HANDBOOK FOR PROJECTS: DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT AND FUNDRAISING pptx

HANDBOOK FOR PROJECTS:

DEVELOPMENT
MANAGEMENT
AND FUNDRAISING





Prepared by Dr Anne Touwen
Convener IFUW Special Committee on Project Development
2001


Page

PLANNING PROJECTS 1
PROJECT PLANNING CYCLE 4
PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION 18
EVALUATION 23
FUNDRAISING IS FRIENDRAISING 26
VARIOUS SOURCES OF FUNDING 31
PROJECT PROPOSAL WRITING 38



International Federation of University Women
8, rue de l’Ancien-Port, 1201 Geneva, Switzerland
Tel: (41 22) 731 23 80; Fax: (41 22) 738 04 40

E-mail: ; internet:



FROM THE IFUW PRESIDENT . . .

Project development is an integral part of IFUW’s programme in carrying out its mission to
improve the status of women and girls, promote lifelong education and enable graduate women
to use their expertise to effect change. Over the years IFUW has promoted and supported
project development and training in numerous ways.

It was, in 1919, a small group of IFUW members that established the Virginia Gildesleeve
International Fund for Women designed to support projects world-wide focusing on women’s
educational activities, leadership training and community development. This Fund enabled
IFUW to hold special training workshops in conjunction with IFUW Triennial Conferences as well
as providing grants for many development projects initiated by IFUW affiliates as well as
resources materials such as this handbook.

The Counterpart Aid Programme which started in 1978 and which has evolved into the present
Bina Roy Partners in Development Programme, has assisted many IFUW affiliates in the
development of sustainable community projects as well as enabling affiliates in developing
countries and countries in transition to be part of IFUW.

In 1980-81 IFUW began its partnership with four other major women’s organizations with the
establishment of Project Five-0 dedicated to joint development of projects to provide training in
income generation and general welfare of communities.

In 1980 IFUW established a Special Committee on Projects to “work with national federations
and associations on projects requiring funding from outside agencies” It is interesting to note that
this first Committee developed criteria for a “good” project:

• A project should arise from a genuine, identified need
• A project should usually originate from the grass-roots, and/or be innovative in character
• A project should aim to improve the educational, social and economic position of women,
girls and children
• A project should be within the capability of the affiliate, either alone or in cooperation with
other organizations
• A project should be managed, implemented, evaluated, and reported on by the affiliate’s
members, or, in part, by persons designated to do so by the affiliate and
• A project should increase the self-reliance of the recipients and beneficiaries.

Since 1980 special workshops on project development have been held in conjunction with a
number of IFUW Triennial Conferences and Councils as well as at the regional and national
levels. The residential training provided by the “Base Camp” programmes held in conjunction
with the IFUW Triennial Conferences in Graz,1997, and in Ottawa, 2001, illustrate IFUW’s
continuing emphasis on the importance of training in project development

In 1995 a handbook on organizational development was produced "Planning for Change"; it
included a section on Project Development.

IFUW is grateful to Dr. Anne Touwen for developing and producing this Handbook for Project
Development and Management and Fundraising. It builds on previous experience and work
while providing a comprehensive resource with concrete examples on project development and
fundraising. It is our hope that this resource will assist IFUW members to develop projects that
meet community and organizational needs and further the mission of IFUW world-wide.
Linda Souter, IFUW President 1998-2001

Introduction

Project development always was and still is an important activity for many IFUW affiliates. These
projects may vary in content or scope but not in dedication and commitment shown by
associations, branches and individual members. To strengthen this activity IFUW organized in
1998 (Graz) and 2001 (Ottawa) at its Triennial Conference a major training event under the
name Base Camp. Participants from all affiliates were staying in the same residence and
received training in project development and management, proposal writing and fundraising. The
training also included a practical work assignment.

As Base Camp coordinator and trainer I have been delegated by the IFUW Board of Officers to
prepare a handbook in order to consolidate the training and offer a reference book for future
project development and management in IFUW’s affiliates. IFUW is grateful to the publishers of
the Worldwide Fundraiser’s Handbook (The Directory for Social Change, London) and The
International Donor Directory (International Partnership for Human Development, London) for the
permission to use materials on fundraising and proposal writing, as indicated in the text.

IFUW would also like to express its sincere thanks to UNESCO* for their grant enabling it to
publish this handbook. Together with the grant from the Virginia Gildersleeve Fund Inc., and
CIDA* the UNESCO money enabled us to partly cover travel costs of Base Camp participants as
well.

The Handbook provides a comprehensive overview of the project planning procedure with many
concrete examples. It also gives an overview of the most important skills for fundraising and
describes in detail how proposals should be written. And last but not least, various sources of
funding are discussed.

I hope that you find it useful.

Dr Anne Touwen





* UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
CIDA: Canadian International Development Agency

NB As some of the materials in this Handbook are reproduced from other textbooks, by kind
permission of the publishers as indicated in the text, this Handbook is for internal use only.



Project Development & Management

Project Cycle



Baseline Data
and
Assessing
Needs

Evaluation


Planning


Implementation
and
Monitoring






1
1 PLANNING PROJECTS

1.1 Introduction
Experience shows that when projects are being planned, the task of establishing a sound basis
for goals and objectives, and defining them properly, is not given sufficient attention. Yet, these
are the most fundamental elements of planning. A good plan alone is no guarantee for a good
project. However, a plan which builds on a weak foundation can lead to a good project idea
developing into a poor project.

