THE FAILED AND THE INADVERTENT:
ART HISTORY AND THE CONCEPT OF THE UNCONSCIOUS
James Elkins
Summary
The history of art historical responses to psychoanalysis has yet to be written. Art
historians have imported a wide variety of psychoanalytic concepts, and psychoanalysis
continues to be a major interpretive resource for the discipline of at history. But beyond the core
of art historical texts that are directly and explicitly influenced by psychoanalysis is a much
larger, and I think more important class of texts that do not cite psychoanalytic concepts, but
would nevertheless not be possible without psychoanalysis and especially the fundamental
concept of the unconcious.
This paper examines the ways that the idea (or notion) of the unconscious affects current
thinking about the control artists have over their works; I argue that in this more general sense,
psychoanalysis has tended to help art historians take away artists’ control and awareness of their
own work, replacing it with the model of artists as workers largely unaware of what they do.
Against this I argue that artists who are imagined to “preside over their work with their eyes
open” can be more interesting subjects, both historically and psychologically.
Caveat emptor
This essay was written in 1993, when I was involved in teaching a course on psychoanalysis and
painting, and it was published in 1994, in the International Journal of Psycho–Analysis 75 part 1,
pp. 119–32. The version posted here has been revised (as of August 2001).
I don’t consider it at all out of date, even though its examples are beginning to look a bit old. It
raises two problems that are very current and entirely unresolved:
1. What kind of critical response is best when an art historian is influenced by
psychoanalysis but declines to make that influence explicit?
2. What effect does the concentration on artists’ unconscious desires have on art history’s
ultimate purpose of building a full account of art and its history?
At the time I was surprised to discover how fragmented psychoanalytic art history is. It had, and
still has, at least five strands: (a) extremely conservative and simple applications of
psychoanalysis to paintings, as in Kramer (1970); (b) extremely sophisticated applications of
psychoanalysis, mostly by Lacanian scholars; (c) work infused with feminism, deconstruction,
semiotics, or a coctail of other poststructuralist concerns; (d) work informed by Jung; (e) work
that is only distantly, indistinctly, or inexplicitly psychoanalytic, as in Fried (1990). The four
strands—they could easily be divided into many more—appear in different journals and have
largely distinct readerships. Vexed as I was about that situation, I was most interested in the fact
that even though only a few art historians would say they write psychoanalytic art history, a large
number—perhaps even the majority—write versions of (e). Because they do not refer explicitly
to psychoanalytic sources, such scholars are especially difficult to agree with, argue against, or
build on.
Since the essay was published, in 1994, I have extended these thoughts in two directions:
1. The fact that psychoanalysis makes artists into puzzles became the principal theme of
my book Why are Our Pictures Puzzles? On the Modern Origins of Pictorial Complexity
(New York: Routledge, 1999).
2. The meditation on Fried’s work, and on art historical writing in general, developed into
Our Beautiful, Dry, and Distant Texts: Art History as Writing (New York: Routledge,
2000).
The unconscious remains problematic. It has always been indispensible to
psychoanalysis, and in some ways it is the essential precondition of psychoanalysis itself (Freud
thought as much, and called it his most important discovery; see Freud [1900, 611]). Though it
is still possible to speak of a single “unconscious”—there have been no theories that begin by
claiming Freud was fundamentally mistaken in that one central tenet—the varieties and
schismatic versions of the unconscious are sometimes so radical that only extended qualifications
can demonstrate their allegiance to the originary concept. Even within Freud’s writing there are
differences between the latent unconscious of the earliest writing, the formal “Ucs.” of the first
topography, and the more generous “Unconscious” of the second. The concept of the
unconscious is surprisingly insinuant, and in particular it is at once heretical (prone to radical and
continuous critical revision), peripatetic (apt to travel to neighboring disciplines) and
metamorphic (likely to be unrecognisable in new contexts). Ideally, a heresiology of the
unconscious would be required to demonstrate where it appears under other names (or under no
name at all) (Laplanche, 1976, 1989, 5–16).
But the vagaries of the concept, central as they must remain for psychoanalysis, are less
my concern here than their appearances in art historical texts. What chiefly interests me, and
seems in need of investigation, are two traits of those art historical texts that I will loosely
describe as psychoanalytic in tone, whether they are authored by historians or analysts: (a) they
ascribe a large component of artistic production to the unconscious, and (b) they value the
unconscious over the intentional. In short they propose—often “unconsciously”—that what is
important about artistic creation is precisely what is unconscious.
