EFL teachers perceptions of learner autonomy and the use of teaching strategies to promote learner autonomy at senior high school in ba ria vung tau province master of TESOL

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

BARIA-VUNGTAU UNIVERSITY

EFL TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF LEARNER
AUTONOMY AND THE USE OF TEACHING
STRATEGIES TO PROMOTE LEARNER AUTONOMY
AT SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS IN BA RIA VUNG TAU
PROVINCE

Nguyen Thi Huyen Trang
Supervisor: Duong My Tham, Ph. D
Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Arts

Theory and Methodology of English Language Teaching
Ba Ria- Vung Tau University
[04/2022]


MASTER’S THESIS REPORT
Student name: NGUYEN THI HUYEN TRANG

Sex: Female

Date of birth: 05/03/1988

Place of birth: Ba Ria Vung Tau Province

Major: English Language

Student code: 18110102

I- Thesis title:
EFL TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF LEARNER AUTONOMY AND THE USE OF
TEACHING STRATEGIES TO PROMOTE LEARNER AUTONOMY AT SENIOR
HIGH SCHOOLS IN BA RIA VUNG TAU PROVINCE

II-Objectives and contents:
This study aims at investigating perceptions of learner autonomy in language
teaching and learning in the Vietnamese EFL context, particularly in senior high
school levels. The research objectives are as follows:
- To explore perceptions of learner autonomy held by senior high school EFL
teachers in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province.
- To examine teaching strategies the teachers have used to promote learner
autonomy in an EFL classroom.
This study was conducted at 14 high schools (including both public and private
high schools) in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province where there are more than 110 highschool teachers of English. In order to gain the results, I applied the mixed method:
quantitative and qualitative, two instruments were used: questionnaire and semistructured interview for the collection of the data.
III- Starting date: (as stated in the Decision issued by the University)
IV- Completing date:
..............................................................................................................
V- Academic supervisor: DUONG MY THAM, Ph.D.
ACADEMIC SUPERVISOR
((full name, signature)

FACULTY DEAN
((full name, signature)


CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

I certify my authorship of the Master’s Thesis submitted today entitled:
EFL TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF LEARNER AUTONOMY AND THE USE OF
TEACHING STRATEGIES TO PROMOTE LEARNER AUTONOMY AT SENIOR
HIGH SCHOOLS IN BA RIA VUNG TAU PROVINCE

In terms of the statement of requirements for Theses in Master’s programs
issued by the Higher Degree Committee of Faculty of English Language, Ba
Ria Vung Tau University.
Vung Tau City, April 22nd,2022

NGUYEN THI HUYEN TRANG


RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS
I hereby state that I, NGUYEN THI HUYEN TRANG, being a candidate for
the degree of Master of Arts (English Language) accept the requirements of
the University relating to the retention and use of Master’s Theses deposited
in the library.
In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my Master’s Thesis
deposited in the library should be accessible for purposes of study and
research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the
Librarian for the care, loan, and reproduction for theses.
Vung Tau City, April 22nd,2022
Signature …………………………….

NGUYEN THI HUYEN TRANG


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my sincere thanks to those who have supported, encouraged

and assisted me in my thesis completion.
First of all, I would like to express my special appreciation and thanks to Ph.D
Duong My Tham, my supervisor, for her great patience, careful guidance, insightful
advice, and constant encouragement through the whole research process. Without her
support and guidance, this thesis would never have been completed.
Secondly, I would like to express my thanks to the school board staff, including the
principals, the vice principals and teachers of English at high schools in Ba Ria Vung
Tau Province who have given me encouragement, support of time and finance and
permission to implement this thesis there.
Last but not least, my deepest and sincerest gratitude goes to my family, including
my parents, my older sister and husband with their unconditional love, understanding
and help.


