Luận văn thạc sĩ VNU ULIS an investigation into non english major students vocabulary learning strategies at the central vocational college of transport number 1

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES
****************************************

LÊ THỊ NHÂM

AN INVESTIGATION INTO NON-ENGLISH MAJOR STUDENTS’
VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGIES AT THE CENTRAL
VOCATIONAL COLLEGE OF TRANSPORT NUMBER 1
NGHIÊN CỨU VIỆC SỬ DỤNG CÁC CHIẾN LƯỢC HỌC TỪ
VỰNG CỦA SINH VIÊN KHÔNG CHUYÊN TIẾNG ANH TRƯỜNG
CAO ĐẲNG NGHỀ GIAO THÔNG VẬN TẢI TRUNG ƯƠNG 1

M.A. MINOR THESIS
FIELD: ENGLISH TEACHING METHODOLOGY
CODE: 601410

HANOI, 2012

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VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES
****************************************

LÊ THỊ NHÂM

AN INVESTIGATION INTO NON-ENGLISH MAJOR STUDENTS’

VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGIES AT THE CENTRAL
VOCATIONAL COLLEGE OF TRANSPORT NUMBER 1
NGHIÊN CỨU VIỆC SỬ DỤNG CÁC CHIẾN LƯỢC HỌC TỪ
VỰNG CỦA SINH VIÊN KHÔNG CHUYÊN TIẾNG ANH TRƯỜNG
CAO ĐẲNG NGHỀ GIAO THÔNG VẬN TẢI TRUNG ƯƠNG 1

M.A. MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS

FIELD: ENGLISH TEACHING METHODOLOGY
CODE: 601410
SUPERVISOR: DO THI THANH HA, M.A

BSTRACT

HANOI, 2012

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CANDIDATE’S STATEMENT ............................................................................. i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...................................................................................... ii
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................ iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................... iv
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES ...................................................................... vii
PART 1:INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 1
1. Rationale of the study ........................................................................................... 1
2. The Study Objectives ............................................................................................ 2
3.Research Questions ............................................................................................... 2
4.Scope of the Study ................................................................................................. 3

5. Method of the Study ............................................................................................. 3
6. Outline of the Study .............................................................................................. 3
PART 2: DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................. 5
1.1. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 5
1.2. Vocabulary and its Roles in Language Learning ................................................ 5
1.3. Aspects of Vocabulary Knowledge .................................................................... 6
1.4. Vocabulary Learning Strategies ......................................................................... 9
1.4.1. Language Learning Strategies .............................................................. 9
1.4.1.1. The Definitions of Learning Strategies ................................... 9
1.4.1.2. Classification of Language Learning Strategies ...................... 10
1.4.2. Vocabulary Learning Strategies ........................................................... 11
1.4.2.1 The Importance of Vocabulary Learning Sstrategies ............... 11
1.4.2.2. Studies on Vocabulary Learning Strategies ............................. 12
1.4.3. Taxonomies of Vocabulary Learning Strategies ................................... 15
1.5. Summary ........................................................................................................... 19

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CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY ......................................................................... 21
2.1. Research Questions ............................................................................................ 21
2.2. Participants and Setting of the Study .................................................................. 21
2.2.1. Participants .......................................................................................... 21
2.2.2. Setting of the Study .............................................................................. 22
2.3. Data Collection Instruments ............................................................................... 23
2.3.1 Test ....................................................................................................... 23
2.3.2. Questionnaire ....................................................................................... 24