This idea seems to me to be mistaken. It infects an wide range of art historical texts, from
those whose indices list “Freud” and the “unconscious” to those that speak loosely about
intention and remain silent on theoretical forebears. It appears most insidiously and commonly as
an unargued assumption in texts whose authors would not describe their works as psychoanalytic
or even psychological. What I have in mind here is not a comprehensive refutation of this idea,
but three more local explorations that I take to be decisive for the possibility of sensible
exchanges on this subject: (a) the case against the privileging of the unconscious in
psychoanalytic art criticism, taking Liebert’s study of Michelangelo as an example; (b) the
argument against the more common kind of text in which psychoanalysis is not mentioned but
the privilege of the unconscious is nevertheless decisive, with an uncommon text, Michael
Fried’s Courbet’s Realism, as the example; and (c) a reading of Cézanne intended to suggest how
interpretations of unconscious imagery and intended forms can be brought together in a fruitful
and nonrigid manner.
A recent issue of October echoes a sentiment increasingly prevalent in art history: that
the traditional psychoanalysis of artworks is misguided, and should be abandoned in favor of
other ways of reading the dual histories of psychoanalysis and art history. It is suggested, for
example, that [ ]
Here I do not want to argue against these new possibilities, but rather to suggest that it is
risky to assume that the older traditions can simply be abandoned. As Freud would have
counselled, desires and traditions are not so easily overturned; and in this [ ]
If there is a scholarly literature that deserves execration, it is uncreative psychoanalytic
art history. Mondrian’s alleged exposure to the Urszene, Cézanne’s masturbation or the hidden
labia in his landscapes, Leonardo’s traumatic “feeling of loss of penis,” and Vermeer’s
ineffective “barriers” against his own concupiscence, are readings guilty of the most
irresponsible cutting of context, regardless of their potential truth—and that is my first objection
to the high value put on the unconscious (Niederland, 1976; Reff, 1962; Eissler, 1961; Kramer,
1970; Geist, 1988). The richness and nuance of historical research are excised in favor of
violently reductive interpretations, and the result is artwork that is less interesting than it had
been. To see repression in Vermeer, one cuts the sum of sensitive accumulated historical
connections that have been patiently built around the name “Vermeer”; to see labia in a Cézanne
landscape, one cuts the landscape with one’s eyes until nothing remains but the fetish and the
excuse for presenting it. Leo Steinberg is best on this point. In a critique I will discuss below, he
takes Robert Liebert to task for seeing a family drama in Michelangelo’s Last Judgment. It is
“inappropriate,” Steinberg says, to collapse the “nearly four hundred” figures in the Last
Judgment to a “threeway altercation” between Christ, the Madonna, and St. Bartholomew, and
“to have St. Bartholomew out to knife the Madonna, with a rebarbative Christ dispatching his
disciple to hell—and all this because the artist’s alleged oral deprivation in infancy continued to
fester” (Steinberg, 1984a, 44). I do think that the virulence of this writing needs to be taken
seriously, entirely apart from the historical and formal reasons Steinberg has for doubting part of
what Liebert says. Steinberg’s energy is directed at the toxic effects of the strong, simpleminded
stories that are forced into our contemplation by such readings.
Most criticism of psychoanalysis in art history has centered on the epistemological
problems of explanation and evidence that are inevitable when the artist is no longer available to
be quizzed about his youth (Ricoeur, 1970, 170 ff.). But questions of interest should not be
overlooked: would we go to a museum to see a documentation of defense against multiple primal
scenes? Or rather to see a painter whose meanings stretch from the asymmetries of Manet to the
topography of the Dutch landscape? We value the Wolf Man, the Rat Man and others because of
the lucidity of Freud’s detective work (Ginzburg, 1980); but we do not value Mondrian because
there’s a chance he might have been documenting a defense against primal scenes.
Freud started these difficulties, of course, with his own aesthetic writings, in particular
Leonardo da Vinci and a Memory of his Childhood. The book’s strangeness is not adequately
explained by Freud’s ambivalent “selfdescription” as Leonardo, nor the fascinating manner in
which Leonardo’s Renaissance science is both deprecated and explained by means of an
uncertain fledgling modern “science,” nor by the troublesome epistemology and its wellworn
narratives of vultures, Egyptian gods, and passive homosexuals, nor by the colloid of genres
(biography, pathography, psychoanalytic reconstruction, art history, connoisseurship, synopsis,
mistaken philology, aesthetics), and it may be that Freud’s text is best studied in comparison
with other unaccountably “wild” texts. Nietzsche’s Birth of Tragedy is a possible parallel “case”:
both have an eccentric position in an oeuvre of increasing coherence, both exult in a bricolage of
subject matter, and both possess a rhapsodic, even lurid, theatricality.