ABSTRACT
This study aimed to explore EFL teachers’ perceptions of learner autonomy
and the use of teaching strategies to promote learner autonomy at high schools in Ba
Ria Vung Tau Province. The mixed-methods approach was employed in this study,
i.e., both quantitative and qualitative data were collected from questionnaires and
semi-structured interviews.
There were 106 high school teachers of English from 14 high schools in Ba Ria
Vung Tau Province who participated in the survey, and 20 of them were selected
purposively for the individual interviews. As for data analysis, descriptive statistics
(e.g., mean, standard deviation, and frequencies/ percentages) were used to analyse
quantitative data, whereas qualitative data were analysed through content analysis.
Based on the results obtained from the data analysis, there were two findings
which were explored in this study. First, the collected data showed that high school
teachers had good understanding of learner autonomy in four aspects, including
decision-making ability, learner independence, psychology of learning and levels of
learner autonomy. Second, high school teachers applied some teaching strategies for

the promotion of learner autonomy among their students relating to three sub
variables from decision-making ability, learner independence to psychology of
learning. These included giving students rights to make their own decisions about
learning styles, learning materials and activities under the basis of teacher-learner
agreement negotiations; encouraging students to develop learning strategies, study
plans to achieve their own goals, identify their own needs as well as discover the
language concepts by themselves and letting students to evaluate, reflect and monitor
their leaning process as well. Finally, high school teachers found it challenging to
create teaching strategies in relation to learner autonomy because of time limit as
well as scarceness of detailed criteria based on different activities for students’
assessment. Notwithstanding that, teachers still tried their best to develop students’
autonomous learning ability in language learning.
Keywords: learner autonomy, teaching strategies, promotion of leaner
autonomy, high school teachers, Vietnamese EFL classrooms


TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY....................................................................... 3
RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS.............................................................................4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................................5

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................ 6
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..........................................................................................................7
APPENDICES ..........................................................................................................................9
LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................................10
LIST of FIGURES ..................................................................................................................11
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................12

Chapter 1:

Introduction ...................................................................................... 1

1.1

Background of the study .................................................................................................1

1.2

Statement of the problem ................................................................................................3

1.3

Aim and objectives of the study .....................................................................................4

1.4

Research questions..........................................................................................................5

1.5

Scope of the study...........................................................................................................5

1.6

Significance of the study ................................................................................................6

1.7

Definitions of key terms .................................................................................................6

1.8

Organization of the thesis ...............................................................................................7

Chapter 2:

Literature Review ............................................................................. 9

2.1

The shift from teacher-centred to learner-centred approach ...........................................9

2.2

Learner autonomy .........................................................................................................12

2.3

The role of learner autonomy towards teaching and learning process ..........................15

2.4

Teaching strategies to enhance learner autonomy ........................................................17

2.5

Previous research ..........................................................................................................20

2.6

Conceptual framework..................................................................................................23

2.7

Summary .......................................................................................................................24

Chapter 3:

Methodology.................................................................................... 25

3.1

Research design ............................................................................................................25

3.2

Research site .................................................................................................................26

3.3

Sample and sampling procedures .................................................................................27

3.4

Research instruments ....................................................................................................29

3.5

Data collection procedures. ..........................................................................................31

3.6

Data analysis procedures ..............................................................................................32

3.7

Reliability and Validity.................................................................................................34


3.8

Pilot Study ....................................................................................................................35

3.9

Summary .......................................................................................................................36

Chapter 4:

Results and Discussions.................................................................. 37

4.1

Results ..........................................................................................................................37

4.2

Discussion .....................................................................................................................55

4.3

Summary .......................................................................................................................60

Chapter 5:

Conclusion and Recommendations ............................................... 61

5.1

Summary of the main findings of the thesis .................................................................61

5.2

Pedagogical implications ..............................................................................................63

5.3

Limitations ....................................................................................................................64

5.4

Recommendation for the further research ....................................................................65

References ................................................................................................................. 66
Appendices ................................................................................................................ 75


APPENDICES
Appendix A1: Questionnaire for Survey (English Version)
Appendix A2: Questionnaire for Survey (Vietnamese translation)

Appendix B1: Interview Protocol (English Version)
Appendix B2: Interview Protocol (Vietnamese translation)
Appendix B3: Sample of interview data analysis (English Version)
Appendix B3: Sample of interview data analysis (Vietnamese translation)


LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1

Demographic information of the participants.