Project proposals and plans differ in style and in degree of detail on specific activities. The
differences depend on the type of project, but many are also matters of choice. Some prefer a

loose framework plan with details to be filled in along the way. Others prefer a more detailed
master plan. When one considers applying for donor funding then certainly a well written,
detailed project proposal has to be made. Regardless of what is chosen, the essential elements
described below will make up the basis for the project document.

Important aspects which should be considered in all development-related project proposals are
gender, the impact on the environment and sustainability. They ensure greater viability and
impact/effect of our efforts. Before describing the various steps in the planning process I first will
discuss these issues in some more detail.

1.2 Integrating Gender in Community Related Project Planning
The community development approach, designed to create conditions of economic and social
progress, emphasises the significance of people's participation, needs orientation, self-reliance,
consciousness-raising, bottom-up approach to development, and empowerment of communities,
and thus of both women and men.

Integration and sustainability are keywords in this approach which is based on the ideal situation
that women and men organise themselves in a democratic manner to: (a) define their needs,
problems and issues; (b) develop plans and strategies to meet these needs, and (c) implement
such plans with maximum community participation to reap the benefits.

"Participation" of women and men provides an effective means to mobilise resources, to tap
knowledge and energy, and above all provides legitimacy to the project or activity, and promotes
commitment and ownership, and thus sustainability.

"Empowerment" is a concept that goes beyond participation. It is a process which promotes the
sharing of power. Therefore, empowerment helps people to liberate themselves from mental and
physical dependence. It is the ability to stand independently, think progressively, plan and
implement changes, and accept the outcomes. Empowerment of women is a crucial aspect of
any community development programme/project.

Gendered community development, therefore, takes women's interests and needs as a starting
point as much as those of men. And, consequently, integrates gender in all phases of the project
cycle, from planning to implementation to evaluation.



2
Gender-sensitive Project Planning
Gender-sensitive planning requires that gender is integrated into all the planning steps, from the
collection of data for a situational analysis and needs assessment to the evaluation of the project
at the end.

In gender-sensitive project planning we, therefore, have to:
• Collect gender-sensitive data and do a gender-sensitive situational analysis,
• Do a gender sensitive needs assessment,
• Develop projects which take into account the different needs and interests of women and men,
• Perform gender-sensitive monitoring and evaluation.

To involve women in a local planning process a few basic rules apply:
• Meet the women where they are, for instance, organise meetings at a time which is
convenient to them (not when they are busy harvesting),
• Start with issues concerning everyday life (their practical needs),
• Underline the "all win" situation of the participation of women,
• Recognise the importance of face-to-face contact,
• Strengthen the women's confidence in themselves, ensure that their voices are heard
and that their input is taken seriously,
• Arrange small self-governing groups and provide the necessary skills training,
• Stimulate associations or encourage them to join existing organisations that promote the
interests of women and open up channels for funding,

• Move from dreams to visions to plans to action: make all your planning action-oriented
and use strategic alliances to strengthen your position.

1.3 Environmental Considerations
By environment is understood the totality of conditions, circumstances and influences
surrounding and affecting the development of any organisms. In the case of human individuals,
and communities, our environment is made up of both natural and humanly created or built
environments. At the global scale, our environment is the planet, at the local level it is the
surrounding natural ecosystem. Households in societies in transition to an urban, industrial
economy develop adaptive strategies making use of a combination of natural environment
resources and income from work to buy the necessities of life. It is women who very often
manage this economy, making use of whatever resources are available. Urbanisation places a
burden on these already vulnerable households in that the environment in which people live is
extremely unhealthy and the possibilities for food production are extremely limited.

The fundamental human right to subsistence, therefore, includes the rights of women to use land
in order to have a means of livelihood either from natural resources or from income generating
activities. This was recognised by the UN when the Women's Action Agenda 21 was drawn up
for the UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, 1992.

The sustainable use of natural resources is impossible without consideration of gender relations and
issues. Too often better environmental management does not benefit women, on the contrary, it is
sometimes at the expense of women; they provide the labour, without gaining the benefit.

Projects should always be screened on possible environmental impacts from a gender-sensitive
perspective.

3
Community Project Development Model



Baseline Study
Needs Assessment
Goals and Objectives
Feasibility Study (Resources&Constraints)
Planning Project Activities
Activity
Plan
Time
Frame
Responsibilities
Facilities, Services

and
Equipment
Budget
Implementation
Coordination Monitoring
Contingency
Management
Evaluation


4
2 PROJECT PLANNING CYCLE

The project cycle consists of five distinct phases:
1. Collecting Baseline data: a situation analysis and resource charting
2. Needs Assessment
3. The Design phase: developing an action plan, a feasibility study
4. Implementation, including monitoring progress
5. Evaluation

In this chapter the first three phases are discussed.

2.1 A Baseline Study and Situational Analysis
The situation analysis aims at describing problems and needs within an area, and charting the
local resources available to do something about them.

A good initial situation analysis is necessary for good project implementation. Goals, activities,
and resource inputs are all meaningless without understanding the context of the target group:
the environment, values, and relationships. All planning must therefore be based upon
knowledge of the real situation, and of the various factors which have formed it.