The wildness is important here because it resulted in a conflicted, ambivalent, and partly
unreadable account of the relation of Leonardo’s conscious and unconscious expression. Freud
did not write a clear text, committed—let us say—to the sovereignty of the conscious mind. The
turmoil of his Leonardo is salutary. It does not mean that the book is easily mined for method or
for insights into Leonardo, but it does mean that later writers have available an example of the
difficulties that should await them in coming to terms with a mind and with works that are
certainly more interesting, and probably more insightful, than their own.
Shrinking Michelangelo
The two terms of my title, “inadvertent” and “failed,” and the title of this section, come
from Leo Steinberg’s viperous review of Robert Liebert’s Michelangelo: A Psychoanalytic
Study of his Life and Images (Steinberg, 1984a, 19484b). It is still without peer for its analysis of
certain tendencies in psychoanalytic art criticsm. Steinberg takes Liebert to task for thinking that
“meaning is invariably tied to an unconscious expression,” so that Michelangelo’s works are not
thoughts or decisions but lapses, things that are failed and inadvertent. To Steinberg, “artists, if
they are any good, preside over their work with their eyes open.”
A writer replying to Steinberg’s review objected that “artists do not stand in any
privileged position visavis the interpretation of their works,” and that aspects of works that are
“unconscious (read: unknown)” need not “represent lapses (read: failures).” In reply, Steinberg
claims:
I have nowhere suggested that impulses from the unconscious informing the
creative process must produce lapses or failures. What I said was that the specific
unconscious motives Liebert assigns to Michelangelo and imputes to his works do
not visibly inform the artist’s paintings and sculptures [Steinberg, 1944a, 52].
These positions are a little slippery in that they are easily misstated. Steinberg does not say that
artists have absolute control or even “privileged position,” but he does say their eyes are open:
they look, they see, they control what they can. And what they control is what is interesting.
When it’s put this way, the intractability of the debate becomes clear: no matter how the
argument might proceed, there will remain the difference between those who prefer to see
control and those who do not. This is a false debate: though it seems to be about methodology,
historical evidence, hermeneutics, and models of the psyche and creativity, it is actually a matter
of preferences.
I take it that this issue is, in fact, unarguable, and I have put it in the context of this
exchange because the quickness with which the two sides rally their arguments underscores its
futility. Where there are sides, I side with Steinberg: the texture of thought and the kinds of
challenge that are required in dealing with intimidating artists who are in control of their means
provokes me more than do the ways of thinking required in psychoanalytic readings. In
psychological terms, the two are distinct sources of pleasure—one, for me, slightly less engaging
than the other.
Other issues raised by Liebert’s text can be argued more easily. The nudes in the back of
the Doni Tondo are also a vexata quaestio within art history. They may be shepherds, angels,
sinners, neophytes, Neoplatonic figures for love, or mankind ante legem—no explanation is fully
satisfactory. Liebert proposes that they are youths “engaged in homoerotic interplay,” acting
Michelangelo’s fantasy of internalized femininity. But that fantasy must have been unconscious,
since the tondo was commissioned for a wedding, and identifiable homosexual imagery would
have been scandalous. For the sake of argument, let us assume that Liebert’s reading is entirely
persuasive, and also that he did not intend malice or irony toward the Doni family: what then was
Michelangelo’s conscious intention? Perhaps he meant to portray shepherds (it is not
inconceivable that he would have omitted the sheep), or pagan nudes, or figures for the soul. The
strangeness of the figures—and their interest for generations of critics—would then be a failure.
Unconscious forces would have impelled him to make some ineffective excuse as he worked in
order to keep the truth of his presentation from his Ego: “Nudity is permissible in pagan figures,”
or “Shepherds often sported with one another.” My point here is not that Liebert is mistaken, but
that the Michelangelo he gives us is less interesting simply because the dynamic of conscious
and unconscious is so crisp. Art historical meanings have become displaced vehicles of
unconscious forces. Consider instead—again for rhetorical purposes—a Michelangelo who
blended angel, shepherd, spiritello, neophyte, sinner, and homosexual. Such an act could not be
described by a polarity of conscious and unconscious, but by a web of intended acts. It would be
an accomplishment rather than a close call, and it would have the interpretive advantage of
allowing us to ask how its halfdozen elements are related rather than imagining a rigid puppetry
of drive, fantasy, and repression.