Table 3.2

Cronbach’s Alpha indexes of the questionnaire items
in average

Table 4.1

45

EFL teachers’ perceptions of learner autonomy in term of
levels of learner autonomy.

Table 4.6

43

EFL teachers’ perceptions of learner autonomy in term of
psychology of learning.

Table 4.5

41

EFL teachers’ perceptions of learner autonomy in term of
learner independence.

Table 4.4

40

EFL teachers’ perceptions of learner autonomy in term of
decision-making ability.

Table 4.3

36

The overall results of teachers’ EFL teachers’ perceptions of
learner autonomy.

Table 4.2

30

47

The overall results of teaching strategies to promote learner
autonomy.

49

Table 4.7

Teaching strategies relating to decision-making ability.

50

Table 4.8

Teaching strategies relating to learner independence.

52

Table 4.9

Teaching strategies relating to psychology of learning.

54


LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1

Conceptual framework of the study

25


LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

EFL

English as Foreign Language

MOET

Ministry of Education and Training

SPSS

Statistical Package for Social Sciences


Chapter 1: Introduction
This chapter first presents a background of the study with a brief introduction
of the English language teaching and learning at senior high school level in Ba Ria
Vung Tau Province. The Statement of the problem is followed to raise the gap of the
study context. Then, Purpose of the study is established and research objectives and
research questions are introduced. In addition, Significance of the study, Definitions
of key terms and Organizations of the Study are provided at the end of this chapter.

1.1

Background of the study
The 21st century together with rapid technological evolution and fast

development in the economy and society make huge effects on language education in
the world and in Vietnam. In language teaching and learning, there is a tendency that
traditional classrooms where teachers are described as the centre of the classroom,

the supplier of knowledge and the provider of feedbacks on students’ performance
(Tudor, 1993) are gradually being replaced by learner-centred classrooms. In those
classrooms, students are allowed to make their own decisions, reflections, critical
thinking and analysis for what they learn. This can be considered as a higher level of
learning which has been proved effective and productive towards very learners in a
great many studies in the world.
In Vietnam, an official appeal for the changes in language teaching and
learning has been raised since the launch of national project named “Teaching and
Learning of Foreign Languages in the National Education System, 2008-2020”
(Decision No. 1400/QĐ-TTg, 2008), and then updated on December 22nd, 2017
named “Teaching and Learning of Foreign Languages in the National Education
System, 2017 - 2025” (Decision No. 2080/ QĐ-TTg, December 22, 2017). The
project calls for the renovation of teaching methodology in language classrooms
along with other changes of official language curriculum, new English textbooks and
testing assessment. Also, the project refers to “quality-oriented education” (Li, 2015,
p. 435) and progressive growth in learner-centred language teaching and lifelong
education. Thus, it is extremely necessary to develop students’ autonomous learning

Chapter 1: Introduction

1


ability in language teaching and learning in order for students to get the benefit of
learning for life.
Since the birth of the national project, there is a great deal of attention given to
autonomous learning ability of learners as well as their potentials during learning
process in Vietnam. One of the most important factors of autonomous learning is to
form students’ individualized learning methods, develop their autonomous English
learning ability (Ministry of Education P.R.C, 2003, p.12) and maintain their spirit of