2.3.3. Interviews ............................................................................................ 25
2.4. Data Collection Procedure ................................................................................. 25
CHAPTER 3: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ....................................... 27
3.1. Questionnaire ..................................................................................................... 27
3.1.1. Students‟ Awareness of Using Strategies in Learning Vocabulary ........ 27
3.1.2. Students‟ Use of DET Strategies in Vocabulary Learning .................... 28
3.1.3. Students‟ Use of SOC Strategies in Vocabulary Learning .................... 29
3.1.4. Students‟ Use of MEM Strategies in Vocabulary Learning .................. 30
3.1.5. Students‟ Use of COG Strategies in Vocabulary Learning .................... 31
3.1.6. Students‟ Use of MET Strategies in Vocabulary Learning .................... 32
3.2. Interviews .......................................................................................................... 34
3.2.1. Student Interviews ............................................................................... 34
3.2.1.1. Students‟ Awareness in Learning Vocabulary ……………... 34
3.2.1.2. Students‟ use of DET strategies in vocabulary learning .......... 35
3.2.1.3. Students‟ use of SOC strategies in vocabulary learning .......... 36
3.2.1.4. Students‟ use of MEM strategies in vocabulary learning ......... 36
3.2.1.5. Students‟ use of COG strategies in vocabulary learning .......... 37
3.2.1.6. Students‟ use of MET strategies in vocabulary learning .......... 37
3.2.2. Teacher Interviews ............................................................................... 37

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3.3. Summary of the Main Findings and Discussion ................................................. 40
3.3.1. Students‟ Awareness of Using Vocabulary Learning Strategies ........... 40
3.3.2. Students‟ Vocabulary Learning Strategies ............................................ 40
PART 3: CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATION ................................................ 43
1. Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 43

2. Implications .......................................................................................................... 44
3. Limitations and Suggestions for Further Study ..................................................... 46
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 47
APPENDIX

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LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
List of Tables
Table 1: What is involved in knowing a word (Nation, 2001) ................................... 8
Table 2: Nation‟s taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies .................................. 17
Table 3: Participants‟ background ............................................................................ 22
Table 4: Participants‟ levels of proficiency ............................................................... 22
Table 5: Vocabulary learning strategies in the questionnaire ..................................... 25
List of Figures
Figure 1: Students‟ awareness of using vocabulary learning strategies ...................... 27
Figure 2: Students‟ use of DET strategies in vocabulary learning ............................. 28
Figure 3: Students‟ use of SOC strategies in vocabulary learning ............................. 29
Figure 4: Students‟ use of MEM strategies in vocabulary learning ........................... 31
Figure 5: Students‟ use of COG strategies in vocabulary learning ............................. 32
Figure 6: Students‟ use of MET strategies in vocabulary learning ............................ 33

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PART 1: INTRODUCTION

1. Rationale
In language teaching, more emphasis was put on grammatical knowledge rather
than lexical knowledge for a considerable time, with the view that vocabulary was
merely to provide context for the learning of structures. However, as a result of the
development of communicative approaches to language teaching recently, the status of
vocabulary learning process has been considerably enhanced (Nunan, 1991). Applied
linguists believe that the development of a rich vocabulary is an important element in
the acquisition of a second language. Therefore, it is necessary that both teachers and
learners find out effective ways to enrich learners‟ vocabulary.
There is an old proverb which states: “Give a man a fish and he eats for a day.
Teach him how to fish and he eats for a lifetime”. Applied to the language teaching and
learning field, this proverb might be interpreted to mean that if students are provided
with answers, the immediate problem is solved. But if they are taught the
strategies to work out the answers for themselves, they are empowered to manage
their own learning. This point of view has been reflected in the literature of the field. In
the last decades, there has been a gradual but significant shift within the field of
language learning and teaching resulting in greater emphasis on language learners
and learning process rather than language teachers and teaching. As a result of this
shift on learners and the important role that they can play in the process of learning
new languages, a significant amount of research on language learning strategies has
been done in the last few decades. Several studies that have been carried out by Oxford
(1990), O‟Malley and Chamot (1990), Nunan (1991), Rubin and Thompson (1994),
and Cohen (1998) have shown that one of the most important factors that

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distinguish

successful learners

from

unsuccessful

ones

are

their

learning

strategies.
In Vietnam, language learning strategies in general, and vocabulary learning
strategies in particular have received more and more attention. Some studies into this
field have been conducted with different types of learners to find out particular
strategies employed by effective and ineffective learners. However, of all the studies
mentioned, there is none in which the participants are vocationally-trained students. In
Vietnam, there exists a situation that vocational students have high working skills but
limited English competence. Therefore, to help them have better job opportunities in
the environment of globalization, it is necessary to increase their English ability
through effective English teaching and learning activities.
From all the facts mentioned above, I decided to carry out this study to find out
how much awareness vocationally-trained students had of their learning process, and
what vocabulary learning strategies they were employing. My goal is that the

information that this study provides would enable English teachers in vocational
colleges to find out the best way to help students achieve or exceed the expectation.
2. The Study Objectives
The major purposes of this study are:
-

To find out if non-English major students at the Central Vocational College of
Transportation Number 1 are aware of their vocabulary learning processes;

-

To find out the vocabulary learning strategies employed by these students;

-

To provide implications for the teaching and learning of the English vocabulary.