The situation analysis is an activity which can firmly link planning to the realities in the field, and
thereby to the implementation of the project. The findings should guide and -define the content of
the project formulation. If this does not happen, a situation easily develops where what was
planned is not implemented, and what is implemented was not planned.

Often, an NGO (non-governmental organisation) comes to an area because overwhelming
problems have come to the attention of the outside world. It is essential to find out what is
perceived as the real problem locally, how problems interrelate, how they have evolved, and
which of the problems are considered most urgent.

It is important to identify the resources available locally. There is no region or group of people

totally devoid of resources. Every group has a history, a way of coexisting with nature, a social
structure, equipment, knowledge and skills, traditions, capital etc. An outsider often experiences
difficulties in getting a complete picture of such locally available resources.

The attitude that everything needs to be supplied from outside should be avoided. Finding ways
to use, supplement and complement locally available resources should be a prime concern.

Plans and decisions must be based on knowledge. However, not all types of data and
information are equally useful. Too much irrelevant information is a common problem.
Inaccurate, extraneous, out-dated or distorted information is of limited use.

Collecting enough relevant information to shed perfect light on every aspect of a problem is a
virtual impossibility. There will always be unclear aspects about which more data can be
obtained, and issues that can be assessed differently, in light of new information. The project
partners must therefore seek to find a balance between too much and too little information.
Research in the traditional sense is not always relevant to planning. Reports often contain too
much information or have significantly different objectives and perspectives. Research can be
too expensive or take too long to carry out. On the other hand, there are too many projects
based solely on information gathered during a short visit by a donor organisation. Sometimes a
short conversation is all, and leads to a project plan and a budget.


5
Obtaining just enough balanced and well-founded information always requires careful
consideration.

When the project idea is formulated by local groups or organisations which themselves are not
part of the target group, preconceived "knowledge of local conditions" can be a problem: It can
lead to quick and easy conclusions which do not take into account the target group's unique
characteristics and possibilities.

Where, on the other hand, the target group itself has taken the initiative, it is often necessary to
contribute by extending the perspective of the planning process to include regional and national
factors.

2.1.1 What Kind of Information?
Every analysis is coloured by the conscious and unconscious assumptions and suppositions
held by the person who reports, analyses and recommends. The principles, traditions, and
attitudes of the initiators influence the choice and use of information from the field. A well-
founded situation analysis can make possible a flow of influence in the other direction -from the
field to the agency. Factual information from the field can help the organisation correct its
perspective, and its attitudes.

It is important to clarify what type of external constraints of a more structural character the
project must relate to at national, regional and local levels. This type of clarification allows for a
more realistic view of what can be expected from a project. Project activities often run into
conflict with such constraints, unless the constraints are acknowledged and taken into
consideration during planning.

If the target group is a local community, it will most often be appropriate to begin the situation
analysis right there, and then extend the perspective gradually. If the target group is harder to
identify at this early stage in planning, it may be more appropriate to start with a defined
administrative or geographical area. The project partners' principal fields of interest greatly
influence the choice of issues, relationships, and processes to focus upon (such as children, the
handicapped, co-operatives, labour unions, ecology etc.).

General information on the local context and the local community as a whole, should always be
included.

In describing particular problems, links and causal relationships to other problems and issues

must be made evident. Several problems may have overlapping causes. Doing something about
some causes at one or more levels may be within reach of the planned project. It is therefore
important to clarify what causes are within range of the project activities and which ones are not -
at least at the outset.

2.1.2 How to Gather Information
One must seek to optimise the knowledge and experience gain from the information gathered
(its relevance, accuracy and suitability), in relation to the investments made to gather it (the time
and money spent). Before beginning, it is therefore important to clarify the following:
What information is not needed? Deciding that certain information is neither wanted nor
necessary, demands courage. In some investigations, far too much information is gathered just
in case it might become useful.
The level of ambition (quantity and quality).
Certain principles are fundamental:



6
Spending time on the first phase of planning is a good investment.
Listen and learn. Allow the local people to express themselves. Consider them teachers and
yourself a student. Assume that they possess important information.
Combine several approaches. Try to approach each question in many different ways. This tends
to correct and enhance the picture. Don't believe that a particular approach is the only right one.
Clarify your assumptions. Try to clarify on which assumptions statements are being made, and
where possible pitfalls are hidden. How, for instance, is the situation analysis coloured by the
sex of team members or of informants, by the route taken by the team, by the time of year the
project area was visited, etc.

2.1.3 Methods of Gathering Information
The following describes various methods of gathering data and information. The reasonably

priced and straight-forward ones should be preferred. In cases where the more complex and
expensive methods must be used, one should evaluate critically which one(s) will be most
appropriate. The approach taken by an external organisation which is just starting up work in a
new partner country will naturally differ from that of a local organisation which is already
established and in operation.

a) Use of available documentary evidence
It is not necessary to re-invent the wheel. In many developing countries, large amounts of
research material and lots of reports exist, but are hardly made use of Identifying possible
sources of such information is an important task. Good places to look are universities, colleges,
research centres, and larger development assistance organisations and multilateral bodies (such
as UN organisations, WHO, World Bank).