learning during a long learning process. According to Little (1990), once learners can
develop degree of autonomy, they will become the most efficient learners in their
learning journey. However, the degrees and levels of learning autonomy are not the
same to each learner due to the difference in innate ability of each learner
(Dickinson, 1992). Obviously, promoting learner autonomy is much more
complicated than in the real contexts of teaching because this requires not only a
combination of teaching process and learning process in a reasonable way but also a
knowledge of students’ needs and motivation in order to choose appropriate teaching
strategies for different classrooms. (Li, 2015, p. 435).
In the context of Ba Ria Vung Tau Province, the “National Foreign Languages
Project, period 2017 - 2025” (Decision No. 2080/ QĐ-TTg, December 22, 2017)
encouraged the changes in language teaching methodology, especially at high school
levels, Ba Ria Vung Tau Education and Training Department held training courses
for all the high school teachers and appealed them to apply innovative and creative
ways of teaching in order to motivate students to learn independently and actively. In
other words, senior high school teachers are always required to build up learnercentred classrooms where teaching strategies for the promotion of independent
learning among students are put into use on a daily basis. Therefore, the majority of
high school teachers are aware of autonomous learning and its roles in language
education. However, up to now there have no studies which investigates the extent of
senior high school teachers’ understanding of learner autonomy in Ba Ria Vung Tau
Province. Apparently, there should be more research on teachers’ knowledge of
students’ independent learning ability and teaching strategies for the promotion of
autonomous learning among students in order to depict an overall picture of learner
autonomy in the context of language teaching in Vietnam.

Chapter 1: Introduction

2

1.2

Statement of the problem
According to Knowles (2001), one of the primary goals in education in every

society is to instruct and motivate learners to regard learning as a lifelong process
and a self-directed way. More particularly, learners should be encouraged to continue
their education and professional development for the purpose of improving their
knowledge and skills (Europa, 2002) as well as make great efforts on individual
learning journey with the aim of possessing the knowledge themselves instead of
passive observation like they did in the traditional classes. In other words, the role of
learners in their own learning process is more emphasized (Jacobs & Farell, 2003).
Thus, the need for a shift from teacher-centred classrooms in to learner-centred
classrooms in order to get the important objectives related to autonomous learning in
education achieved is highly evaluated in a great many countries in the world.
Relating to teachers’ perceptions of leaner autonomy, its roles and importance
in the EFL classroom, a large number of studies on this field in academic contexts
have been conducted in the Western and Asian countries, including Vietnam in
recent years (Borg, 2006; Borg & Al-Busaidi, 2012; Duong, 2014; Keuk & Heng,
2016; Haji-Othman & Wood, 2016; Tapinta, 2016; Alhaysony, 2016; Nguyen, 2016;
Dogan & Mirici, 2017). The findings of those research still have not generalized the
whole picture of learner autonomy in teachers’ perceptions because research sites
were at higher education level with participants who are college and university
teachers only. Those studies had some similarities in their research results that the
majority of teachers were in high awareness of the concept of learner autonomy and
the important contributions which teachers made to students’ autonomous learning.
Yet, in some studies, the teachers admitted that they were sometimes discouraged
due to the challenges in the implementation of teaching strategies which aimed to
boost students’ learning autonomously in their own context.
In the context of Vietnam, learner autonomy is a comparatively new concept

which has attracted a lot of interests from some reputed researchers such as Trinh
(2005); Dang (2010) and Duong (2014), etc. However, the contexts of those research
are mainly in the universities where the credit-based system is applied for the
purpose of creating freedom and autonomy of students towards their own learning.
Whereas, there have been little research on the perceptions of teachers towards
learner autonomy and its importance to learning process at high school level;