The Drunkenness of Noah in the Sistine has long puzzled historians because it presents
all the figures nude, and because it does not show the Shem and Japheth walking backwards (as
Genesis 9:23 describes). To Liebert this is evidence that “the vision of the fallen father… must…
be masked in the artist’s mind, introducing confusion” (Liebert, 1983, 41). How can the
psychoanalytic account allow for the possibility that the “confusion” is conscious, and that we
are dealing here with a controlled ambiguation? I ask this question rhetorically. The
Drunkenness of Noah is an typical case because the question of control cannot be easily
adjudicated. There are a number of things Michelangelo could have meant. We can imagine, for
example, that if Michelangelo had wanted to say that none are without sin, he might have chosen
to represent the heads unturned. Or if he wanted to induce shame in the spectator commensurate
with the shame of Noah, he might achieve that by showing us more naked bodies than the story
required. Or if he wished to represent his own ambivalence toward naked men, unexpected
nudity would have served the purpose. In making this list of hypotheses, I have mimicked the
kind of art historical texts that do not mention psychoanalysis directly (which we will consider
below), in that words such as “meant,’ “wanted,” and “wished” can be taken to mean conscious
or unconscious intentions. How can the two be distinguished? It seems to me that our only way
of deciding is to look for programmatic departures from the expected story. If all three sons were
equally naked, if they stared equally at their fallen father, then we could say with confidence that
Michelangelo meant to bend the story. But of course the scene is not uniform: there are different
gestures and different displays of nudity. So here, as in many other cases, the choice is between a
Michelangelo who says something complex—something, I think, that involves all the meanings I
have named—by “mistake,” as a puppet reacts when its strings are yanked, and a Michelangelo
who says those same things by pulling the strings and orchestrating the drama himself. Why
assume the former? Or again, in psychological terms, What motive is there for preferring the
former?
The unnamed unconscious in art historical writing
I turn now to the strange but common kind of art historical writing that is clearly
psychoanalytic without openly declaring its allegiance. Such writing does not study the relation
between conscious and unconscious expression, as Freud did in his own aesthetic writings, and it
generally refrains from mentioning specific terms of the Freudian metapsychology. Instead the
texts simply concentrate on descriptions that the artists would have reacted to in the way that
Freud says unprepared patients react to interpretations of their unconscious wishes: with
amazement, suspicion, and anger.
An essay that goes partway in this direction is Julia Kristeva’s delicately written
“Giotto’s Joy” (Kristeva, 1988, 34, 36). Though it introduces explicit Freudian and Lacanian
theory (the latter source is not acknowledged), it does so primarily in order to be able to say that
color, unlike form, requires a special hermeneutics. Color, Kristeva argues, is “a pressure…
linked to the body proper,” “a physiologically supported drive,” and it therefore needs a special
economic analysis that is out of the reach of art history. Having introduced a “triple register” of
color theories, she turns away from theory and toward history and semiotics. Her essay has much
more theory than the average American essay, but the tendency is similar: to make use of Freud
while remaining independent.
In most recent art history, the traces of Freud are difficult to locate even where his
influence is decisive. An exemplar of this kind of writing is Michael Fried’s book Courbet’s
Realism, the fruit of a deeply layered encounter with psychoanalysis. Fried seldom invokes the
Freudian lexicon (his footnotes are peppered with various feminist and literarycritical sources),
but his entire enterprise in is avowedly an exploration of the visible traces of Courbet’s
unconscious. Typically, the diffusion of the unnamed unconscious is in direct proportion to its
declared importance, and the privilege of the unconscious in this book is virtually complete.
Fried dismisses his subject’s consciousness literally in a parenthesis:
the philosophical, political and even moral connotations of realism made it all but
inconceivable that a work of art… could be both realistic in effect and
imaginative or metaphorical in relation to its materials. (I am convinced that
Courbet himself was largely unaware of the aspects of his work I focus on in the
pages that follow.) [Fried, 1990, 5]
In Fried’s view Courbet’s purposes are unconscious in the sense proposed by MacIntyre: what
Courbet thought he made was radically at odds with what he actually produced. Fried’s Courbet
is so desperately misguided about his enterprise that his conscious intentions have only a few
point of contact with the project of Courbet’s Realism. What is important is unconscious, and the
substance of the book is an exploration of the workingout, the pictorial manifestation, of that
unconscious.
In accord with Freud’s doctrine of unconscious drives, the signs of Courbet’s
unconscious are repetitive and conservative: they recur, seeking only fulfillment, periodic
discharge and homeostasis (Laplanche, 1976). That means the sign of any given impulse in one
of Courbet’s paintings is fundamentally the same as the corresponding sign in any other painting.
I say “fundamentally” because the drives compete, and they interact with Courbet’s developing
capacity and the particular occasions and purposes of his paintings, providing a wealth of
variations: but through them all, Courbet’s “mastery” is necessarily, if temporarily, demoted to a
form of automatism. Most of Fried’s time is taken in expositing signs of different drives rather
than different signs of the same drives. It is not that there is no development in these motifs, and
indeed their nuanced differences occupy much of Fried’s text: it is that the catalogue, the ticking
off of the evidence, takes precedence over theories of development.