The most relevant statistics can often be found in the appropriate government ministry or
planning office, or in an office of national statistics. The quality can vary, and needs to be
assessed. Finding specific data relevant to small local areas is often difficult. However, more
information is usually available than one expects.

b) Observation
Observation includes all forms of direct presence in the project area. "Field visits" are most often
quick visits to the field by one or more representatives of the project partners (increasingly by
consultants as well) with the aim of gaining personal impressions on which to found
recommendations.

A select few master this form, and can in the course of a brief field visit grasp (and later on
express) the essential details in a situation while retaining a clear overall view. For most others,
field visits may seem to have been efficient, but the knowledge gained is at best superficial, and
sometimes completely wrong.

Observation is important and necessary, but not sufficient alone.

Observation can be more or less efficient. Observing in an unstructured manner, like when the
observer aimlessly wanders round talking with people, or is perhaps just a spectator, is in
general far less effective than structured observation. Preparing a checklist of what is important
to look into, and then observing the same conditions in, several villages, is an example of a way
to structure observation to improve its value.

c) Interviews and seminars


7
The use of interviews is a common way of collecting information. Like observation, interviews
can be more or less structured, depending on the type of information that is required, and the
.planning process itself. Important questions should be properly formulated beforehand. This will
increase the level of accuracy and help make the use of the data more consistent. A general
checklist of issues to be discussed should always be prepared in planning for interviews.

Finding and getting in touch with local key figures can be of vital importance. They know the
country, the people and the area, and can help answer many of the questions which are
connected to the planning phase. Useful resource people are representatives of other
organisations, local and central authorities, social workers, teachers, etc.

Particularly in the planning of local community projects, access to the experience possessed by
the local population is essential. They have a unique and superior knowledge of the plants,
animals, soil conditions, farming methods, social and cultural traditions, etc. Finding and meeting
with people who are in the centre of the local network in one way or another, formally or
informally, is therefore very important.

Interviews should also at tempt to identify conflicts (of interest and otherwise) and differing sets
of values in the area. This will usually mean supplementing other information available by

consciously seeking out groups and individuals who do not ordinarily have the opportunity to
express their wishes, their demands, and their interpretation of the situation.

Group interviews are often advantageous. They allow for contact with more people.
Another advantage is that when trying to obtain sensitive data, the group often has a correcting
and controlling influence.

Panels of experts, or panels with representatives of different groups can also meaning- fully be
used, both to highlight important issues, and for more in-depth discussion on particular areas of
concern.

d) Field studies and investigations
There are many ways of conducting field studies: Local ad hoc investigations can be undertaken
in direct co-operation with the potential target group, perhaps involving other local co-operating
partners, students, teachers or researchers. Investigations of this type can have an informal and
qualitative nature, or a more formal questionnaire can be utilised. The "community diagnosis" (a
much used starting point in the planning of primary health services), is an example of how this
type of investigation can meaningfully be used.

Better methods and more resources, often including special expertise, may be necessary to find
relevant, accurate, and up to date information on people's understanding of themselves and their
living conditions, or in order to analyse particular problem areas in depth.

In the case of larger and more expensive investigations, care must be taken to define a precise
objective, decide upon a clear approach to the problem, and limit the scope according to the
particular need. It is also important to bring the time plan for the investigations into agreement
with the time plan for the rest of the planning process. To be useful, the results from
investigations must be ready in time to aid further planning.

2.1.4 Summing Up

A systematic understanding of the current situation in a given community sets the stage and
provides the basis for any community project. It helps to consider how changes can be made to
achieve certain goals and ideas. A situational analysis is a database for the project and should


8
contain gender-disaggregated data. On the basis of these data a community profile can be
developed.


Data collection for a community profile



Data:
* political/administrative structure
* demographic features and population characteristics
* economic activities
* social stratification and power relations
* organisations and their functions and activities
* leadership pattern and its influence
* cultural facets or traditions
* critical issues and problems


Sources of information are:
* documents or files in government offices/NGOs
* reports of surveys
* community members
* informal leaders in the community

* government officials or formal leaders
* NGO personnel
* politicians or local representatives of the area


Methods:
* document review
* questionnaires
* discussions
* interviews
* observations and informal conversations
* listening to people
* brainstorming sessions


Important points to remember:
* There is no single technique that is appropriate to get information from all sources.
* The best option is to use a variety of techniques.
* The most common techniques are questionnaires, interviews and observations.
* Group discussions are frequently used.



9
2.2 Needs Assessment

Needs assessment deals with the question: Who needs what as defined by whom.

2.2.1 Needs Identification
Needs assessment is one of the critical stages in the project development process, Reliable,

accurate and usable information is needed that reflects the ideas articulated by representative
groups of the target population and other stakeholders in the community. Women and men
should be consulted throughout the process so that both perspectives can be taken into account.
Women's needs often are different from the men's needs and if not taken into account project
planning has a false start. Moreover, consulting the people will stimulate the sense of ownership
when the project will be implemented.

2.2.2 Prioritising Needs
No one can address all identified needs in one project. Therefore, priorities have to be set. This
has to be done with all stakeholders concerned, men and women. See sheet for prioritising
needs

2.2.3 Levelling of Needs
Stakeholders may have different priorities. Then a negotiating process should bring consensus
on which priorities should first be addressed.




Needs
Assessment
Identification
of
Needs


Deciding on what
needs to be
addressed
Prioritization

of
Needs

Levelling
of
Needs

10
2.3 Project Design

2.3.1 The Target Group(s)
The project plan must define clearly the target group(s) for the project. This seems self evident,
but is nevertheless often given little attention.