Chapter 1: Introduction

3


especially, teaching strategies used in the EFL classroom for the promotion of
learners’ autonomous learning have not been paid much attention. Remarkably, since
the launch of the national project named “National Foreign Languages Project,
period 2017 - 2025” (Decision No. 2080/ QĐ-TTg, December 22, 2017), teachers at
lower and higher secondary school levels have had more chances to get access to
knowledge of autonomous learning and ways of enhancing it in EFL classrooms.
This partially creates a lot of changes in language teaching and learning at these two
levels in Vietnam.
The project “National Foreign Languages Project, period 2017 - 2025”
(Decision No. 2080/ QĐ-TTg, December 22, 2017) has made a huge influence on the
administrators of Ba Ria Vung Tau Province in general and Department of Education
and Training, which leads to the increasing attention to the development of learner
autonomy for students in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province; thus, they have taken a variety
of movements in order to appeal the learners’ autonomous learning and lifelong
learning. Also, they have held training courses for teachers to have knowledge of this
field with the aim of raising teachers’ awareness of learner autonomy in the last few
years because it is noticeable that the roles of teachers in inspiring their students’
learning journey is really important. However, there are no studies investigating

whether high school teachers in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province understand the concept,
roles and importance of learner autonomy towards their students’ learning process as
well as teaching practices used in the EFL for the purpose of promotion autonomous
learning.
With all the above concerned, it is really fundamental to conduct a study on
exploring teachers’ perceptions of learner autonomy as well as teaching strategies
implemented in the EFL in order to boost the ability of learning autonomously
among students. The thesis also aimed to make some suggestions relating to learner
autonomy development at senior high school level so that their lessons can be more
effective and interesting.
1.3

Aim and objectives of the study
This study aims at investigating perceptions of learner autonomy in language

teaching and learning in the Vietnamese EFL context, particularly in senior high
school levels. The research objectives are as follows:

Chapter 1: Introduction

4


- To explore perceptions of learner autonomy held by senior high school EFL
teachers in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province
- To examine teaching strategies the teachers have used to promote learner
autonomy in an EFL classroom.
1.4

Research questions

In order to obtain the above objectives, the thesis raises the two following

questions:
1. How is learner autonomy perceived by senior high school teachers in Ba Ria
– Vung Tau Province?
2. What teaching strategies have the teachers used to promote learner autonomy
in an EFL classroom?
1.5

Scope of the study
Learner autonomy has been put into a lot of research at different school levels

in the world and in Vietnam in terms of teachers’ perceptions (Duong, 2014; Le,
2018); learners’ perceptions (Duong, 2014), teaching practices (Hoang, 2012; Le,
2018), and teaching prospects (Asmari, 2013). Thus, this current thesis aimed at
exploring teachers’ perceptions of learner autonomy, examining teaching strategies
used for the promotion of autonomous learning in EFL classroom and making some
suggestions for the development of learner autonomy at senior high school level as
well.
The researcher chose senior high schools in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province as the
research site because of the strong appeal from the government that teachers in EFL
classroom has to give rights to students in terms of choosing their own way of
learning, deciding which knowledge needs investigating, and so on in order that
students are more interested and active in their own learning. As a teacher, the
researcher totally understands about the benefits of autonomy in students’ learning,
but still wants to examine whether high school teachers are in favour of learner
autonomy and willing to apply it in their EFL classrooms or not after some training
courses held by the Education and Training Department.
Methodologically, the mixed method included questionnaire survey and semistructured interviews. All of the research participants are high school teachers in
Chapter 1: Introduction

5


some high schools in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province. Students were not invited to take
part in this study.
1.6

Significance of the study
As mentioned above, this study aimed at investigating senior high school

teachers’ perceptions of learner autonomy, examining teaching practices they have
used promote learner autonomy in an EFL classroom and offering some suggestions
for learner autonomy development at senior high school level as well. Thus, the
study expected to provide both theoretical and practical significance to language
teaching and learning in Ba Ria Vung Tau in particular and in Vietnam in general.
On a theoretical basis, this study makes a big contribution to the literature of
learner autonomy in Vietnam with in-depth information and analysis on teachers’
perceptions in the EFL classrooms. Besides, it will shed light on the promotion of
learner autonomy in the EFL classrooms in terms of teaching strategies which have
been used as well as suggestions which have made by senior high school teachers.
On a practical basis, the results of the study may be beneficial to not only
teachers who are trying to enhance students’ autonomous learning in their EFL
classrooms but also students who are finding ways to learn more autonomously. The
study provides fundamental foundation for learner-centred classrooms now and in
the future so that senior high school teachers can have more motivation and more
understanding of teaching practices for learner autonomy development.
1.7