The principal unconscious signs make a short list. There is the left and right hand (the
former with palettesign, the latter with brushsign), the body inclined toward the viewer, the
softening and penetration of the lower margin of the painting, the “seeming physical proximity”
of the painted image and the “surface of the painting,” the halfclosed eyes, blurred twilight
landscapes, and figures seen “as nearly as possible” backto. Each of these is a psychological
signifier—the closed eyes and tenebrous landscapes, for example, denote “consciousness on the
verge of extinction” flowing outward, melting into its environment. They mark anxiety over, or
denial of, the “vertiginous gulf between… painting and beholder,” coupled with “an intense
absorption” in the artist’s own “live bodily being” (Fried, 1990, 65, 75, 57–59, 69).
A difficulty with this approach (not a reason to doubt its validity) is that it does not
inspire a reader to go an work on other Courbet paintings. Imagine analyzing a work by Courbet
that Fried does not mention, in a way sympathetic with Fried’s text. Such an analysis would
involve the careful identification of the repertoire of unconscious strategies set out in the book;
one would expect variations and perhaps a new solution, but nothing provocatively new. I do not
mean that this is necessarily the case, only that Courbet’s Realism functions to make such a
scenario seem likely, and therefore to stifle interest in further study.
Harold Bloom has praised Freud’s theory, saying it has provoked not only critics and
disciplies but new theorists. By that standard, Fried’s theory is an exemplary end product, in the
positive and negative senses of that phrase: it is a theory that provokes criticism and imitation
more than augmentation.
In an importance sense a reader’s future understanding of Courbet is predicted for him.
Courbet’s Realism, aside from its truth claims, is a strongly repressive text: it limits, at one and
the same time:
1. The subject, since Fried’s Courbet is denied a priori the possibility of escaping from
the drives of his own unconscious or of understanding and controlling them in terms of his own
conscious program of Realism.
2. The writer, since Fried constrains himself to explicating the unchanging mechanics of
the unconscious as he finds them in Courbet’s paintings. The unconscious, Freud said, does not
know time. It does not sleep, it obeys only the primary process, nothing from the outside world
disturbs its tidal rhythms. A text that takes the unconscious as its subject enslaves its writer to a
similar regimen. The analogue in clinical practice might be a patient who does not go in for
treatment: barring trauma, the expression of his drives will follow a certain routine. In the case of
phobia, for instance, the symptoms may change as anticathexes immure the conscious
awareness of the troubling idea—but the mechanics of the neurosis will remain static (Freud,
1911).
3. The reader, because we are compelled in turn to follow the same mechanics in our
reading and in our reimagining. We are disallowed the creative possibilities of alternate readings,
the pleasure of undiscovered interstices, the hope of further developments, and the dialectic
interaction that are possible with fictional characters in novels (or accounts of artists written
further outside the psychoanalytic paradigm, such as those in Fried’s other books). Freud was
aware of the parallels between his work and the “mental processes” described by “imaginative
writers”; one trait that sustains the freedom of our relation to fictional characters is the novelists’
mix of conscious and inadvertent explanations for their characters’ actions. Some things we
know about Ivan Ilych he does not know about himself, but many other things are shared, and
that provides a freedom for the reader that an unrolling of unconscious desires, no matter how
pictorially compelling, must deny.
This triple slavery is, I think, a consequence of not developing three corresponding
freedoms:
1. To the artist corresponds the freedom of conscious control. To the degree that an artist
is imagined as presiding over a work with his eyes open, he or she is free to accept and deny,
propose and dispose.
2. To the writer corresponds the freedom of analyzing that conscious control. Without the
thematic of the conscious or of the relation between intention and inadvertency—and this latter is
one of the most rigorously excluded topics in Fried’s book—the writer loses the possibility of
representing whatever freedoms are ascribed to the subject. Those freedoms, fictional though
they must be, can provoke mimicking freedoms in the narrative.
3. To the reader corresponds the freedom of reading a narrative about consciousness.
Whatever narrative the writer has found will open similar possibilities for the reader. Imagine,
for example, an analysis of the relations between Courbet’s Realist intentions and his
unconscious drives: it would be possible to adjust the writer’s findings (as in my rhetorical
adjustment of Liebert’s reading of the Doni tondo), rather than simply assenting, balking, or
fleeing.
Mathematicians analyze equations according to their “degrees of freedom”: essentially
the number of variables that are not fixed. When a system has more than one degree of freedom,
it typically cannot be solved, and the business of analysis is then to find restrictions. But a
system with a surplus of freedom is no more interesting than one that is wholly determined: the
former is useless fantasy, the latter unchanging petrification. I find Fried’s book on Courbet
compelling, largely convincing, and very forcefully argued: but I also feel the pressure of its
repressions and exclusions.
