FROM BOOT MONEY TO BOSMAN: FOOTBALL, SOCIETY AND THE LAW ppt

FROM BOOT MONEY TO
BOSMAN: FOOTBALL,
SOCIETY AND THE LAW
Cavendish
Publishing
Limited
C
P
Cavendish
Publishing
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London • Sydney

FROM BOOT MONEY TO
BOSMAN: FOOTBALL,
SOCIETY AND THE LAW
David McArdle, PhD
Research Fellow
De Montfort University
Cavendish
Publishing
Limited
C
P
London • Sydney
First published in Great Britain 2000 by Cavendish Publishing Limited,
The Glass House, Wharton Street, London WC1X 9PX, United Kingdom
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© McArdle, D 2000
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
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the terms of the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms
of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court
Road, London W1P 9HE, UK, without the permission in writing of the
publisher.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
McArdle, David
Football, Society and the Law
1 Sports – Law and legislation – Great Britain 2 Soccer – Law and
legislation – Great Britain 3 Soccer – Social aspects – Great Britain
I Title
344.4'1'09
ISBN 1 85941 437 0
Cover photographs by Ravi Deepres
Printed and bound in Great Britain
For Leo Alexander Daniel.
But don’t eat it all at once.
v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The biggest professional debts of gratitude I owe are to the photographer Ravi
Deepres and Mark James of Manchester Metropolitan University. Ravi kindly
allowed me to use his work for the cover – those interested in his work can
contact him via me or by getting in touch with the Vivid Gallery in
Birmingham. Mark agreed to write the chapter on on-field violence and player

injuries. He has forgotten more about those areas than I will ever know and I
would like to acknowledge his contribution. My sincere thanks to both of you.
Thanks are also due to Professor Trevor Slack, who gave me the
opportunity to work on this project at De Montfort University. Professor
David Lewis took the lead on the research into hotlines, taskforces and codes
of practice during my time as a Research Fellow at Middlesex University
Business School, and I’d like to acknowledge both his support and his
generosity of spirit. Colleagues at Anglia University have provided a wealth
of information on various aspects of this book, notably via their Sports Law
Bulletin, while Liverpool’s Football Research Unit gave me the opportunity to
explore some of these issues with the students on their Football Studies MBA.
Special thanks to Geoff Pearson, Adam Brown, Fiona Miller, Richard
Giulianotti and Gary Armstrong. Thanks also to all at Cavendish, especially to
Ruth Massey for her professionalism. Thanks to Steve Redhead for all sorts of
things and to Guy Osborn and Steve Greenfield for inspiration and witty
banter. The influence of all those people means those expecting The Boys’ Book
of Football Law will, I hope, be disappointed. Sport matters, like it or not, and
perhaps this book will go a little way towards undermining legal academia’s
misplaced intellectual snobbery.
Some of the material discussed in this book received its first public airing
in various academic journals. It is reproduced here with the permission of
those journals. Thanks, then, to the editors and referees of Culture, Sport,
Society, the Cambrian Law Review, the European Journal of Sports
Management, the Nottingham Law Journal and the Web Journal of Current
Legal Issues.
My biggest personal debts are to Anne and Tony McArdle for support
beyond the call of parental duty and to Charity Smith for her love and
inspiration. This book is dedicated to her and to our darling, beautiful,
extraordinary little boy.
David McArdle

East London
October 2000
vii

CONTENTS
ix
Acknowledgments vii
Table of Cases xiii
Table of Statutes xix
Table of Statutory Instruments xxi
Introduction xxiii
1 LAW, LEISURE AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF
MODERN FOOTBALL 1
Introduction 1
Leisure and the civilising process 2
The enclosure laws 7
Conclusion 11
2 ONE HUNDRED YEARS OF SERVITUDE:
CONTRACTUAL CONFLICT IN ENGLISH
PROFESSIONAL FOOTBALL BEFORE BOSMAN 13
Introduction 13
On the parochialism of professional football 15
The FA’s player registration scheme and the Radford case 17
The Football League’s player registration scheme
and the Kingaby case 19
The abolition of the maximum wage and the Eastham case 24
The post-Eastham reforms 27
A blast from the past: Scotland’s player registration system 28
Conclusion 29
3 ‘THEY’RE PLAYING R SONG’: BOSMAN

