Luận văn thạc sĩ VNU ULIS a study on english vocabulary learning strategies exploited by the second year students of different learning style preferences at school of law, VNU

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES
-------------------

NGUYỄN THỊ HUYỀN TRANG

A STUDY ON ENGLISH VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGIES
EXPLOITED BY THE SECOND-YEAR STUDENTS OF DIFFERENT
LEARNING STYLE PREFERENCES AT SCHOOL OF LAW,
VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY
(Nghiên cứu các phƣơng pháp học từ vựng tiếng Anh của sinh viên năm hai
thuộc các nhóm phong cách học khác nhau ở Khoa Luật, ĐHQGHN)

M.A. COMBINED PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60140111

HANOI - 2015

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VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES
-------------------

NGUYỄN THỊ HUYỀN TRANG

A STUDY ON ENGLISH VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGIES
EXPLOITED BY THE SECOND-YEAR STUDENTS OF DIFFERENT
LEARNING STYLE PREFERENCES AT SCHOOL OF LAW,
VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY
(Nghiên cứu các phƣơng pháp học từ vựng tiếng Anh của sinh viên năm hai
thuộc các nhóm phong cách học khác nhau ở Khoa Luật, ĐHQGHN)

M.A. COMBINED PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60140111
Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Nguyễn Văn Độ

HANOI - 2015

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DECLARATION
I hereby, certify the thesis entitled “A study on vocabulary learning
strategies exploited by second-year students of different learning styles at School of
Law, Vietnam National University” is a presentation of my original research work.
Wherever contributions of others are involved, every effort is made to indicate this
clearly, with due reference to the literature, and acknowledgement of collaborative
research and discussions. The work was done under the guidance of Assoc. Prof.
PhD. Nguyễn Văn Độ. The research was approved by the University of Languages
and International Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi.

Hanoi, 2015

Nguyễn Thị Huyền Trang

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In order to complete this M.A. thesis, I owe profound indebtedness to many
people for their invaluable help during the conduct of the research.
First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my
supervisor Assoc.Prof. Nguyen Van Do, PhD. and my lecturer Assoc.Prof. Le Van
Canh, PhD. for their whole-hearted support, helpful guidance and considerable
encouragement, which are the most decisive factors leading to the completion of
this paper.
Besides, I would like to send my sincere thanks to the teachers and secondyear students at SOL, VNU who do me a great deal of favor for their participations
in the conduct of my survey questionnaire and interviews. Without their precious
help, this study would not have been completed.
I also owe a great debt of gratitude to my grandmother, my parents, my
parents-in-law and my baby-sitter who constantly encouraged me and helped me
take care of my little daughter during the time I conducted this study.
Last but not least, never enough thanks are sent to my husband – Nguyen Ba
Tuong, who always stood by my side, suffered from my moody feelings and lent me
his hands whenever I was in need during the implementation of this study.

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ABSTRACT
This study aims at exploring vocabulary learning strategies employed by the
second-year students of different learning styles at School of Law, VNU. In
addition, the research paper suggested several possible ways to help students better
their vocabulary learning strategies which are more likely to fit their learning styles.
The data collection tools used in this study included survey questionnaires and
interviews. Then the findings were coded and analyzed by both quantitative and
qualitative methods. The major findings of the study showed that most second-year
students at SOL, VNU preferred visual learning style; ranking second was auditory
learning style; and the fewest number of students was found to prefer kinesthetic
learning style. Besides, the study also denoted the most common VLS exploited by
each learning style. For instance, visual learners and auditory learners shared the
similar preference for using memory strategies to learn English vocabulary while
metacognitive strategies were most in favor by kinesthetic learners. Based on the
findings of the study, some pedagogical implications for both teachers and students
were withdrawn along with recommended suggestions for further research.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

Declaration……………………………….………………………………………….i
Acknowledgements.…………………………………………………………………ii

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………..…iii
List of charts, tables & abbreviations........................................................................vi
PART A: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale..........................................................................................................1
2. Aims and research questions……………........................................................3
3. Significance……..............................................................................................3
4. Scope……………………………………………………………………........4
5. Methods…………............................................................................................4
6. Structure of the study……………………………………...………………....6
PART B: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER I: LITERATURE REVIEW
1. Key terms…………………………………………………………………….7
1.1.