Cézanne’s unconscious motifs
The readings by Sidney Geist and Theodore Reff, which I mentioned briefly in
connection with Cézanne’s alleged masturbation and fantasies of landscaped labia, are the most
recent examples of an escalating tendency toward the explicit and narrow. Earlier readings,
beginning with Roger Fry and continuing through Meyer Schapiro, were more circumspect in
their psychoanalytic overtures (Schapiro, 1952). (Fry in particular was openminded about the
issue of control. To him, Cézanne was “ignorant” of his deformations, while at the same time his
“intellect… claimed its full rights.” [Fry, 1952, 48, 53; Spector, 1988, 49ff.]) But instead of
reviewing that history, I want to briefly propose a field of unconscious motifs that has not been
developed in the literature, in order to make a closing argument concerning the possibility of
integrating the unconscious into art historical analyses.
Schapiro has described Cézanne’s “detached, contemplative relation to the world,” his
themes of solitude, his love of things “beyond approach,” and above all his “abandoned
catastrophic landscapes” that are “intraversible,” “inaccessible,” and “inapproachable”
(Schapiro, 1952, 78). There is a structure to this detachment, consisting of a dozen or so repeated
forms. We can look quickly at seven of them, as they appear in three landscapes done in the
years 1869 73. The Picnic (Paris, Musée d’Orsay, c. 1869) has a form that may be called a
splayed center—two trees fall away at either side, as if they have been pushed aside. Another
form might be called an abyss, though the term is a little strong for this painting: the ground
gives way toward the front, so that the figure of Cézanne is squatting on a declivity. The result is
that the ground under our feet is surely much lower, perhaps on a slope or in a gulf. There is also
a wave in the painting: a surge of rounded organic forms at the upper left, pinching the sky into a
cramped space above them, rolling downward and toward the right, weakening as they go and
deliquescing into a thin cloud.
If this reading seems excessive, consider L’Estaque, Melting Snow (187071): again there
are the bent trees, the splayed center, this time voided, and again the wave that begins with thick
puffed leaves, pinched into the top left corner of the canvas, and melting into a black, rolling
horizon. L’Estaque, Melting Snow also contains an abyss—a real one this time. As Schapiro
notes, “there is no foothold for the spectator”: if we were to step into the picture, we would
tumble onto the house far below (Schapiro, 1952, 38). The abyss is one of a reperoire of devices
that preclude our imaginative entry into the paintings. Sometimes the abyss is a barricade, other
times a wall in the distance. Something of the wall also occurs here, since the field slopes steeply
upward, as if in Oriental oblique projection or a child’s dream of inaccessibility. So, to be exact
about it, we are not “excluded” from the picture but trapped in middle distance. After falling onto
the house, we can neither clamber back up the slope nor climb all the way to the distant
farmhouse. Cézanne’s landscapes can present versatile and formidable challenges to uninvited
ingress and movement. And finally, the same painting contains a motif I will call the weak right
margin. If you place a card over the painting, and slide it to the left until only a thin strip at the
right becomes visible, that strip appears remarkably weak. It is homogeneous in aerial
perspective, value and color, and its forms are dissolutive. Weak right margins are sometimes
even more pronounced, and in sketches Cézanne sometimes abruptly leaves off when he comes
to the inches just short of the right margin.
The Suicide’s House (187273) can serve as a final example—though the exposition
could be extended to cover both earlier and later landscapes. Here again, it is difficult to enter
into depth: we begin on what appears to be a level path, which slopes down so precipitously it is
lost to sight. That abyss (which is mirrored by the steep slope coming down from the upper left)
is then followed by an abrupt turn. The town, to which the path evidently connects, is pathless. It
forms a barricade or wall in the distance, because it is impossible to imagine how it might be
walked through. The berm is the only clear platform in the painting, and it does not look like a
spot to relax. The distant town also forms a fragmented center, a place near the middle of the
canvas that receives particularly intense attention and takes on the look of an imbricated armour
or a geode of small crystals. Cézanne commonly paid special attention to such passages and, as
we know from Earle Loran’s photographs, sometimes expanded their size so he could lavish
them with detail. And The Suicide’s House has a splayed center, though not as strong as those we
have already seen: the three windows of the central house tip to the left, and a moundlike house
slips away to the right. And though it is especially attenuated, there is an unmistakable wave here
as well: the swollen foliage at the upper left, crowding the topleft corner in trecentesque fashion,
gives way to a lower and gentler horizon toward the right. And last, a severely compromised
right margin, nothing more than a flattened sheet of sod, contrasts strongly with articulations of
form and color along the other three margins.