AND BEYOND 31
Introduction 31
A history of the EC and its institutions 31
Sports cases in the ECJ before Bosman 35
The transfer and quota systems pre-Bosman 37
The immediate impact of Bosman at governing body level 45
The immediate impact of Bosman at domestic club level 48
The EU bodies’ impact on sport 50
Recent and possible future developments 53
Conclusion 58
4 MISSING THE TARGET: LEGAL RESPONSES
TO ‘FOOTBALL HOOLIGANISM’ 61
Introduction 61
A gendered sense of space 62
From Boot Money to Bosman: Football, Society and the Law
x
A manor maketh man 64
The resistible rise of Harry the Dog 67
‘Let’s go for a walk round’ 69
Sentencing the ‘hooligan’ 71
Legislative responses to ‘football hooliganism’ 76
Conclusion 86
5 CROWD CONTROL OR CUSTOMER CARE? 89
Introduction 89
Secrets and lies 90
Stadium safety a decade after Hillsborough 94
From segregation to surveillance 97
The role of the safety officer 97
Safety officers’ perceptions of stadium safety 100
No Valuable Qualification 103

The future of agency stewards 107
Conclusion 111
6 FIGHTING TALK: CHALLENGING RACISM
IN FOOTBALL 113
Introduction 113
Which side are you on, boys? 113
The Football Taskforce’s research into racism 117
The governing bodies’ responses to the Taskforce Report 122
The Kick-It campaign 123
Conclusion: a draft equal opportunities code of
practice for football clubs 128
7 SEX DISCRIMINATION, EMPLOYMENT LAW
AND THE PROFESSIONAL GAME 131
Introduction 131
A brief overview of anti-discrimination law 132
Direct discrimination in non-competitive sports employment 134
Discrimination in competitive sports employment 136
The Hardwick case 139
Conclusion 143
8 PLAYER VIOLENCE AND INJURIES 145
Introduction 145
Sports violence, the ‘manly virtues’ and the law 145
The increase in the use of the law 149
Criminal law 151
Contents
xi
Defences 156
Tort 160
Liability of officials for injuries to players 166
Conclusion 170

9 JUDICIAL REVIEW, ‘PUBLIC AUTHORITIES’
AND THE DISCIPLINARY POWERS OF
GOVERNING BODIES 173
Introduction 173
The judicial review procedure 174
Sports bodies’ disciplinary powers 178
‘Public bodies’, sports bodies and the Human
Rights Act 1998 181
Ex p Datafin, Law and the ‘public’ nature
of monopoly sports bodies 182
Conclusion 185
10 PARTICIPATION AND THE LAW OF
EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES 187
Introduction 187
The women’s game 188
Football and the national curriculum 191
Women, sport and affirmative action 194
The legislative and interpretative history of Title IX 196
The future of women’s football: affirmative action
or an in-house revolution? 200
Football in the Community 202
The life and hard times of the professional female coach 203
11 BLOWING THE WHISTLE: TAKING THE
LEAD IN PARTICIPANT PROTECTION 207
Introduction 207
Reporting workplace concerns 208
Blowing the whistle 209
The US experience 211
US employers’ liability: the new playing field 213
Learning from the US experience 214

Sexual abuse in sport 215
The Lyme Bay tragedy 217
Conclusion and recommendations 219
From Boot Money to Bosman: Football, Society and the Law
xii
APPENDIX 1
PROFESSIONAL CLUBS’ RESPONSES TO
THE KICK-IT CAMPAIGN 223
Executive summary 223
Introduction 224
Responses to the survey 226
Survey results 228
Summary and conclusion 234
APPENDIX 2
PROFESSIONAL CLUBS’ COMPLIANCE WITH
DATA PROTECTION LEGISLATION 237
The scope of the legislation 237
Bibliography 243
Index 253
TABLE OF CASES
xiii
Ahlstrom Osakyhtio v Commission (Woodpulp case)
[1988] 4 CMLR 901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Airedale NHS Trust v Bland [1993] 2 WLR 316;
[1993] 1 All ER 821 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
Alexander v Home Office [1988] ICR 685 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
Allen v Flood [1898] AC 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131
Arsenal Football Club v Smith [1977] 2 WLR 944 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175
Balog v Royal Charleroi Sporting Club
(1998) unreported, 2 July (Tribunal of First Instance) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53