Learning style preferences (LSP)……………………………..………7
1.1.1. Definitions……………………………………………………..7
1.1.2. Classifications…………………………………………...…….8
1.1.3. Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences…………………...10
1.1.4. Advantages of understanding individual LSP..………………11

1.2.

Vocabulary learning strategies (VLS)…….………………..………..12
1.2.1. Definitions……………………………..……………………..12
1.2.2. Classifications…..,…………………………………...………14
1.2.3. Advantages of using appropriate VLS………………...……..20

1.3.

The distinction between LSP and VLS………………………………21

2. An overview of related studies………………….……………………...…..22
CHAPTER II: METHODOLOGY
1. Design of the study…………………………………………………………26
2. Setting of the study…………………………...…………………………….26
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3. Participants and participant selection method………………………………27
4. Data collection instruments…………………………………………………28
4.1. Perceptual learning style preference questionnaire..........................…...28
4.2. Strategy inventory for vocabulary learning………………………...….30
4.3. Semi-structured interview…………………………...…………………32
5. Data collection procedure……………………………..……………………33
6. Data analysis methods………………………………………………...……34
CHAPTER III: FINDINGS & DISCUSSION
1. Answer of research question 1………….…………………………………..35
2. Answer of research question 2………………...……………………………36
3. Answer of research question 3…………………………………………...…56
PART C: CONCLUSION
1. Recapitulations………………….……………………………….…………59
2. Conclusion………………………………………………………………….60
3. Pedagogical implications……………………...……………………………61
4. Contributions of the study…………………………………………………..62
5. Limitations of the study…………………………...………………………..63
6. Suggestions for further studies…………………………………….………..64
REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………65
APPENDICES………………………………………………………………………I

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LIST OF CHARTS, TABLES & ABBREVIATIONS
List of charts
Chart 1:

Preferred learning styles of second-year students at SOL, VNU

Chart 2:

Percentage of overall strategies used by visual learners

Chart 3:

Percentage of overall strategies used by auditory learners

Chart 4:

Percentage of overall strategies used by kinesthetic learners

List of tables
Table i:

Definitions of language learning strategies

Table ii:

Structured and unstructured approach to vocabulary learning by Sanaoui
(1995)

Table iii:

Gu & Johnson’s classification of VLS (1996)

Table iv:

Schmitt’s taxonomy of VLS (1997)

Table 1:

Descriptive statistics of strategies used by visual learners in
determination

Table 2:

Descriptive statistics of strategies used by visual learners in social
(discovery)

Table 3:

Descriptive statistics of strategies used by visual learners in social
(consolidation)

Table 4:

Descriptive statistics of strategies used by visual learners in memory

Table 5:

Descriptive statistics of strategies used by visual learners in cognitive

Table 6:

Descriptive statistics of strategies used by visual learners in
metacognitive

Table 7:

Descriptive statistics of strategies used by auditory learners in
determination

Table 8:

Descriptive statistics of strategies used by auditory learners in social
(discovery)

Table 9:

Descriptive statistics of strategies used by auditory learners in social
(consolidation)

Table 10: Descriptive statistics of strategies used by auditory learners in memory
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Table 11: Descriptive statistics of strategies used by auditory learners in cognitive
Table 12: Descriptive statistics of strategies used by auditory learners in
metacognitive
Table 13: Descriptive statistics of strategies used by kinesthetic learners in
determination
Table 14: Descriptive statistics of strategies used by kinesthetic learners in social
(discovery)
Table 15: Descriptive statistics of strategies used by kinesthetic learners in social
(consolidation)
Table 16: Descriptive statistics of strategies used by kinesthetic learners in
memory
Table 17: Descriptive statistics of strategies used by kinesthetic learners in
cognitive
Table 18: Descriptive statistics of strategies used by kinesthetic learners in
metacognitive
Table 19: Vocabulary learning strategies recommended by teachers
List of abbreviations
SOL, VNU:

School of Law, Vietnam National University

LSP:

Learning style preferences

VLS:

Vocabulary learning strategies

VAK:

Visual – Auditory – Kinesthetic (Model)

ELT:

English Language Teaching

L2

Second language

SPSS

Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

n:

Number of students

F:

Frequency

X:

Mean (average score)

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PART A: INTRODUCTION
This first part states the problem and the rationale of the study, together with
the general aims, objectives and the scope of the study as a whole. Most
importantly, it is in this chapter that the research questions are identified to work as
clear guidelines for the whole research.
1. Rationale
As a matter of fact, English has recently become one of the most popular
languages in the world. According to the statistics of Graddol (1997) in the
publication named “The future of English”, there is a remarkable rise in the number
of English users and this number is likely to reach two billion in the next decade.
Vietnam, in the process of integrating into the world, also identifies the
importance of learning and teaching English in order to educate the adequate
number of English users for this integration process. However, in the last twenty
years, effective and innovative English teaching methods at Vietnamese schools
were mostly taken for granted and teachers were seen to focus on teaching testoriented skills. In addition, these English tests generally put the emphasis on
English grammar only. There is hardly any doubt that the most popular teaching
method then was grammar-translation. On the contrary, nowadays, communication
has become the main purpose of English learning with another approach –
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in which four skills of English:
speaking, listening, reading and writing are paid as much attention to as grammar.
In this context, all member universities of Vietnam National University, Hanoi
(VNU) have applied CLT into teaching English; and four skills are thoroughly
taught. To be more highlighted, at this university, excluding English-major students
at Hanoi University of Languages and International Studies, all other students, such
as students at University of Engineering and Technology, University of Economics
and Business or School of Law, are required to have the Certificate of English Level
3, which correspondents to B1 level in CEFR -fully-known as the Common

European Framework of Reference, at the time of their graduation (Vietnamese
Ministry of Education and Training, 2014).
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In fact, it is considered relatively challenging for most students whose majors
are not English language skills to get the Certificate of English Level 3. Moreover,
this certificate is the prerequisite which might put these students under great
pressure if they want to graduate from their university. As a lecturer of English who
is teaching English for students at School of Law, VNU, the researcher has found
out that the majority of students there have been confronting with a number of
difficulties in mastering their English language proficiency at Level 3. Among those
hardships, inadequacy in lexical knowledge may hinder their proficiency
development (Fan, 2003). Apparently, in fact, vocabulary plays a definitely crucial
role in a language because they are “the building-blocks” of a language (Thornbury,
2002). Vocabulary learning, consequently, should be taken more care of.
According to Laufer (1997), in English vocabulary learning process, there
are a number of factors influencing the effectiveness of students’ learning including
objective and subjective factors. “Learning style preferences” is mentioned as one
of those. In the history of researching in Vietnam, “learning style preferences” is
seemingly a novel research area as it can be seen that there have been very few
research studies in VNU investigating the relationship between learners’ learning
style preferences and their English vocabulary learning strategies.
Furthermore, Vietnamese students in general and VNU students in particular
are still unaware of their own learning styles; thus, they tend to exploit language
learning methods intuitively and somehow ineffectively, which has pressed on the
demand for more studies on this field so as to get students more aware of their own
learning styles and then find out suitable language learning strategies.

For those above-mentioned reasons, the researcher has decided to conduct a
study for her M.A. thesis on the topic:
“A study on English vocabulary learning strategies exploited by the second
year students of different learning style preferences at School of Law, Vietnam
National University, Hanoi.”