3. Research Questions
The study would be conducted to answer the following questions:

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Question 1: Are non-English major students at the Vocational College aware of
using strategies in their vocabulary learning processes?
Question 2: What vocabulary learning strategies are commonly used by the
students?
4. Scope of the Study

The study was designed to investigate vocabulary learning strategies which were
employed by the students at the Central Vocation College of Transportation Number 1.
The findings obtained from this study would hopefully be used to help improve the
teaching and learning of the English vocabulary at the Central Vocation College of
Transportation Number 1 in particular, and at other vocational schools in general.
5. Methods of the Study
In order to achieve the objectives of the study mentioned above, the quantitative
analysis is the main tool for analyzing the data, which was collected from the
questionnaire.
The results from the survey questionnaires were then combined with interviews
and discussions with the teachers and students at the Central Vocation College of
Transportation Number 1 to provide the final recommendations.
6. Outline of the Study
The thesis is divided into three parts:
Part 1 – Introduction: This part includes the rationale, the objectives, the research
questions, the scope, the methods, and the outline of the study.
Part 2 Development: This part includes 3 chapters as follows:
 Chapter 1 reviews the basic concepts related to language learning strategies,
vocabulary learning, as well as research on vocabulary learning strategies. In

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addition, learning strategy classifications are reviewed to set up the theoretical
framework for the investigation in the next chapter.
 In chapter 2, the questionnaire and interview study is presented. It includes the
setting of the study, the descriptions of the participants, the research questions,
the research method, and data procedure collection.

 Chapter 3 analyzes and discusses the data collected from the questionnaire and
interviews. It also includes the summary and discussion of the main findings.
Part 3 presents the conclusions of the study, implications and limitations of the
study as well as suggestions for further research.

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PART 2: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
1.1.

Introduction
This chapter reviews the theories related to learning strategies in general and

vocabulary learning strategies in particular. It also summarizes some studies on
vocabulary learning strategies that have been conducted so far. All of these serve
as a basis for an investigation into vocabulary learning strategies which is carried
out and presented in the next chapter.
1.2.

Vocabulary and Its Roles in Language Learning
Vocabulary, according to Oxford Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary Sixth Edition

(2000), is “all the words a person know or uses”. To make it more specific, Lewis
(1993:89) defined that vocabulary"... may be individual words, or full sentences institutionalized utterances - that convey fixed social or pragmatic meaning within a
given community”. From these definitions it can be said that vocabulary plays a very
important role in foreign language learning, and the development of an effective

command of second language vocabulary is an ongoing requirement for learning
another language, throughout all levels of proficiency. This is, according to Read
(2001), because “words are the basic building blocks of language, the units of meaning
from which larger structures such as sentences, paragraphs and whole texts are
formed”. By the following statement “without grammar, there are few things we can
express; while without vocabulary, there is nothing we can express”, the British
linguist Wilkins verified the importance of vocabulary in communication. Insufficient
vocabulary or vocabulary difficulties will result in communicational barriers or

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failures. Without vocabulary, no amount of grammatical or other types of linguistic
knowledge can be employed in the second language communication or discourse. In
the very first part of his book on vocabulary, McCarthy (1990:2) wrote: "It is the
experience of most language teachers that the single, biggest component of any
language course is vocabulary. No matter how well the students learn grammar, no
matter how successfully sounds of second language are mastered, without words to
express the wide range of meaning, communication in second language just cannot
happen in any meaningful way". In Alexander‟s opinion, "comprehension improves
when you know what the words mean" and "words are the currency of communication.
A robust vocabulary improves all areas of communication - listening, speaking, reading
and writing". These all show that the success of a student in becoming proficient in any
language depends in part on the extent and richness of his/her vocabulary.
In summary, due to the unchangeable role of vocabulary in the success of
language learning, it is essential that vocabulary be a part of the syllabus and
vocabulary teaching must be well-planned. More important, learner‟s vocabulary
learning is the main source for enriching their vocabulary. Therefore, how to learn

vocabulary effectively is the question that a teacher must answer to help his students.
To do that, he must know how his students are learning vocabulary and if their
strategies are effective.
1.3.