Beckford v R [1988] AC 130 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155, 159
Belgian Football Association v Bosman
[1996] All ER (EC) 97 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13, 26–29, 31, 34, 37–39,
41–48, 50–52, 54–56,
58, 59, 112
Bennett v Football Association (1978) CA Transcript 591 . . . . .134, 135–37, 139, 189, 203
Bilka-Kaufhaus GmbH v Weber von Harz
[1986] ECR 1607 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
Blair v Washington State University 740 P (2d) 1379 (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
Bland v Lipscombe (1855) 24 LJ (QB) 155 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Brenden v Independent School District
342 F Supp 1224 (1972) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
British Judo Association v Petty [1981] ICR 660 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134, 136, 191, 204
Bucha v Illinois High School Association
351 F Supp 69 (1972) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
Bugden v Rogers [1993] Aus Tort Rep 81 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
Bullock v Alice Ottley School [1991] IRLR 324 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141
Burlington Industries v Ellerth (1998) 118 S Ct 2257 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211, 213
Butcher v Jessup [1989] SLT 593 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151
Cohen v Brown University 991 F (2d) 888 (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
Condon v Basi [1985] 1 WLR 866 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160, 166
Cook v Colgate University 992 F (2d) 17 (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
Couch v British Boxing Board of Control (1998) unreported,
IT No 2304231/97 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134, 135–39, 143,
179, 185, 189
Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the
Civil Service (GCHQ case) [1984] 3 All ER 935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
From Boot Money to Bosman: Football, Society and the Law
xiv
Cummins v Kingstonian Football Club

(1998) unreported, IT No 2305384/97 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141, 142, 208, 209
Cunningham v Reading Football Club
(1992) 157 LG Rev 481 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
Deliege v ALFJ (1999) 2(5) Sports Law Bulletin 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
Dona v Mantero [1976] 2 CMLR 578 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14, 29, 30, 36, 41, 42, 44
Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] AC 562 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160
DPP v Smith [1961] AC 290 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153
Eastham v Newcastle United Football Club
[1963] 3 All ER 139 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14, 23–29, 31
Elliot v Saunders (1994) unreported (HC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158, 160–62, 166
Enderby Town Football Club
v Football Association [1971] Ch 591 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
Fagan v Metropolitan Police Commissioner
[1969] 1 QB 439 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151
Faragher v City of Boca Raton 118 S Ct 2275 (1998) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212–14, 216, 217
Favia v Indiana University of Pennsylvania
7 F (3d) 332 (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
Ferguson v Normand [1995] SCCR 770 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149, 157
Finnigan v New Zealand Rugby Football Union
[1985] 2 NZLR 159 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176
Fisher v National Greyhound Racing Club
(1981) CA Transcript 420 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
Fitch v Rawling (1795) 126 ER 614 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Greater London Council v Farrer [1980] ICR 266 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134, 135, 136
Griggs v Duke Power Company 401 US 424 (1971) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134
Grove City College v Bell 465 US 555 (1984) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
Hall v Nottingham [1875] 1 Ex D 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Hardwick v Football Association (1997) unreported,
IT No 2200651/96 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134, 137, 139–43, 179,
185, 191, 204, 208