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2. Aims and research questions
The general aim of this research paper is to explore what English vocabulary
learning strategies of second year students of different learning styles at School of
Law, VNU are.
Specifically, the first objective of the research paper is to classify different
learning styles of second-year students at School of Law, VNU in their process of
learning English vocabulary. The second objective is to find out the most common
vocabulary learning strategies exploited by each learning style group during their
B1 English course. From that, it is expected that the paper can suggest several
possible ways to help students better their vocabulary learning strategies which are
more likely to fit their learning styles.
Overall, the research objectives are to answer the three questions below:
-

What are the learning style preferences as perceived by second-year students at
School of Law, VNU?

-

What are the most common vocabulary learning strategies exploited by each
learning style?

-

What are the suitable English vocabulary learning strategies for each learning
style as recommended by the teachers of English at School of Law, VNU?

3. Significance of the study
When completed, this study would serve as one of the studies on the
influences of learning style preferences on the vocabulary learning strategies
employed by second-year students at School of Law, VNU. Hence, this paper is
expected to be useful for students, teachers as well as researchers in ELT.
Firstly, as for the second-year students who are attending B1 English course,
the researcher hopes that the study will also reveal to them their own learning
styles; from that, they may have vocabulary learning strategies which are most
suitable to their learning styles so that the vocabulary learning results can be
improved.

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Secondly, the paper might be practical for the teachers who are in charge of
teaching B1 English course for English non-major students. Specifically, the
teachers will probably realize the influences of learning style preferences on their
students and then have useful adjustment on vocabulary teaching in class as well as
suggesting students following suitable vocabulary self-study strategies so that
students will gain more positive results.

Last but not least, it is expected that this research paper could help enrich the
literature review of the same field.
4. Scope of the study
This paper places its focal point on students’ learning style preferences as
well as their English vocabulary learning strategies rather than on students’
strategies to learn other languages such as French or Chinese, or other language
skills such as speaking or listening. These vocabulary learning strategies are
exploited by second-year students at School of Law, VNU who are taking B1
English course and expected to reach English Level 3 after this course.
5. Methods of the study
5.1 Data collection methods
The two research instruments the researcher relies on to find out the answer
to those questions are survey questionnaire and semi-structured interview.
Specifically, the first questionnaire comprising of 30 three-option questions were
delivered to 65 second-year students at School of Law, VNU in order to help the
researcher discover learning styles of the student participants and then these
students into three groups of different learning styles. The second questionnaire
including 24 questions was used to find out the most and least common vocabulary
learning strategies exploited by each group of learning style. In addition, a semistructured interview for three teachers who are currently teaching English for these
students was employed so as to quest for the teacher participants’ suggestions about
suitable vocabulary learning strategies to each learning style.
Regarding the procedure, firstly, the first questionnaire was delivered to 65
second-year students to investigate their learning style preferences perceived by
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themselves. Next, the second questionnaire was distributed to find out the most and
least common vocabulary learning strategies used by each learning style. Lastly,

interviews with three English teachers were held to ask for appropriate vocabulary
learning strategies to each learning style as recommended by the teacher
participants.
5.2 Data analysis methods
After the data has been collected, they are processed with both quantitative
and qualitative methods.
As for the first questionnaire conducted among students, each choice in each
survey is counted and totaled up to recognize the highest frequency. From this, each
student is categorized into three learning styles, “visual” (if he mostly chooses A),
“auditory” (if he mostly chooses B) and “kinesthetic” (if he mostly chooses C).
After that, the questionnaires are summed up to categorize 65 students into three
categories of learning styles.
In regards to the second questionnaire, for each student group of learning
styles, the number of students’ responses for each learning strategy in different
levels of frequency (from never to very frequently) is analyzed by SPSS program.
They are all inserted into a table to show which strategies are most or least
commonly used among the students belonging to each group of learning style.
Concerning the semi-structured interview conducted with three teachers, the
transcript is written first. After that, information is synthesized and analyzed in light
of the last research question. Specifically, the answers are clearly shown in three
parts which are correspondent to three groups of learning styles. Each part is
divided into two separate subparts: the first one is the teachers’ comments on their
students’ ways of learning English vocabulary, and the second is their
recommendations on the suitable vocabulary learning strategies to each learning
style.