Aspects of Vocabulary Knowledge
Many people believe that knowing a word means knowing its meaning. Cook

(2001:61) states that “a word is more than its meaning.” For Cook, knowing a word
may involve four aspects: form of the word (for instance spelling and pronunciation),
grammatical properties (for example, grammatical category of a word, its possible and

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impossible structure), lexical properties (for instance, word combinations and
appropriateness), and general meaning and specific meaning.
According to Schmitt (1998, cited in Hurd, S & Lewis, T, 2008), there is no
single moment when we can say we “know” a word: gaining knowledge of vocabulary
in a lengthy, cumulative process depending on:
- Knowing the form of the word: its spelling, pronunciation, and its constituent parts.
- Knowing its meaning: the basic concept it represents, its meaning in different
contexts, its associations.
- Knowing its use: its grammar, collocations, register and variations or restriction on
use.
Besides considering individual words, learners also need to pay attention to
lexical “chunks”, multi-words units and collocations.
Nation (2001) shared the same point of view in aspects of knowing a word.

However, he differentiates between receptive and productive aspects of second
language vocabulary knowledge, saying that “receptive vocabulary use involves
perceiving the form of a word while listening or reading and retrieving its meaning.
Productive vocabulary use involves wanting to express a meaning through speaking or
writing and retrieving and producing the appropriate spoken or written word form”.
Details of the requirements for knowing a word receptively and productively are listed
in the table 1 below.

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Table 1: What is involved in knowing a word (Nation, 2001)

Spoken

Form

How is the word pronounced?

R

What does the word look like?

P

How is the word written and spelled?

R

What parts are recognisable in this word?

P

What word parts are needed to express the meaning

Form and

R

What meaning does this word signal?

meaning

P

What word form can be used to express this meaning?

Concept and

R

What is included in the concept?

referents

P

What items can the concept refer to?

R

What other words does the word make us think of?

P

What other words could we use instead of this one?

Grammatical

R

In what patterns does the word occur?

functions

P

In what patterns must we use this word?

Collocations

R

What words or types of words occur with this one?

P

What words or types of words must we use with this one?

Constraints

R

Where, when and how often do we expect to meet this word?

on use

P

Where, when and how often can we use this word?

Written

Association

Use

What does the word sound like?

P

Word parts

Meaning

R (*)

(*) Note: in column 3, R = receptive knowledge, P = productive knowledge.

To sum up, knowing a word does not mean knowing what it refers to but also
many other aspects such as form, meaning, and usage. Therefore, to succeed in
learning vocabulary, learners need to employs a wide range of learning strategies
which are suitable for each process. Depending on the strategies they use, teacher can
assess whether they succeed in learning it or not.

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1.4.

Vocabulary Learning Strategies

1.4.1. Language Learning Strategies.
It is important that the discussion of language learning strategies precedes that of
vocabulary learning strategies because the former will allow us to better understand the
theoretical and empirical background of vocabulary learning strategies. The strong
relation between the general language learning strategies and the more specific
vocabulary learning strategies lies in the fact that the majority of language learning
strategies are in fact vocabulary learning strategies or can be used to learn second
language vocabulary.
1.4.1.1.