Haas v South Bend Community Schools Corporation
289 NE 2d 495 (1972) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
Hills v Ellis (1982) Cr App R 217 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
Hussaney v Chester City Football Club (1997) unreported,
IT No 2102426/97 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114, 133, 185, 207–09
Table of Cases
Initial Services v Putterill [1968] 2 QB 396 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .209
James v Eastleigh Borough Council [1991] IRLR 288 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132, 134, 138
Jenkins v Kingsgate (Clothing Productions) Ltd
[1981] ICR 715 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
Joyce v Hertfordshire Constabulary
(1984) 80 Cr App R (S) 298 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
Kingaby v Aston Villa Football Club
(1912) The Times, 28 March . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14, 20, 21, 22–24, 25, 29
Lancashire v Hunt (1894) 10 TLR 310 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Law v National Greyhound Racing Club
[1983] 3 All ER 300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
Leather Cloth Co v Larsont (1869) LR 9 Eq 345 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Leddy v Chesterfield FC (1923) unreported . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Lehtonen v FRSB (1999) 2(5) Sports Law Bulletin 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
Letang v Cooper [1965] 1 QB 232 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163, 164
Lion Laboratories v Evans [1985] QB 526 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .209
Mail v McDowall [1980] 1 QB 75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
Malaja v French Basketball Federation
(2000) 3(2) Sports Law Bulletin 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
McCord v Swansea City Football Club and Cornforth
(1998) The Times, 11 February . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149, 161, 162
McNamara v Duncan (1971) 26 ALR 584 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158
Mitchel v Reynolds (1711) 1 P Wms 181 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Moriarty v Brooks (1834) 6 C & P 684 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153

Nagle v Fielden [1966] 1 All ER 689 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
North West Thames Regional Health Authority
v Noone [1988] ICR 813 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
Oncale v Sundowner Offshore Services (1997) 83 F (3d) 118 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211, 213
Palmer v R [1971] AC 814 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
Parrish v Garfitt [1985] 1 QB 130 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
xv
R v Aitken [1992] WLR 1006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148
R v Beasley (1988) 9 Cr App R (S) 504 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
R v Birkin [1988] Crim LR 854 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152
R v Blissett (1992) The Independent, 4 December . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154, 159, 162
R v Bradshaw (1878) 14 Cox CC 83 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150, 155, 157
R v Brown [1992] 2 All ER 552 (CA);
[1993] 2 All ER 75 (HL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145, 146, 149, 156, 157, 164
R v Bruce (1977) Cr App R 148 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
R v Chapman (1989) 11 Cr App R (S) 93 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153
R v Church [1966] 1 QB 59 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
R v Ciccarelli (1989) 54 CCC (3d) 121 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148
R v Coney (1882) 8 QB 534 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12, 164
R v Criminal Injuries Compensation Board
ex p Lain [1967] 2 QB 862 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174, 175
R v Cunningham [1957] 2 WLR 396 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
R v Cunningham [1982] AC 566 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152
R v Davis (1783) 1 Leach 271 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
R v Disciplinary Committee of the Jockey Club
ex p Aga Khan [1993] 2 All ER 853 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173, 181, 185
R v Disciplinary Committee of the Jockey Club
ex p Massingberd-Mundy [1993] 2 All ER 207 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
R v Dunphy (1981) 3 Cr App R 159 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
R v Football Association ex p Football League Ltd

[1993] 2 All ER 833
R v Hardy (1994) The Guardian, 27 July . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155, 159
R v Hickson [1997] Crim LR 495 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207, 215, 217
R v Howell [1982] QB 416 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151
R v Inland Revenue Commissioners
ex p National Federation of Self-Employed and
Small Businesses Ltd [1981] 2 All ER 93 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175, 176
R v Keen (1986) 8 Cr App R (S) 444 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
R v Kelton (1989) 11 Cr App R (S) 190 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
R v Lincoln (1990) 12 Cr App R (S) 250 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153
R v Liverpool Corporation ex p Liverpool Taxi Fleet
Operators’ Association [1972] 2 QB 299 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175
R v Lloyd [1989] Crim LR 513 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157
R v Miller [1954] 2 QB 282 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152
R v Moore (1898) 14 TLR 229 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
R v Motley (1978) 66 Cr App R 274 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61, 64, 71, 72
R v Nedrick [1986] 1 WLR 1025 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152
From Boot Money to Bosman: Football, Society and the Law
xvi
Table of Cases
R v Oxfordshire County Council ex p Sunningwell
Parish Council [1999] 3 All ER 385 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
R v Panel on Takeovers and Mergers
ex p Datafin [1987] 1 All ER 564 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173, 182, 183
R v Savage; R v Parmenter [1992] 1 AC 699 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152, 153
R v Secretary of State for Employment
ex p Portsmouth Football Club [1988] COD 142 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
R v Secretary of State for the Home Department
ex p Rofathullah [1989] QB 219 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175
R v Stevenage Borough Football Club