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6. Structure of the study
This study consists of three parts: Introduction, Development and
Conclusion.
Part A: Introduction- presents the reasons for carrying out this study,
defines the specific purposes, research questions, the scope of the study and the
outline of the study.
Part B: Development- consists of 3 chapters:
Chapter 1: Literature Review - provides the theoretical background
needed for the study and reviews some previous studies which is related to the topic
of the study.
Chapter 2: Methodology - discusses the methodology for this study and
the procedure for carrying out the research such as the selection of the sample, the
data collection procedures, and the data analysis.
Chapter 3: Results and Discussion - reports the results of the data analysis
along with the discussion as well as some pedagogical implications.
Part C: Conclusion - summarizes the main issues discussed in the paper,
draws out some concluding points from the findings, the contributions and
limitations of the research as well as some suggestions for further studies.
Following Part C is References listing all reference books or materials. The
final section of the thesis contains the appendices that show all documents serving
this research.

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PART B: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW

This second chapter would review the theoretical base of the two crucial
concepts in this paper. They are: learning style preferences and vocabulary learning
strategies. In addition, a quick review of related studies in the same field would also
be described.
1. Key terms
1.1. Learning style preferences (LSP)
1.1.1. Definitions
In the history of researching, the definition of learning styles has been raised
by a number of researchers. From the last years of the previous century, a definition
adopted by leading theorists in the field was given by Keefe (1979) (quoted by
Logan & Thomas, 2002),
“Composite of characteristics cognitive, affective and psychological factors that serve
as relatively stable indicators of how a learner perceives, interacts and responds to
the environment”

Keefe (1979)
By stating so, Keefe mostly focused on the preferences of learners in one
particular learning environment but did not concentrate on information types that
learners have to perceive.
Among those who studied students’ learning styles, Dunn and Dunn (1992)
defined learning styles as the way that “each learner begins to concentrate on,
process and remember new and difficult information”. In this definition, the
researchers, different from Keefe, highlighted “new and difficult information”;
however, in the fact of learning, learners still have their own ways of studying when
dealing with “old” information.
In 1995, Felder & Henriquea, continuing with this topic, gave another
definition for learning styles which is the way that “an individual characteristically
acquires, retains and retrieves information”.
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Among above-mentioned definitions, this one was the most comprehensive
and did not focus too much on learning environment or type of information
perceived. Therefore, in this paper, researchers will rely on this definition to be the
base of the research.
1.1.2. Classifications
As mentioned above, learning style is the field receiving a lot of concern
from different researchers; therefore, a number of classifications of learning styles
have been raised up to now. Although there is a wide acceptance of the concept of
learning style in educational psychology, there is, nevertheless, disagreement on
how it is classified and measured.
According to Kolb et al. (1979), there are four basic learning styles:
Converger: who wants to solve a problem and who relies heavily upon
hypothetically deductive reasoning to focus on specific problems.
Diverger: who solves problems by viewing situations from many perspectives and
who relies heavily upon brain storming and generation of ideas.
Assimilator: who solves problems by inductive reasoning and ability to create the
theoretical models.
Accommodator: who solves problems by carrying out plans and experiments and
adapting to specific intermediate circumstances.
In this classification, problem solving is the most important criterion which
was based on to classify learning styles and different learning style learners are
those who have different ways of collecting reasons and carrying out experiments to
come to the conclusion. However, problem solving is not the only subject for
learners but students also have to deal with other kinds of activities such as
perceiving new knowledge or revising old information.
Gregorc and Butler (1984) categorized learning styles into four models:
Concrete, Abstract, Sequential and Random. They supposed that every one