Definitions of key terms

In order to help elucidate a specific perspective on the discussed issues for the

purpose of the research, some key terms are defined as follows.
Learner autonomy takes place when students are responsible for their own
learning, in terms of what they learn and how they learn it.
Autonomous learning refers to a learning approach in which learners hold
right to control their own learning activities.
Senior high school teachers are those who teach in senior high schools in
Vietnam.

Chapter 1: Introduction

6


Teaching strategies refer to methods or technique which teachers apply to
teach students in the EFL classrooms.
1.8

Organization of the thesis
This study report is divided into 5 chapters as follows:
Chapter 1 provides an introduction to the study with seven indispensable

components of a thesis, comprising background of the study, the statement of the
problem, purposes of the study, research objectives and research questions,
significance of the study and definitions of key terms as well.
Chapter 2 presents literature review with the information related to teaching
approach in autonomous classrooms, then learner autonomy and teaching techniques
for the development learner autonomy in EFL classrooms. Regarding teaching
approach in autonomous classrooms, teacher -centred approach and learner-centred

approach are presented to make a comparison of two approaches and emphasize the
necessary shift from teacher-centred to learner-centred approach. In term of learner
autonomy, its definitions, features, importance and teaching strategies in the
autonomous EFL classrooms are presented in details. Furthermore, this chapter
continues with the prospect of learner autonomy in the EFL classrooms, including
advantages and disadvantages of learner autonomy as well as challenges in the
promotion of autonomous learning. The chapter ends with previous studies on
learner autonomy and teaching strategies related to autonomous learning in EFL
classrooms, and a conceptual framework for this study.
Chapter 3 provides an elaborate description of the research methodology of the
study, including the research design, the research site, the sample and sample
procedures, the research instruments, the data collection procedures as well as the
data analysis procedures.
Chapter 4 presents the results of the study by analysing the data collected from
questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. Then, the study discusses the results
compared and contrasted with the findings in previous studies.
Chapter 5 makes a conclusion on the main findings of the thesis, supplies some
implications and limitations of the research and makes some recommendations for
further research.

Chapter 1: Introduction

7



Chapter 2: Literature Review
This chapter aims at providing an overview of previous research relating to
learner autonomy and use of teaching strategies to promote learner autonomy at
senior high schools. The first part of this chapter mentions the shift from teachercentred to learner-centred approach in order to state the change in English teaching

and learning these days compared to the past and the importance of developing
learner autonomy among students in language education nowadays. Next,
definitions, features and roles of learner autonomy toward English learning are
reviewed through different researchers’ viewpoints. Last but not least, for the
purpose of the promotion of learner autonomy, teaching strategies used in English
classrooms have been presented in the third part. This chapter supplies the
framework of the study at the end so as to make it understandable to viewers.
2.1

The shift from teacher-centred to learner-centred approach

2.2.1 Teacher-centred approach
Teacher - centred learning is a language environment in which teachers are
the most important character who has all right to decide students’ learning process.
Teachers in teacher-centred classes are said to be the information providers and
evaluators as well as monitors while students are those who listen to the lessons or
receive information passively. The purpose of learning in this environment is that
students can perform well on state-mandated tests without caring about students’
desire and motivation (Zohrabi et al., 2012).
Besides, the learning materials and learning activities in EFL classrooms are
mainly grammar oriented with language structures which are used in writing and
reading rather than in listening and speaking. To put it differently, both teachers and
students just focus on textbooks, which make them less motivational, creative and
interactive in teaching and learning (Acat & Dönmez, 2009), not mention to the
experiences students have come from teachers’ lectures; that is why students seem to
be less involved in the lessons and lazier to join and less experienced to share in any
language activities carried out by the teachers.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