ex p Football League (1996) The Times, 6 July . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
R v Suffolk County Council ex p Steed [1996] 75 P & CR 102 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
R v Football Association of Wales ex p Flint Town United
Football Club [1991] COD 44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
R v Football Association ex p Football League
[1993] 3 All ER 833 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
R v The Jockey Club ex p RAM Racecourses Ltd
[1993] 2 All ER 225 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
R v Whyte [1987] 3 All ER 416 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
R v Wood (1984) Cr App R 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
Radford v Campbell (1890) 6 TLR 488 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14, 18, 19
Red Lion Broadcasting Co v FCC 395 US 367 (1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
Ritacco v Norwin School District 361 F Supp 930 (1973) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
Roberts v Colorado State University 814 F Supp 1507 (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
Rootes v Shelton [1968] ALR 33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158, 163
Smoldon v Nolan and Whitworth (1996) unreported (HC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166–68, 192
Spring v Guardian Assurance [1994] 3 WLR 354 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220
Van Oppen v Clarke and the Bedford Charity Trustees
[1989] 1 All ER 273; [1989] 3 All ER 387 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192
Walrave and Koch v Union Cyclisme
Internationale [1975] 1 CMLR 320 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14, 29, 35, 36, 41, 44
Warren v Henleys Ltd [1948] 2 All ER 935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
Washington v Davis (1976) 96 S Ct 2040 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134
Watson v British Boxing Board of Control
(1999) 2(6) Sports Law Bulletin 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170
Watson v Gray (1998) The Times, 26 November . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162, 164
Wickham v Hawker (1840) 10 Law J Rep (NS) Exch 153 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
xvii

xix

Activity Centres (Young
Persons’ Safety) Act 1995 . . . . . . . . .219
Civil Rights Act 1964 (US) . . . . . . . . . . .134
Title VII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194, 211, 212
Title IX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195–200, 205
Civil Rights Restoration
Act 1987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
Commons Registration
Act 1965 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1, 2
s 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
s 22(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Criminal Justice Act 1982 . . . . . . . . . . .239
Criminal Justice Act 1988—
s 39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151
Criminal Justice and Public
Order Act 1994—
s 60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
s 166 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83, 85
Criminal Justice (Scotland)
Act 1981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
Criminal Law Act 1977 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
Data Protection Act 1984 . . . . .237, 240–42
Data Protection Act 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . .237
Education Act 1870 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Education Amendments
1972 (US)—
Title IX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211
Education (Reform) Act 1988 . . . . . . . .192
Employment Act 1989—
s 3(3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136

Employment Rights
Act 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210, 211
s 43 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210, 211
ss 43B, 43C, 43F, 43G, 43K . . . . . . . .210
s 43H(1)(a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210
Equal Pay Act 1963 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
Factory Act 1875 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Factories Act 1961 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135
Fire Safety and Safety of Places
of Sport Act 1987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92
Football (Offences)
Act 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80, 82, 85, 92,
99, 110, 119
s 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
s 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80, 81, 82, 83, 85
s 3(2)(a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
s 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80, 82
Football (Offences and
Disorder) Act 1999 . . . . . . . . . . . .79, 83,
84–87, 121
ss 1–6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
ss 7–10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
Football Spectators
Act 1989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78, 79, 83, 84,
92, 93, 177
Pt I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78, 79
Pt II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
s 1(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
s 1(8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
s 1(9) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97