possesses some natural abilities in each of the models above; however, most people
have more natural abilities in one of the models. Concrete and Abstract are
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perceptual qualities while Sequential and Random are ordering abilities. There are
four combinations of the strongest perceptual and ordering ability in each person:
Concrete Sequential learners prefer to learn by physical senses; specifically,
their learning preferences are computers, demonstration or guided practice. Long
lectures might not be suitable to them.
Concrete Random learners like learning through simulations, games or
independent study. Their favorite learning channels are intuition and trials-anderrors. Structured lessons may make them feel bored and easily get distracted.
Abstract Sequential learners prefer to learn by their intellect. They like
lectures, reading and slide shows whereas they dislike hands-on projects.
Abstract Random learners prefer to learn by emotions. Short lectures,
media and the arts are their learning preferences while structured assignments and
drills are out of their favor.
In his book Strategies for Success: A Practical Guide to Learning English
(2004), Brown also gave out his learning style category which was somehow more
related to reading. He clearly noted that speed should be considered as one
significant learning style and can be divided into reflective (slower reader) and
impulsive (faster thinker and reader). Reflective learners prefer all the words of the
reading passage before going on whereas the latter like making some guesses
without the whole understanding. Therefore, Brown came to a conclusion when
reading a same long text, reflective ones are likely to be more cautious and so
slower than impulsive ones.
Among various ways of classifying, this theory is quite novel and focuses on
the relation between learning styles and reading. As a matter of fact, nevertheless,

he just concentrated on the speed of reading learners which is not important enough
to become the main factor to classify different styles of reading.
Research done by Reid (1987) has shown that learners have three main
perceptual learning channels, also known as three basic learning styles:
“Visual learning – reading, studying charts
Auditory learning – listening to lectures, audiotapes
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Kinesthetic learning – experiential learning, that is, total physical involvement with a
learning situation.”

To be more detailed, according to Reid, visual learners learn by seeing
because they can only do best with textbooks that contain graphs, photographs and
charts whereas auditory learners learn by being read to and by discussing what has
been read. The auditory learners will also be more likely to be distracted by sounds.
The third group of learners are kinesthetic ones who enjoy being able to move while
learning. They may find it very hard to sit still for long periods of time and they
really need hands-on experience to fully understand the content of the lesson.
Discussing the perceptual learning channels that these three learning styles
prefer to reach, Reid added that the visual learner may think in pictures and learns
best from visual displays including diagrams, illustrated textbooks, overhead
transparencies, videos, flipcharts and handouts. During a lecture or classroom
discussion, visual learners tend to take detailed notes to absorb the information.
Videos can be beneficial for a visual learner as he can see what is going on. These
learners need to see the teacher’s body language and facial expressions to
understand the core issue. Meanwhile, auditory learners might learn best through
verbal lectures, discussion and listening to what others have to say. They interpret

the underlying meanings of speech through listening to tone of voice, pitch, speech
and other nuances. These learners often benefit from reading texts aloud and using a
tape recorder. The last group of learning style preferences, kinesthetic learners,
learns best through a hands-on approach by touching or experiencing themselves the
physical world around them.
Dunn & Dunn (2003) also shared the similar classification of learning style
preferences to Reid’s work when they raised another theory in the field consisting
of three basic learning styles:
Visual - seeing learning style involves the use of seen or observed things,
including pictures, diagrams, demonstrations, displays, handouts, films, flip-chart,
etc.
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Auditory – hearing learning style involves the transfer of information
through listening: to the spoken word, of self or others, of sounds and noises.
Kinesthetic/Tactile - doing learning involves physical experience touching, feeling, holding, doing, and practical hands-on experiences.
Sarasin (2006) and Pritchard (2009) adopted the same perspective in
measuring learning style preferences, which were presented in their books named
Learning Style Perspectives: Impact in the Classroom and Ways of Learning:
Learning Theories and Learning Styles in the Classroom respectively.
In these above-mentioned ways of learning style classification, Reid’s
classification is the clearest and most logical one because it relates to our perception
and is based on various learning materials and activities that teachers and students
can use in any learning process. Moreover, this classification has been used by
many researchers when they carried out research studies pertaining to learning style
preferences. Specifically, Fu (2009) supposed that the simplest and most common
way of identifying learning styles is based on the senses. As a result, the category