In an exposition of this type I cannot hope to make a convincing case for these forms, and
I invite the reader to compare paintings such as the Road at La RocheGuyon (Northampton,
Smith College, 1885), The Bay from L’Estaque (Chicago, Art Institute, c. 1886), Mont Sainte
Victoire (New York, Metropolitan Museum, 188587), and The Bibémus Quarry (Essen,
Museum Folkwang, c. 1895). But what I have in mind here is something other than an exposition
of an unconscious thematic; let us consider these observations instead as raw material for such an
analysis. An initial question might therefore be: Are we in the presence of a comprehensible set
of unconscious drives? Do these forms add up to a coherent whole?
The abyss, barricade, fragmented center, and wall in the middle distance certainly
comprise a family, and each expresses the kind of detachment of which Schapiro spoke. The
“intraversible” barricades and abysses, and the “inaccessible” middle distances and fragmented
centers may signify an unconscious desire to keep the viewer at bay. The paintings deny us
imagined wanderings and sometimes even the right to see where we might go. Yet there are clear
differences between the members of this “family”; and other forms are not as easily related as
these. The splayed centers also speak of psychological distance, but more ambivalently and less
intelligibly. A splayed center is like a trap, set to spring closed, and it is also like an invitation.
What is pushed aside is in tension, and that tension is readable as a figure for the painter—as if to
say, I am pushing myself aside for you. The open V is a little theatrical (it is like Baroque swags,
curtains, or repoussoir figures), and it conjures another painting, “prior” to the one we see,
whose subject would have been a small copse. What we see in The Picnic are usurpers of that
proper subject, and there is both psychological detachment and mistrust, since the landscape may
reclaim its proper place—as indeed it does in later figureless motifs.
All this is selfcontradictory enough. What could a weak right margin say about
exclusion? And what could it mean to compress a landscape so that it pushes the sky against the
top margin? Can a comprehensible meaning be assigned to the “Baroque” flourishes at the upper
left of these canvases? Or to the sagging wave? And is an expanded, fragmented middle a sign of
exclusion? The intensely seen little town in The Suicide’s House and similar paintings is in the
upper center, the place which in a portrait is occupied by a face. Are we then to see figural
allegories in the landscapes? Is the splayed V a sexual invitation or trap?
And does it make sense to claim that these forms are uniformly unconscious? Rilke
thought that “the two processes, that of visual perception… and that of the… personal utilization
of what is perceived, counteract eachother [in Cézanne] so that neither is too conscious.” Every
painter knows that one can be dimly aware of forms like these, or not see them at all until
someone points them out. Cézanne may have pondered his attraction to crowded centers, and he
may never have given his right margins a thought. Here as everywhere else, we have no criteria
for separating the recognised from the unseen, and therefore we have no justification for lumping
them in one camp or the other.
The incommensurability of these forms speaks of “radical alterity”: it is exactly what one
would expect of the unconscious, whose contents are unknowable and whose utterances must be
disguised. In a Freudian dynamic, the abyss, the wave and their companions would require
reference to “deeper” causes: perhaps the primal fantasies (castration, seduction, intrauterine
existence, primal scenes) or the aftermath of infantile sexuality and the Oedipus complex. These
sources can still be implied in texts that remain at some distance from psychoanalysis. Fried
names sexual and somatic impulses without invoking psychoanalysis, and Kristeva’s “Giotto’s
Joy” stresses the somatic origins of color and lets more specific Freudian doctrines fade into the
background. In the clinical setting, it might be possible to resolve them, and we could make
similar attempts by recalling the salient facts about Cézanne’s family. But psychoanalytic art
criticism, as Laplanche has said, is a discipline distinct from psychoanalysis, and one condition
of its separateness is the lack of the clinical exchange. In addition, assigning drives to their
sexual and familial roots produces the kind of impoverished, almost mechanical artist we have
seen in Leonardo, Michelangelo, Mondrian, and others. Freud’s aesthetic investigations are
replete with undecided issues, one clanking against the next. In the Leonardo there is a phallus, a
kite, an Egyptian goddess, a parataxis, a history of homosexuality. In the essay on
Michelangelo’s Moses, there is Oedipus, Morelli, Julius, and a finger on a strand of hair. Even
the theoretical essays whip up odd concoctions. The second essay on the unconscious
compresses blackheads, penises, schizophrenia, and philosophy. A strongly coherent theory in
these arenas must be modelled on our fiction of transparent unified conscious intentionality—
exactly the wrong theoretical model for ideas that we mean to say are unconscious.
Why, then, press the signs of an unruly, unknowable psyche into the domestic coherence
of a conscious persona? Fried and Kristeva, among others, decline dogma in this fashion, but
both hope to obtain something coherent from something puzzling. I mean to suggest that a
further possibility exists. We can allow our artists to be complex, provocative, and genuinely
intriguing, and at the same time use the possibilities that psychoanalysis has opened to us, if we
refuse to be seduced by the etiologies and personal narratives of clinical practice. The result is
not confusion or impressionism, but complexity, and its openendedness acknowledges our love
of questions whose answers would be crass.