s 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
s 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95, 96
s 10(15) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96
ss 11, 12(5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
ss 15, 22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
s 15(5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Sched 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Sched 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
Gaming Act 1845 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7, 180
Health and Safety at Work
Act 1974 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219
s 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210
Highways Act 1835 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
TABLE OF STATUTES
From Boot Money to Bosman: Football, Society and the Law
xx
Human Rights
Act 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . .173, 181, 184–86
s 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182
s 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
s 6(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182
Inclosure Act 1845 . . . . . . . . . .2, 7, 8, 9, 10
Justices of the Peace
Act 1361 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151
London Government
Act 1963 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135
Magistrates’ Courts Act 1980—
s 115 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151
Metropolitan Racecourses
Act 1879 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180

Occupiers’ Liability Act 1957 . . . . . . . . .68
Offences Against the
Person Act 1861 . . . . . . . . .148, 152, 153
s 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153, 154
s 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147, 153–55
s 47 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147, 152, 154, 155
Police Act 1964—
s 51(3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
Public Interest Disclosure
Act 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .209–11, 219
ss 4–16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211
s 47B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220
Public Order Act 1936 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
s 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
Public Order Act 1986 . . . . . .74, 76, 78, 80,
81, 82, 83, 84, 85
s 30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79, 83, 84
s 31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
Race Relations
Act 1976 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114, 131, 132
s 4(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220
s 57 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
Safety at Sports
Grounds Act 1975 . . . . . . . . .92–94, 177
Sex Discrimination
Act 1975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131–37, 139
Pts II–IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135
s 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133, 142
s 1(1)(a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
s 1(1)(b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134

s 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
s 5(3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141
s 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
s 13(1)(b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
s 44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132, 135–39, 141,
143, 188, 204
s 51 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135, 136
s 291 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220
Sex Discrimination
Act 1986 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134, 136
Sporting Events (Control
of Alcohol, etc) Act 1985 . . . . .76, 77, 78
s 2(1)(a), (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
s 2(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
Supreme Court Act 1981—
s 29(3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175
s 31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176
Unfair Contract Terms
Act 1977—
s 2(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165
s 2(3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165
Waltham Black Act 1723. . . . . . . . . . . . .7, 8
s 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
xxi
Data Protection Regulations 1985 (SI 1985/1463) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238
Education (National Curriculum) (Attainment Targets
and Programmes of Study in Physical Education)
Order 1992 (SI 1992/603) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192
Football Spectators (Corresponding Offences in France)
Order 1998 (SI 1998/1266) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79

Rules of the Supreme Court 1977—
Ord 53 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176
Rules of the Supreme Court (Amendment No 3)
Order 1977 (SI 1977/1855) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176
Unfair Dismissal (Increase of Compensation Limit)
Order 1991 (SI 1991/466) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
TABLE OF STATUTORY INSTRUMENTS

xxiii
INTRODUCTION
In 1998, the income of English football clubs was in the region of £700 million.
Since 1990, clubs have spent £600 million in upgrading grounds. The net asset
value of the 92 clubs is around £200 million, rising to over £1 billion if the
players in whose contracts the clubs invest are regarded as assets. The current
Premier League TV deal alone is worth £670 million over five years
(Szymanski and Kuypers, 2000, p 1).
The first football club to be listed on the stock market was Tottenham
Hotspur, back in 1983, when Irving Scholar was chairman. Spurs diversified
into sportswear, fashion and computerised ticketing systems, but these
diversions performed no more successfully than the team did, and it fell into
debt. In 1991, when Spurs won its first trophy (the FA Cup) since 1984, Alan
Sugar (whose computer company, Amstrad, manufactured many of Sky TV’s
satellite dishes) purchased a controlling interest, although the club continues
to be quoted on the stock market. In the summer of 1998, just months before
its bid for Manchester United, it was rumoured that News International was
trying to buy a controlling interest in Tottenham.
Spurs’ experience did little to persuade other clubs to follow the flotation
route – with the obvious exception of Manchester United, whose flotation in
1991 raised £7 million. However, even after United had taken the plunge, it
was not until 1996 – after the European Championships had confirmed