by Reid (1987) and other researchers sharing the same classification with Reid will
serve as the base of the research
1.1.3. Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences
Many of us are familiar with three general categories in which people learn:
visual learners, auditory learners, and kinesthetic learners. Beyond these three
general categories, many theories of and approaches toward human potential have
been developed. Among them is the theory of multiple intelligences, developed by
Gardner, H. (2010). Gardner’s early work in psychology and later in human
cognition and human potential led to the development of the initial six intelligences.
Today there are nine intelligences and the possibility of others may eventually
expand the list. These intelligences relate to a person’s unique aptitude set of
capabilities and ways they might prefer to demonstrate intellectual abilities.
Specifically, they are:
1. Verbal-linguistic intelligence (well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to
the sounds, meanings and rhythms of words)
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2. Logical-mathematical intelligence (ability to think conceptually and
abstractly, and capacity to discern logical and numerical patterns)
3. Spatial-visual intelligence (capacity to think in images and pictures, to
visualize accurately and abstractly)
4. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence (ability to control one’s body movements and
to handle objects skillfully)
5. Musical intelligence (ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch and
timber)
6. Interpersonal intelligence (capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the
moods, motivations and desires of others)

7. Intrapersonal intelligence (capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner
feelings, values, beliefs and thinking processes)
8. Naturalist intelligence (ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals
and other objects in nature)
9. Existential intelligence (capacity to tackle deep questions about human
existence such as “What is the meaning of life?” or “Why do we die?”
1.1.4. Advantages of understanding individual LSP
According to Al-Hebaishi (2012), variation and diversity are pervasive
features of human beings; therefore, people are more different than they are alike.
He added that classrooms are where these differences seem to be most apparent.
Learners have different needs, abilities, skills and styles. Among those, their
learning styles play as an important factor determining the approaches that they
prefer to obtain knowledge. Consequently, it is noteworthy that both teachers and
learners need to better understand and appreciate these individual learning style
preferences in order to teach and learn more effectively.
Regarding the advantage of understanding individual learning style
preferences to teachers, Stebbins (1995) argued that teachers tend to teach they way
they were taught, so sometimes conflicts may arise due to a mismatch between the
teacher’s teaching style and learner’s learning styles. These conflicts probably cause
negative consequences on both teachers and students in classrooms. Hence, she
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asserted that teachers should know the general learning style profiles of the whole
class, which might enable them to organize and employ teaching materials
accordingly.
Concerning the advantage to students, Reid (1995) stated that raising
students’ awareness of their own learning style preferences can make them not only

more prepared for learning but also more analytic about their learning styles and the
learning strategies they should make use of to fit their styles. In addition, he
proposed that developing an understanding of learning styles “will enable students
to take control of their learning and to maximize their potential for learning” (p.14).
1.2. Vocabulary learning strategies
1.2.1. Definitions
Since vocabulary learning strategies are a subcategory of language learning
strategies, it is vital that language learning strategies should be defined first so that
the definition of vocabulary learning strategies can be better-clarified. A number of
definitions of language learning strategies have been stated so far. The table below
shows chronologically how the term evolved through the history of linguistics
researching.
Table i. Definitions of language learning strategies
Authors

What are LLS?

What are LLS for?