Finding target groups already organized at the outset, and ready for discussions and
negotiations about objectives and the means for self development, happens rarely.

In many real-life projects, the target group is somewhat diffuse and sometimes seems nearly
arbitrary. Example definitions are "those who come", and "those we have contact with". Health
projects often fall into this category .The demand for services itself creates the target group.

Choosing not to relate consciously to any particular target group means giving priority to those
who for one reason or another are able to get into contact with the project. This leaves no time
nor resources for those who do not come.

Broad, general terms used to define the target group (i.e. "the poor of the village" or "the poorest
of the poor'), can be meaningful in policy papers, but have no place in concrete project planning.

The situation analysis attempts to broadly outline what the problem is, for whom, and why.
Defining the target group is to ask:

Towards whom can we direct our efforts to do something about the problem?

The target group can be defined according to age, sex, occupation, income group, geographical
area, or membership of a particular social class or other group. Other possible criteria are for
instance peoples level of access to particular services, their nutritional status, etc.

Being conscious of the target group helps focus and concentrate the project effort. The
choice of target group defines limits, and can in some cases erect new social barriers and
improve the situation for some at the expense of others. Local society is seldom homogeneous.
Conflicts, power blocs, and contradictory opinions and needs are part of almost every society.
Care must therefore be taken in making the choice, and in assessing its consequences.

In light of the problems and causal relationships revealed by the situation analysis, and taking
into account the type of assistance the organisation can offer, the following issues need to be
addressed:
• Who should the target group be for real changes in the desired direction to take place?
• What conflicts may arise?
• What structures are already there, or can be mobilised, to enable broad communication
with the target group, and to deal with potential conflicts?

2.3.2 Goals and Objectives
Defining goals is an important part of the planning process. The project ideology of the project
partners, and the prevalent understanding of causal relationships and how they can be
influenced, are usually the most important factors behind the choices made and the limits
decided upon.

The statement of goals for the project should answer the question:
Where do we want to go with the project?



11

Development goals, project objectives and intermediate objectives must relate to the problems
which have been identified in the situation analysis and to the causal relationships described
there.

The target group must play an important role all through the planning process for real
participation to be possible. In fact, the target group should by this stage already have been
involved in the situation analysis, and in finding causal relationships between various problems.

Defining goals and objectives means deciding what problems are to be given priority.

The work of formulating goals must therefore be given the attention it deserves. Achieving
meaningful interaction through the exchange of views between the different parties involved, is
particularly important at this stage. Areas of agreement need to be clarified, and are as of
disagreement must be found and properly related to.

A rough draft of goals and objectives can often be obtained by simply re-formulating the
description of a chain of problems.











Example problem:
Many children die before the age of 5 in the Bhagari Region.

Goal:
To reduce child mortality in the Bhagari Region.
Including something on how much in what time frame makes the goal more specific. For example:
To reduce child mortality by 30% in 3 years.



To be able to do something about the problem, one must find the causal relationships behind it.
By considering all the problems and needs together (as identified in the situation analysis), it is
possible to shed light on how they are linked up and interact, both as causes and consequences
of each other.

Certain causes are immediately obvious to planners. Further research and analysis can reveal
others. Some causes and the connections between them can only be understood by members of
the local community. Therefore, the planners must share their knowledge and the plans they
make with the local community, and the local community must be encouraged to share its
knowledge with the planners.

The goals should as far as possible be realistic, and should take into consideration inherent
constraints. This is often easier said than done. A possible approach is to first make a rough
draft of goals and objectives, then go back and review the causal relationships, the assumptions
made, and the constraints and limitations found. The proposed strategies also need to be re-
assessed in light of the findings. Finally, the goals and objectives are re-formulated, making
them more concrete and more realistic (See also our example).


12

Example:

In the case of the "Bhagari Region", with its high rate of child mortality, a whole range of
problems need to be identified.
Some possible factors:

• The long distance to water; polluted surface water.
• Many mothers being responsible for their families alone; unemployment forces the men
to leave the area.
• Little opportunity to produce food for yourself; arabIe land is being contracted out for
cultivation of cash crops.
• Very few girls attend school long enough or regularly enough to learn to read and write.
Widespread under nourishment among children and adults.
• Long queues and high prices at the 3 health centres in the region.
• Taboos regarding food and disease.

In this case, the immediate causes of the high rate of infant mortality can be identified as:

• Diarrhoea, respiratory infections, measles, under nourishment, tetanus during early
infancy.
• Infectious diseases and under nourishment amplify each other mutually as causes of
death.

The underlying causes seem to be:

• Lack of available basic services ( water supply, health services, education).
• Barriers (economic, attitudes, options) preventing the use of new knowledge full
utilisation of established services.
• Unemployment.
• Unstable and vulnerable nutritional situation due to dependency on outside and
• poor use of limited choices with regard to local production.

To make a good choice of goals and strategy for this project, one would need to know which of
the identified causal factors are given the highest priority by the target and which ones it would
be realistic to try to change.

A rough draft of goals and objectives might look like this:


13

Example

Development Goal:
To improve the living conditions and the quality of life for children and their families in the
Bhagari Region.