Envoi
I have tried to cast doubt on psychoanalytic art historians’ penchants for theory and
closure. The most promising psychoanalytic art criticism is gentle but precise with its allusions
to the Freudian corpus, circumspect in its archaeology of intention, and vigilant of the historical
nuances and biases regarding the unconscious (for example, Leja [1990]).
Here are three kinds of questions that can be addressed to the idea that what is important
(pleasureful, noteworthy, privileged for investigation, fertile for inquiry) about artistic creation is
precisely (originally, preëminently) what is unconscious:
First, is this correct? How can we decide what is conscious and what unconscious in a
work? According to what criteria, with what history of judgments, do we value unconscious over
controlled elements?
Second, is this helpful? Do we understand our artists better? Can we now read the works
with greater mastery, eloquence, or precision? Does psychoanalysis aid or enrich our “native”
discourse?
And third, is this interesting? Are we seduced by new difficulties, new terms, new
categories? Are we given fresh reasons to study paintings, to take pleasure in them, to learn to
love them?
Since the subject is psychoanalysis, it is not inappropriate to end by suggesting that there
are opportunities here for selfanalysis. Why does art history’s fascination with psychoanalysis
continue unabated? The simple fact that I have written this essay shows my own interest, even
though I do not disagree with Derrida when he says that “we never dreamed of taking
seriously… the metapsychological fable” (Derrida, 1972, 117). It can hardly be the case that we
import Freud merely in order to be able to describe a wider range of phenomena: we also desire
greater complexity, and with that desire we are once again enfolded in the dubious blanket of
psychoanalysis.
References
BRION–GUERRY, L., 1978. The Elusive Goal. Cézanne, The Late Work, ed. W. Rubin. New
York: Museum of Modern Art.
DERRIDA, J., 1972. Freud and the Scene of Writing. trans. J. Mehlman, Yale French Studies 48:
73–117.
EISSLER, K. R., 1961. Leonardo da Vinci: Psychoanalytic Notes on the Enigma. New York:
International Universities Press.
FREUD, S., 1900. The Interpretation of Dreams. S.E. 5.
FREUD, S., 1911. The Unconscious. S.E. 14.
FRIED, M., 1990. Courbet’s Realism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
FRY, R., 1952. Cézanne, A Study of His Development. London: Hogarth Press.
GEIST, S., 1988. Sidney Geist, Interpreting Cézanne. Cambrdge, Mass.: Harvard University
Press.
GINZBURG, C., 1980. Morelli, Freud and Sherlock Holmes: Clues and Scientific Method.
History Workshop 9: 11 12.
KRAMER, M., 1970. A Study of the Paintings of Vermeer of Delft. Psychoanalytic Quarterly
39: 389 426.
KRISTEVA, J., 1987. Giotto’s Joy. Calligram, ed. N. Bryson Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
LAPLANCHE, JEAN, 1976. Life and Death in Psychoanalysis, trans. J. Mehlman. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press.
LEJA, MICHAEL, 1990. Jackson Pollock: Representing the Unconscious. Art History 13 no. 4:
542–565.
LIEBERT, R., 1983. Michelangelo: A Psychoanalytic Study of his Life and Images. New Haven:
Yale University Press.
NIEDERLAND, W., 1976. Psychoanalytic Approaches to Artistic Creativity. Psychoanalytic
Quarterly 45: 185 212.
REFF, T., 1962. Cézanne’s Bather with Outstretched Arms. Gazette des BeauxArts ser. 6, vol.
LIX: 173 90.
RICOEUR, P., 1970. Freud and Philosophy. New Haven: Yale University Press.
SCHAPIRO, M., 1952. Paul Cézanne. New York: Harry N. Abrams.
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STEINBERG, L., 1984. Shrinking Michelangelo. New York Review of Books, 28 June: 41 45.
Captions
[Note to the editor: these are not in any particular order. They may be placed in the text where
appropriate.]
1
Michelangelo, Last Judgment, detail of center. 1534–41. Rome, Vatican. All photos:
author.
2
Michalengelo, Doni Tondo. 1503. Florence, Uffizi.
3
Michelangelo, The Drunkenness of Noah, detail from the Sistine Ceiling. 1508–12.
Rome, Vatican.
4
Coubet, Wounded Man. c. 1844–54. Louvre, Paris.
5
Cézanne, The Picnic. c. 1870–71. Private collection.
6
Cézanne, L’Estaque, Melting Snow. 187071. Switzerland, private collection.
7
Cézanne, Houe of the Hanged Man, Auvers–sur–Oise. 187273. Paris, Musée d’Orsay.