Rubin (1975)

Techniques or devices

To acquire knowledge

Bialystok (1978)

Methods/conscious

For

enterprises

information

exploiting
to

available
improve

competence in L2
Cohen (1987)

Mental operations

Rubin (1987)

Set of operations, steps, To facilitate the obtaining,
plans,

routines

To accomplish learning tasks

of

learners do

what storage, retrieval, and use of

information,

to

regulate

learning

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Wenden (1987)

Language

learning To learn and regulate L2

behaviors learners actually learning
engage

in,

strategic

knowledge about learning
Oxford (1990)

Specific actions, behaviors, To improve their progress in

steps or techniques that developing second language
students intentionally use

skills

Regarding the definition of a language’s vocabulary learning strategies
Cameron (2001) defined vocabulary learning strategies as “actions that learners take
to help themselves understand and remember vocabulary.”
Catalan (2003) proposed a more concrete and careful definition of
vocabulary learning strategies:
“Vocabulary learning strategies are knowledge about the mechanisms (processes,
strategies) used in order to learn vocabulary as well as steps or actions taken by
students to find out the meaning of unknown words, to retain them in long-term
memory, to recall them at will, and to use them in oral or written mode.”

Brown & Payne (1994) stated a five-step process in learning vocabulary of a
foreign language:
(a) Having sources for encountering new words;
(b) Getting a clear image, either visual or auditory or both, of the forms of the new
words;
(c) Learning the meaning of the words;
(d) Making a strong memory connection between the forms and the meanings of
the words;
(e) Using the words.
These ways of defining vocabulary learning strategies are, in fact, the same.
Both of them are quite clear, so the researcher would base on these theoretical
premises through this research paper.

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1.2.2. Classifications
A considerable number of definitions of vocabulary learning strategies have
been given out in the history of researching; consequently, many researchers have
carried out categorizing them. Some noteworthy classifications of vocabulary
learning strategies belong to Sanaoui (1995), Stoffer (1995), Gu & Johnson (1996)
and Schmitt (1997).
Sanaoui (1995) constantly conducted three studies on ESL learners in 1990,
1992 and 1993 so as to find out the most thorough classification of vocabulary
learning strategies. They are categorized into the two following distinct approaches:
a structured and an unstructured approach.
Table ii. Structured and Unstructured Approach to Vocabulary
Learning by Sanaoui (1995)
Structured Approach

Unstructured Approach

Opportunities for learning vocabulary
Self-created

Reliance on course

Independent study

Minimal independent study

Range of self-initiated activities
Extensive

Restricted
Records of lexical items

Extensive (tend to be systematic)

Minimal (tend to be ad hoc)

Review of lexical items
Extensive

Little or no review
Practice of lexical items

Self-created opportunities in and outside

Reliance on course

classroom
Stoffer (1995) also carried out a study on 707 students at the University of
Alabama by using a questionnaire which contained 53 items designed to measure
specifically vocabulary learning strategies. She finally demonstrated that these 53
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items could be grouped into nine categories by factor analysis: (1) Strategies
involving authentic language use; (2) Strategies used for self-motivation; (3)
Strategies used to organize words; (4) Strategies used to create mental linkages; (5)

Memory strategies; (6) Strategies involving creative activities; (7) Strategies
involving physical action; (8) Strategies used to overcome anxiety; (9) Auditory
strategies.
Gu and Johnson (1996) used means of a vocabulary learning questionnaire,
vocabulary size tests and proficiency tests to carry out a study on the vocabulary
learning strategies of 850 second-year students at a Chinese university. This
questionnaire comprised of 91 questions correspondent to 91 items of vocabulary
learning strategies and these questions were to figure out whether the students
employed these strategies or not. These 91 vocabulary learning strategies were
categorized into seven sub-groups. The following table would give an overview of
Gu and Johnson’s classification of vocabulary learning strategies.
Table iii. Gu and Johnson’s classification of VLS
Dimensions and Categories
Metacognitive

-

Selective attention

regulation

-

Self-initiation

Guessing strategies

-

Using background knowledge/wider context

-

Using linguistic cues/immediate context

-

Dictionary strategies for comprehension

-

Extended dictionary strategies

-

Looking-up strategies

Dictionary strategies

Note-taking strategies -

Rehearsal strategies

Meaning-oriented note-taking strategies

-

Usage-oriented note-taking strategies

-

Using word lists

-

Oral repetition
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