Project Objective:
To reduce the infant mortality rate in the Bhagari Region by 30% within 3 year

Intermediate Objectives:

A. To establish basic health services for mothers and children making them available to

75% of the populati
Activities under A:
1 Group work on health, disease and local understanding in 3 pilot villages.
2 Vaccination of children ages 0-3 years with 75% coverage within 3 years.
3 Contact with 75% of pregnant women at least twice during each pregnancy. Etc.

B. To increase the production and availability of nourishing food
.
Activities under B:
1 Establishing opportunities to borrow money for small-scale production initiatives.
2 Establishment of 2 production cooperatives.
3 Nutrition education as part of all activities. Etc.

C. To make better water available within 10 minutes walk to 75 % of the population
.
Activities under C
1 The construction of 10 new small-scale water supply systems.
2 Improving 15 existing wells.
3 Educational program on water hygiene for a total of 25 women's groups. Etc.
on.

Comment:
Intermediate goal B is still not sufficiently well formulated. It is not specific enough to make the
measurement of progress possible. This reflects too poor knowledge about the causal
relationships in the field of food production in the area, and about opportunities to change them.
The suggested activities are therefore only outlines, and the whole issue would need to be
looked closer at during the starting up phase of the project

Summing up:
Determining goals and objectives based on prioritised needs is essential for the successful

completion of a project. They set the direction of the project and are the terms of reference for
monitoring progress and the final evaluation.

A goal defines, very broadly, what is expected of a project and is made up of several objectives
all leading to the achievement of the goal.
Objectives have to be:
• Related to needs


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• Specific
• Clear
• Measurable or quantifiable
• Appropriate
• Achievable/feasible
• Time-bound

2.3.3 A Feasibility Study: Assumptions and Constraints
The situation analysis is meant to give all involved parties an overview of actual needs, practical
constraints, and likely possibilities.

The problems as they relate to the chosen target group were the main consideration in
formulating goals. However, it is important to reconsider them in the light of identified
assumptions and constraints to make sure they are feasible in the given situation.

As part of this reconsideration it is necessary to look at the causal relations which have been
demonstrated. One must find out what external conditions and developments beyond the control
of the project have been assumed at the various levels, and how they might come to influence
the success of the project. Identifying and assessing the assumptions made and the inherent
constraints, makes it possible to adapt goals and to choose the strategies with the best chance

of success.

















Example

Problem:
Qualified personnel are needed for a church-related hospital
Project Idea:
Building a nurses training college
Project Objective:
Establishing a nurses training college with the capacity to graduate 15 nurses per year
Assumptions made:
a) There must be an adequate supply of qualified students who would like to start nurses
training.
b) That a sufficient number of the trainees will (1) complete their training, (2) continue working as

nurses, and (3) want to work at the church hospital.


All the assumptions create uncertainty as to whether the final goal will be reached, i.e.
getting sufficient qualified personnel for the church hospital to ensure high quality nursing care.

The nurses training college project has little control over these factors. Identifying them at the
outset, makes it possible to examine them closely. The risks can be properly assessed, and
possible measures to reduce the risks can be considered.

There are likely to be other constraints in the situation as well. National approval of the nurses
training college may be required. This might for instance limit the range of choices with regard to
the qualifications required of applicants. Or there may be a national quota system for posting
trained nurses. This might mean that the mission hospital's needs might not in the end be
satisfied.


15

Ideally, all assumptions should be identified which may influence whether or not the principal
objectives of the project will be attained. If this can be done, it is possible to assert with a high
degree of certainty that if the required resources are invested, and the assumptions hold, then
the project objectives will be attained.

This kind of analysis makes it possible to accurately analyse the feasibility of the project goals,
and to find out which are the most critical risks, already during the planning phase. It also
constitutes a good basis for choosing what factors to monitor closely during the implementation
of the project.
The process is as follows:

After determining goals and objectives on the basis of prioritised needs, it is essential to take
stock of the needed and available resources (human, material, financial, institutional), as well as
the constraints that may be encountered in attempting to achieve the objectives.
This involves a feasibility study to decide whether the necessary human, institutional and
financial resources are available and what constraints could negatively influence the project.
Cultural concepts about gender relations could, for instance, be a constraint for the successful
implementation of the project. If so, this constraint should be dealt with first.

2.3.4 Main Strategies
Whereas the goals and objectives spell out where we want to go, strategies and activities
together show how we plan to get there.

There are usually several different choices of strategy available, all of which will lead to the
desired objective. A description of goals does not necessarily suggest a way of reaching them.

Most strategies are based on accumulated experience from real project situations. The
popularity of strategies changes with time and place:

Examples from different sectors:
In agriculture, there was a time when centres with demonstration plots were common. More
recent projects have often chosen to emphasise decentralised farm advisory services
In health, the main strategy used to be to improve medical facilities. More recently, preventive
medicine has been emphasised. At present, combining preventive and curative medicine is the
trend.

Possible choices in health include: Institutional and mainly curative medicine; integrated services
mainly focused on primary health; concentrated efforts directed towards mother and childcare,
etc.

Social services were once considered important to improve the living conditions and the quality

of life of the poorest population groups. More recently, stimulating entrepreneurship to increase
economic activity has often been favoured.

A strategy for community development which has become popular in the 1980's is characterised
by decentralisation of initiative, activities and responsibility. This type of strategy carries with it a
whole range of inherent assumptions and consequences.