9


Generally, teacher - centred learning is only suitable for large size of classes
with well-prepared language materials and less pressure on time lesson preparation
for the teachers. And learning in teacher-centred classrooms is one way direction in
which teacher transfers the knowledge to students without students’ feedback.
2.1.2 Learner-centred approach
Student-centred learning or learner – centred learning is regarded as a pioneer
in the development learning approach. In the learner-centred classrooms, students are
the most important characters which have to be responsible for their learning process
as well as learning quality (Zohrabi et al., 2012). According to Acat & Donmez
(2009), students are taught in a flexible, experiential and self-directed classrooms and
teachers consider students’ needs as the top priority in leaning process.
Moreover, students have opportunities to work in different ways such as in
pairs, in groups or alone. When working alone, students prepare the ideas before the
class discussions, do listening exercises, write short essays, do vocabulary or
grammar exercises. When working in pairs or groups, students join in the
discussions, compare and share the answers, take part in role plays, and so on.
Thanks to pair work or group work, students are able to learn how to cooperate and
interact with partners and participating in learning activities help them to be more
active and creative in their learning.
The roles of teachers in this kind of modern classrooms are to give
instructions, observe the class and give advice when necessary. Teachers do not take
control of learning process of students; instead, students are instructed to take
responsibility for their learning process and learning results. Shortly, learner-centred
approach lets students to explore their ability, explore the knowledge themselves in
different channels outside the class, share knowledge based on their background
experiences and make decisions on what they really need. In other words, students
become more active and motivated in their own learning.

2.1.3 The shift from teacher-centred to learner-centred approach
According to studies on teacher-centred classrooms, students in those classes
had poor motivation, poor autonomy but high anxiety, which led to low learning
outcomes or poor achievement (Amiri & Saberi, 2007; Mermelstein, 2015, as cited in
Kassem, 2019). Duckworth (2009) once mentioned this poor affect in his research

Chapter 2: Literature Review

10


that students’ educational growth was prevented under the influence of teachers’
instructions. Hence, the call for a shift from teacher-to student -centred classroom
has been mentioned by a lot of researchers (Kassem, 2019) for the purpose of
bettering students’ performance and achievement in language learning.
Learner-centeredness has been proved to create learning environment which
enhances students’ autonomous learning because it is able to develop the highest
levels of motivation and achievement among learners (McCombs & Whistler, 1997).
Moreover, the level of learner autonomy depends on various internal and external
factors, including educational system, age, personality, the teacher in leaner-centred
classrooms can get access to students in a more effective way than in teacher-centred
classrooms (Boyadzhieva, 2016).
Besides, in the learner-centred classrooms, students are trained to practice
three principles: learner involvement, learner reflection and target language use
(Little, 2009, p. 224). This results in the ability of autonomous learning among
students; or in other words, students have opportunities to practice skills to be
autonomous learners (Bension, 2001). Sinclair (2000) presents that autonomy among
students is a product which is teachable and takes time to develop (p. 5); plus, it
needs appropriate environment for practice both inside and outside the classroom
(Nunan, 1997, p. 201). Therefore, in order to enhance the benefits of autonomous

learning for students, the shift from teacher to learner -directed environment is a
crucial step in language learning process.
More importantly, according to Dam (2011), “a move from teacher-directed
teaching environment to a learner -directed learning environment” is a development
of learner autonomy in education (p. 41). Once the learning environment is changed,
the roles of students and teachers are also different in new modern context. This can
be called the shift to the new role which requires students more efforts in their
learning process. It is efforts during learning journey that students make are to both
promote readiness “for spontaneous, self-directed, life-long learning” and develop
“the ability of self-assessment, recognition of their strengths and weaknesses as well
as implementation of suitable strategies” into their real contexts of learning (Alrabai,
2016, p. 30). All of those qualities mentioned above are the characteristics of
autonomous learners presented in most of the studies on the relationship between
learner autonomy and learner-centeredness.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

