hop spread spectrum.
This is followed by a detailed treatment of spreading sequences. Also included
is a discussion of the effects of tone interference on direct sequence spread
spectrum, and the RAKE receiver performance on wide-band channels. The
chapter wraps up with a discussion of the error probability of direct sequence
code division multiple access.
Chapter 10 considers TDMA cellular architectures. The chapter begins with
a discussion of conventional TDMA systems and how they are evolved to meet
traffic growth. This is followed by hierarchical overlay/underlay architectures.

Finally, the chapter wraps up with macrodiversity TDMA architectures. Chap-
ter 11 is the CDMA counterpart to Chapter 10 and considers issues that are
relevant to cellular CDMA, such as capacity estimation and power control.
Chapter 10 covers the important problem of link quality evaluation and
handoff initiation, and handoff performance, in cellular systems. Chapter 11
provides an overview of the various channel assignment techniques that have
been proposed for FDMA and TDMA cellular systems.
The book contains far too much detail to be taught in a one-semester course.
However, I believe that it can serve as a suitable text in most situations through
the appropriate selection of material. My own preference for a one-semester
course is to include the following in order: Chapter 1, Chapter 2, Sections 3.1
and 3.2, Chapter 4, Chapter 5, and Chapter 6. Then choose from Chapters 8
through 13 depending on my interest at the time.
I would like to acknowledge all those who have contributed to the preparation
of this book. The reviewers Vijay Bhargava at the University of Victoria
and Sanjiv Nanda at Lucent Technologies were very valuable in the early
Preface xv
stages of the first edition of this book. The subsequent review by Upamanyu
Madhow at the University of Illinois and in particular the detailed review by
Keith Chugg at the University of Southern California were highly useful for
improving this book. I am grateful to my doctoral students, past and present,
who have contributed significantly to this book. The contributions of Wern-Ho
Sheen, Khalid Hamied, Mark Austin, Jeff (Lihbor) Yiin, Ming-Ju Ho, Li-Chun
(Robert) Wang, Krishna Narayanan, Dukhyun Kim, Jinsoup Joung, and John
(Yongchae) Kim are particularly noteworthy. Finally, I would like to thank
BellSouth, GTE Labs, Motorola, Panasonic, Hitachi, Nortel, Korea Telecom,
WiLAN, and the National Science Foundation, for sustaining my research
efforts in wireless communications over the past 10 years. This research
experience has in many cases lead to material that I brought to the classroom
and have included in this book.

GORDON L. STÜBER
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To my parents
Beatrice and Lothar Stüber
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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Wireless systems and services have undergone a remarkable development,
since the first cellular and cordless telephone systems were introduced in the
early 1980s. First generation cellular and cordless telephone systems were
based on analog FM technology and designed to carry narrow-band circuit
switched voice services. Second generation cellular and cordless telephone
systems were introduced in the early 1990s that use digital modulation, and
offer improved spectral efficiency, and voice quality. However, these sec-
ond generation systems are still used for narrow-band voice and data services.
Third generation wireless systems, currently under development that offer sub-
stantially higher bit rates ranging from 9.6 kb/s for satellite users, 144 kb/s
for vehicular users, 384 kb/s for pedestrian users to 2.048 Mb/s for indoor
office environments. These systems are intended to provide voice, data, the
more bandwidth intensive multimedia services, while satisfying more stringent
availability and quality of service (QoS) requirements in all types environments.
Fourth generation systems are also on the horizon that will provide broadband
wireless access with asymmetric bit rates that approach 1 Gb/s.
Radio access systems are often distinguished by their coverage areas and bit
rates, as shown in Fig. 1.1. Mobile satellite systems provide global coverage
to mobile users, but with very low bit rates. Land mobile radio systems use
terrestrial cellular and microcellular networks to provide wide area coverage to
vehicular and pedestrian users. Fixed wireless access systems provide radio
connectivity over a campus or neighborhood area to stationary users. Finally,
wireless local area networks provide stationary in-building users with very

high speed services.
2
Introduction 3
1. WIRELESS SYSTEMS AND STANDARDS
1.1 FIRST GENERATION CELLULAR SYSTEMS
The early 1970s saw the emergence of the radio technology that was needed
for the deployment of mobile radio systems in the 800/900 MHz band at a
reasonable cost. In 1976, the World Allocation Radio Conference (WARC)
approved frequency allocations for cellular telephones in the 800/900 MHz
band, thus setting the stage for the commercial deployment of cellular systems.
In the early 1980s, many countries deployed first generation cellular systems
based on frequency division multiple access (FDMA) and analog FM technol-
ogy. With FDMA there is a single channel per carrier. When a MS accesses the
system two carriers (channels) are actually assigned, one for the forward (base-
to-mobile) link and one for the reverse (mobile-to-base) link. Separation of the
forward and reverse carrier frequencies is necessary to allow implementation
of a duplexer, a complicated arrangement of filters that isolates the forward
and reverse channels, thus preventing a radio transceiver from jamming itself.
In 1979, the first analog cellular system, the Nippon Telephone and Telegraph
(NTT) system, became operational. In 1981, Ericsson Radio Systems AB
fielded the Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) 900 system, and in 1983 AT&T
fielded the Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS) as a trial in Chicago.
Several other first generation analog systems were also deployed in the early
1980s including TACS, ETACS, NMT 450, C-450, RTMS, and Radiocom 2000
in Europe, and JTACS/NTACS in Japan. The basic parameters of NTT, NMT,
and AMPS are shown in Table 1.1. The NMT 900 system uses frequency
interleaved carriers with a separation of 12.5 kHz such that overlapping carriers
cannot be used with the same base station. In the NTT, NMT, and AMPS
systems, a separation of 45 MHz is used between the transmit and receive
frequencies, so as to implement the duplexer.

1.2 SECOND GENERATION CELLULAR SYSTEMS
Second generation digital cellular systems have been developed throughout
the world. These include the GSM/DCS1800/PCS1900 standard in Europe, the
PDC standard in Japan, and the IS 54-/136 and IS-95 standards in the United
States. Parameters of the air interfaces of these standards are summarized in
Tabs. 1.2 and 1.3, and a brief description of each follows.
1.2.1 GSM/DCS1800/PCS1900
European countries seen the deployment of incompatible first generation
cellular systems that prevented roaming throughout Europe. As as result,
the Conference of European Postal and Telecommunications Administrations
(CEPT) established Groupe Speciale Mobile (GSM) in 1982 with the mandate
of defining standards for future Pan-European cellular radio systems. The GSM
4
system (now “Global System for Mobile Communications”) was developed
to operate in a new frequency allocation, and made improved quality, Pan-
European roaming, and the support of data services its primary objectives.
GSM was deployed in late 1992 as the world’s first digital cellular system.
In its current version, GSM can support full-rate (8 slots/carrier) and half-rate
(16 slots/carrier) operation, and provide various synchronous and asynchronous
data services at 2.4, 4.8, and 9.6 kb/s that interface to voiceband modems (e.g.,
V.22bis or V.32) and ISDN. GSM uses TDMA with 200 kHz carrier spacings,
eight channels per carrier with a time slot (or burst) duration of 0.577 ms, and
Gaussian minimum shift keying (GMSK) with a raw bit rate of 270.8 kb/s. The
time slot format of the GSM traffic channels is shown in Fig. 1.2.