football’s media friendly image and its place within the firmament of
acceptable entertainment for the middle class family – that other owners and
the stock market came to believe that football clubs could be a viable
investment. Several hundred million pounds were spent on shares in the
newly floated football clubs of Chelsea, Newcastle, Aston Villa and Queen’s
Park Rangers (as Loftus Road plc). Over a dozen others were involved in
takeovers or capital raising ventures between 1996 and 1999. These included
West Ham United, Leeds United, Manchester City and Leicester City. None of
these clubs have come anywhere near matching what Manchester United
have achieved.
‘You’re so rich it’s unbelievable’
The achievements of Manchester United since its flotation have been due in no
small measure to a simple, but devastatingly successful, business strategy.
When the club floated in 1991, it decided to transfer its fixed assets and non-
footballing businesses to a company so that the company, not the club, would
receive a ‘substantial part’ of future advertising, sponsorship and promotional
income as well as the rental income from the use of the ground. As
Manchester United plc, the company, is not affiliated to the Football
Association (FA), it is not bound by the FA’s restrictions on the payment of
dividends. Consequently, it can make payments to its shareholders. The
company owns the football club, Manchester United Ltd, which is affiliated to
the FA and which, accordingly, is not able to pay a dividend.
From Boot Money to Bosman: Football, Society and the Law
xxiv
At the time of the 1991 flotation, the controlling interest in the club was
owned by the recently departed Chief Executive, Martin Edwards (who had
inherited his father Louis’ shares in 1981). Edwards minimis is a man best
described as ‘profit conscious’. United spent heavily in the transfer market
during the early 1980s in a failed attempt to compete consistently with the
great Liverpool teams of that time. However, after Alex Ferguson was

appointed in 1986, Edwards – having got his fingers burned by Ron
Atkinson’s questionable transfer dealings (Arnold Muerhen, Remi Moses) –
was unwilling to give Ferguson similar freedom to pursue players. For
example, in 1988, Edwards refused Ferguson permission to sign Paul
Gascoigne from Newcastle United. However, in the summer of 1989, a
demob-happy Edwards, convinced that he was about to offload his interest in
the club to Michael Knighton, relented and allowed Ferguson to spend £8
million on five new players. The Knighton deal famously fell through in
October of that year, but Ferguson’s new players – Paul Ince and Gary
Pallister among them – helped United to victory in the FA Cup in 1989/90.
That success offset a disastrous League campaign, for at one stage the club
was a serious candidate for relegation and, in retrospect, the most crucial
match of Alex Ferguson’s managerial career at Manchester United was
probably the FA Cup third round tie against Nottingham Forest that year.
Had United lost, there is little doubt that Ferguson would have been sacked.
The rest, Brian, is history. In 1991/92, United won the championship of the
old First Division and, in the first eight years of the Premiership’s existence,
they won that title on six occasions. During the 1990s, they won the FA Cup
four times and, on the last occasion, in 1998/99, their success represented the
second leg of their hat-trick of the Premier League, the FA Cup and the
European Champions’ League. The club has not fared too badly financially,
either. Between 1991 and 1997, Manchester United plc’s cumulative profit was
almost £82 million; the total dividend payout was around £20 million. This
meant that an investor who had paid 385 p for a share upon flotation in 1991
would, by the middle of 1998, have seen its value rise to the equivalent of
£24.75.
However, it is fair to say that not all United fans, and certainly not all
football supporters in general, were enamoured of the financial success story
that Manchester United had become. In discussing ‘the overt attempt to re-
engineer the social make-up of the game’ that took place after the publication

of the FA’s Blueprint for Football in 1991, Brown and Walsh comment upon
how:
United’s board had gone about the task (of re-packaging the game) with a
single minded zeal. Redevelopment, first at the Stretford End and then at the
United Road stand, had seen traditional areas of support uprooted and
replaced with corporate hospitality and executive seats. The displaced were
scattered around the ground, which had a devastating effect on the
atmosphere. This was exacerbated in 1994/95 when United’s security firm,