The term "vertical project" has been used to describe sector inputs consisting of single
components within a given sector. Examples are malaria control, family planning, adult literacy
training for school leavers, etc.



16
"Integrated projects" include a whole range of components (within a specific sector, or cross
sectoral) which actively interact. The components are seen as a functional and administrative
whole (e.g. "integrated rural development").

Most project strategies have both strengths and weaknesses. The choice between them
should be made according to the project goals and according to the general context of the
project.

The description of goals and the analysis of assumptions and constraints both contain valuable
background information for making these choices. For example, a nutrition program might
benefit from an integrated strategy, whereas leprosy might best be dealt with through a vertical
project -of course co-ordinated with other health services.

The choice of strategy is important, and should be considered carefully. It has important
implications for the priority given to different means and project components, and should
harmonise with what is generally emphasised by the different parties involved (including the

future project management). All the project partners, including the target group, should therefore
participate in the process of choosing strategy.

It is often fruitful to discuss alternative strategies in order to find the one which offers the best
chance of success.

The choice of a main strategy should be described in the project document, and thereby help
ensure continuity. Changes of main strategy along the way must be possible, but should only be
made consciously, and should be well founded in relation to the initial terms' reference for the
project.

The project strategies will help bridge the gap between the basic development philosophies and
principles of the organisations, and the choice of goals, target groups and inputs for individual
projects.

In describing the project's main strategy, the project document should specifically clarify:
• strategies in relation to women's participation
• strategies in relation to environment and sustainability

These two concerns, and the consequences of the strategies employed to deal with them,
are considered so important to the sustainability of the development process that they always
need to be addressed carefully.

All strategies should be analysed with sustainability in mind, attempting to predict both the short
term and the long-term effects of project inputs into the local society - ecologically, economically,
socially and culturally.

2.3.5 Action Plan
Planning project activities involves the following steps:

1) Identifying activities. Identifying project activities is the most important step in the project
planning phase and should involve all the stakeholders, men and women, in a participatory
way. The activities should be based on the objectives, taking into consideration the
resources and constraints.
2) Sequencing activities.
3) Determining human, financial and material resources.


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4) Developing a time frame for activities. The time frame should include a monitoring schedule.
5) Monitoring and Evaluation

To help you develop an action plan use the following checklist:
• What are the activities to accomplish the objectives?
• Why is the activity taking place?
• For Whom is the activity?
• Who is doing the activity? Which human resources do we use?
• Where is the activity taking place?
• When is the activity taking place?
• Who is responsible for coordination/implementation?
• How is monitoring and evaluation assured?
• What is the budget?

After the design has been made it should be written down as a project plan and, when external
funding is needed, a project proposal should be prepared, including a detailed budget.

The budget should include an estimate of the services, equipment, facilities, and materials that
can be contributed by the beneficiaries (both in-kind and financial contributions), so that: the
community knows the value of its own contribution, donor agencies can see how much the
beneficiaries are contributing, because they often require matching funds, ownership is

reinforced.

For guidelines on funding and proposal writing, see chapters 5-7.




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3 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION

Project implementation involves a number of activities. Among the major activities are securing
community participation for launching the project, co-ordination of activities, monitoring, and
taking care of contingencies. These activities are usually the responsibility of a project manager/
coordinator or a project management committee.

Project management includes various management functions as summed up on page 19.

Of all these management activities three will be singled out: co-ordination, team-building and
monitoring progress.

3.1 Co-ordination
Co-ordination is the process whereby two or more people/organisations work together to deal
collectively with a shared task. The responsibility for co-ordination may be assigned to a single
individual or a team/group of individuals, in consultation with all the parties concerned. Co-
ordination would the major responsibility of a project coordinator, heading a project team.

The rationale for co-ordination is:
• To achieve the objectives of the project with a minimum amount of constraints.
• To take immediate corrective action for problems encountered in the implementation of
the project.

• To promote better relationships among organisations, institutions, departments and
individuals connected with the project and to harmonise resources and activities for the
achievement of project objectives.
• To establish cordial relationships between the target population of a project and all the
other sections, including the political leadership.

The following questions should be asked:

1) Co-ordination among whom?
2) What problems could come up in attempting to co-ordinate activities?
3) What needs to be done or what mechanisms should be set up to prevent such problems and
promote co-ordination?

Co-ordinators should have leadership qualities because they need to encourage people to act
purposefully toward realisation of the project's goals and objectives.

This requires certain leadership qualities:
• to motivate people in such a way that they feel positive about their responsibilities;
• to delegate and assign responsibilities to people
• to manage conflict to make sure that differences are addressed and effective working
relationships are developed;
• to communicate information so that people have the information they need to perform
their work effectively and efficiently.

Project co-ordinators should be flexible and able to adapt to changes within and outside the
organisation and manage change to encourage creativity and flexibility in achieving program
objectives.