11


Obviously, there has been a great many changes in language education for the
past eighty years, and the move from teacher-centred learning to learner-centred
learning is unavoidable. With this shift, students become more autonomous and get
more motivation during their own language learning journey (Benson, 2001, p.1).
And this is also the most prominent theme which promotes the effectiveness of
learning including active engagement, high motivation, independent efforts, better
learning outcomes (Little, 2003).
2.2

Learner autonomy

2.2.1 Definitions
Back to the history of language teaching and learning, in the 1960s, Gardner
& Miller (1999, p. 6) defines that “learner autonomy” is closely linked to two
elements “the development of life-long learning skills and independents thinkers”. At
that time, no one was able to give a clear and exact definition of “learner autonomy”
or its definitions and interpretations in language learning seem to be subjective
(Bension, 2003). To put it differently, “learner autonomy” is a complex notion which
is considered “as synonymous with individualization” (Benson, 1997).
Until the late of 1980s, “learner autonomy” was officially first defined by
Holec; this term has attracted attention and interest among researchers and
educational practitioners all over the world since then. Learner autonomy in Holec’s
(1981) perspective is the ability of taking charge of one’s own learning (Benson,
2006). During more than forty years until now, this original idea has been developed
and defined in different ways according to the variety of research on both
international and nation extent.
The most commonly definition of learner autonomy which has been used at
the current time is “a capacity and willingness to act independently and in
cooperation with others, as a social, responsible person” (Dam et al., 1990, p. 102).
Dickinson’s (1994) definition of learner autonomy refers to “attitude towards
learning in which the learner is prepared to take, or does responsibility for his own
learning” (p. 167). Whereas, learner autonomy in Little’s (1991) viewpoint is “a
capacity for detachment, critical reflection, decision making and independent action”
(p. 4). The simplest definition of learner autonomy is a “self-management of
learning” or “take charge of one’s own learning” by Benson (2001). According to

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Benson (2001), learner autonomy needs to be understood as abilities and attitudes of
learners during their own learning process (p. 48).
Obviously, the 21st century accompanied with the huge development of
technology and the influence of social and economic factors has made changes in the
definitions of learner autonomy. There are big differences in the researchers’
viewpoints of learner autonomy when compared with ones on the early days.
However, variously as learner autonomy has been defined, this term is confirmed the
most important change in approaches to language teaching and learning. (Jacobs &
Farrell, 2003).
These days, the concept of learner autonomy concentrates on the
understanding between teachers and students (Asmari, 2013). Even, gender is also
put into consideration when defining learner autonomy (Tok, 2011, Varol & Yilmaz,
2010). In applied education nowadays, studies done by Xhaferi and Xhaferi (2011),
Lo (2010), Bayat (2010) refers to the effective ways of fostering EFL learner
autonomy in order to take advantage of this norm in language teaching and learning.
With a diversity of perspectives of learner autonomy by scholars in language
education, this study refers to Benson’s (2001) definition as an operational one in
which students are put into real learning context and trained to practice controlling
over learning management, cognitive process and learning content (p. 76-103).
2.2.2 Features of autonomous learning
The same as definitions of learner autonomy, features of learner autonomy
and autonomous learners in language learning have variously described in some
studies. Dickinson (1987, p. 11) states that autonomous learning refers to “a
particular attitude to the learning task, where the learner accepts responsibilities for
all the decisions concerned with his learning but does not necessarily undertake the
implementation of those decisions”. Similarly, Holec simplifies that autonomous
learning is “the process or the techniques used in directing one’s own learning”. In
the further development of learner autonomy, Little (1995) enhances this notion to be
“the acceptance of responsibility by learners, which has both socio-affective and

cognitive implications” (p. 175).
Similarly, Chan’s (2001) categorization of qualities which autonomous
learners should have include high motivation, oriented goal, good organization,

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