19




Project management
1


a) Planning

Planning is making decisions about which courses of action to follow. It includes the following
activities:
• Establishing objectives to determine the end result;
• Developing strategies to determine how to reach objectives, by when, and by whom;
• Preparing budgets to determine the cost of using resources;
• Establishing policies to have standing decisions on recurring situations;
• Establishing standards to ensure continued quality of services and products.

b) Organising

Organizing is developing relationships and allocating responsibilities within the organisation.
It includes the following activities:
• Developing organizational structure to establish accountability within the
• organization through clear reporting and supervising relationships;
• Establishing teams that work together to reach objectives;
• Establishing job descriptions to ensure that roles and responsibilities are clear;
• Determining staff activities to carryout work plans.

c) Staffing

Staffing is filling positions within the organizational structure. It includes the following activities:
• Recruiting people with appropriate qualifications for positions in the organization;
• Orienting new people to their positions to help them learn about their responsibilities, the
relationships within the organization, the organization 's goals and objectives, and the
culture of the organization;
• Providing training when necessary to upgrade people's skills.

d) Controlling

Controlling means managing activities to ensure progress toward the program objectives. It
includes the following:
• Measuring progress of project by comparing the current situation with established goals
and objectives;
• Submitting reports to account for project activities and finances;
• Monitoring performance to document the way people carry out their responsibilities;
• Providing feedback to people on a regular, informal basis, including positive feedback and
constructive criticism;
• If the project employs staff regular performance appraisals should be organized to formally
assess the way people work and extent to which they produce results, and to give them
feedback about their work;
• Adjusting plans to respond to changes in the internal and external organizational
environment.

1
Source: CEDPA, Supervision, 1996: 5/6
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3.2 Team-building
A team is an energetic group of people (two or more) who are committed to achieving common
goals, who work well together and enjoy doing so, and who produce high quality results. In a

team, the whole is more than the sum of its parts. The team is more than just the sum of
individual efforts. The team combines the individual talents with a positive team spirit to achieve
results.

The two most universal characteristics of teams are:
• the production of outstanding results and success in spite of difficulties, and
• members feel responsibility for the team and work to resolve problems and clear
difficulties out of their way.

These characteristics can be broken down into the successful ingredients of a team.

1. Open, honest communication based on trust and caring. Team members are sensitive in
how they communicate to their team mates, particularly in difficult or conflict situations.

2. A complimentary blend of skills and talent that allows the team to work cooperatively
together, building interdependence among the members.

3. A high degree of tolerance, mutual respect, trust and support which allows individuals to take
risks and challenge their abilities.

4. An understanding of and commitment to a common purpose and goals. Individual goals and
objectives align with team goals to ensure balance in meeting team and individual needs.

5. The challenge and capacity to achieve results, make decisions and produce results
efficiently.

6. An efficient and flexible structure and leadership which allows the team to work toward
achieving results without confusion of roles and responsibilities. The shifting roles between
leaders and followers exemplify this characteristic.

7. The enjoyment of working together based on team spirit, pride, rituals and symbols.

8. The ability to take strength and energy from each other, and to celebrate successes and
share failures together.

Team leaders have to be skilful at balancing different functions. The leader is faced with the
need to balance the accomplishments of results, with the needs of individuals (team members)
and thirdly, with the need for members of the team to work together as a group. She/he can
enhance the team spirit by developing a shared purpose and positive work climate in the group.
Important also is the way of dealing with conflict or non-achievers. Conflict is neither good nor
bad, but can get out of hand of we do not handle them constructively.

Giving and Receiving Feedback
We naturally give feedback to other people when we interact with them on any project or activity,
sometimes making a positive comment and sometimes criticizing what they have done. Both
positive and negative feedback are important to effective communication and group work, but
they are only effective if the feedback is given and received in a constructive manner.
Constructive feedback is information that a person can use to solve problems, improve
performance, or work more effectively with others.


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It is not easy to give and receive constructive feedback. The principles presented here will help
you manage potential (or existing) conflict, be direct about what you think, and still maintain
mutual respect.

See annex 2 for tools for team assessment and giving and receiving feedback.

3.3 Monitoring

An important part of the work of a project co-ordinator is monitoring progress.

Monitoring is the process of routinely gathering information on all aspects of the project.
Monitoring provides managers with information needed to:
• Analyse the current situation
• Identify problems and find solutions
• Discover trends and patterns
• Keep project activities on schedule
• Measure progress towards objectives and formulate/revise future goals and objectives
• Make decisions about human, financial, and material resources.

Monitoring is continuous. A monitoring system should be in place before project start-up and
should be scheduled on the project work plan.

First Level Monitoring
The first level of monitoring is done by project staff. The project managers are responsible for
monitoring the staff and tasks under them, and the project co-ordinator is responsible for
monitoring all aspects of the project.

A monitoring report should:
• Contain a list of the activities to be monitored (derived from the plan),
• List the duration and deadlines for completion of different activities,
• State the methods of monitoring the activities,
• State the current progress on steps taken so far,
• State the barriers confronted, if any,
• Suggest solutions to overcome them.

Monitoring can be carried out through field visits, review of service delivery and commodities
records. Whatever form is chosen monitoring reports always record any problem the project
team has and plans to correct these problems. One also has to point out any changes in the

original goals, objectives or activities and explain this change in direction.

Second Level Monitoring
The second level of monitoring is done by the donor(s). Through field visits and routine reports
from the project manager, the donor monitors progress and measures performance. This
includes financial reporting.

Summing up:
The rationale for monitoring a project is:
• To know whether the various activities are undertaken as specified in the project plan.
• To know whether materials and other inputs are reaching the specific places in due time.
• To know whether the unexpected issues/problems are occurring.