Definitions of Learning Strategies

Most of us may agree with Oxford‟s statement (1990:1) that “strategies are
especially important for language learning because they are tool for active, selfdirected involvement, which is essential for communicative competence. Appropriate
language learning strategies result in improved proficiency and greater selfconfidence”. However, to say what learning strategies exactly are is not simple. For

decades, scholars have been trying to define them but there seems to be some
variations in their definitions.
Learning strategies, broadly defined by Rubin (1975, cited in Griffiths, 2004),
are “the techniques or devices which a learner may use to acquire knowledge”. Later,
the definition of learning strategies was made clearer and more specific according to
each scholar‟s perspectives. For instance, O'Malley and Chamot (1990:1), when
considering language learning strategies as both physical and mental actions, defined
the concept of language learning strategies as “special thoughts or behaviors that
individuals use to comprehend, learn, or retain new information”. Meanwhile, Oxford
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(1990: 8) expanded the definition by stating that language learning strategies include
“specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable,
more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations”. By the
definition, she implied that learners are generally aware of what techniques or
approaches they have used to facilitate the process of language learning. Cohen
(1990:5) described language learning strategies as “learning processes which are
consciously selected by learners”. In addition, she maintained that “language learning
and language use strategies can be defined as those processes which are consciously
selected by learners and which may result in action taken to enhance the learning or use
of a second or foreign language, through the storage, retention, recall, and application
of information about that language.” (Cohen, 1998:4)
In short, despite their differences, some common features can be inferred from
the above definitions. Strategies play an important role in language learning as they
promote and facilitate language learning. In fact, they are techniques consciously used
by learners to cope with the complex process of learning. Learning strategies are not
always observable to the human eyes but can be trained to make learners aware of the

existence of their own strategies and train them in practice.
1.4.1.2.

Classification of Language Learning Strategies

If there has not been common agreement in the definition of strategies, the same
can be said of their categorization and classification. It is the fact that different criteria
are used to classify language learning strategies, causing inconsistencies and
mismatches across existing taxonomies and other categorizations (Cohen, 1998).
According to O‟Malley (1990) language learning strategies are divided into three
categories: metacognitive, cognitive and social. Oxford (1990) classified learning
strategies into direct strategies (those which directly involve the target language

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such as reviewing and practising) and indirect strategies (those which provide indirect
support for language learning such as planning, co-operating and seeking
opportunities). From these two groups, she divided them into six subgroups which are
memory strategies, cognitive strategies, compensation strategies, metacognitive
strategies, affective strategies and social strategies. These six categories are often
named the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) and used by Oxford and
other researchers for a great deal of studies in the learning strategy field.
The classification of language learning strategies is an important base for the
classification of vocabulary learning strategies. However, the inconsistent classification
may cause difficulties in dividing vocabulary learning strategies into groups. In the
later part, the issue is going to be made clearer.
1.4.2. Vocabulary Learning Strategies

1.4.2.1.

The Importance of Vocabulary Learning Strategies

In the previous part, a number of definitions of language learning strategies have
been reviewed. One of which was by O'Malley and Chamot (1990:1), where learning
strategies was defined as “the special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help
them comprehend, learn or retain new information”. This very broad definition is
echoed by Schmitt in defining vocabulary learning strategies. Schmitt (1997:203)
stated that learning is “the process by which information is obtained, stored, retrieved
and used... therefore vocabulary learning strategies could be any which affect this
broadly defined process”.
The main benefit gained from all learning strategies, including strategies for
vocabulary learning, is the fact that they enable learners to take more control of their
own learning so that students can take more responsibility for their studies (Nation,
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2001). Consequently, the strategies improve proficiency and foster self-confidence
(Oxford, 1990). When equipped with a range of different vocabulary learning
strategies, students can decide upon how exactly they would like to deal with unknown
words. Nation (2001) believed that a large amount of vocabulary could be acquired
with the help of vocabulary learning strategies and that the strategies prove useful for
students of different language proficiency levels.
If vocabulary is considered one of the factors determining the success of
communication and level of proficiency, then vocabulary learning strategies can be
tools or means to achieve it. Therefore, to assess learners‟ language learning and enable
them to get improved, it is important to study how they start with the most basic

element of language, vocabulary, through strategies they are employing.
1.4.2.2.

Studies on Vocabulary Learning Strategies

Due to their importance in the language learning, language learning strategies in
general, vocabulary learning strategies in particular have attracted a lot of attention
from scholars. The great interest they created has been reflected by the number of the
studies on this topic. Among these are studies that have been carried out by such
famous researchers as Oxford, O‟Malley and

Chamot, Rubin, Gu and Johnson,

Schmitt, Cohen, and so on. Generally, the results of these studies revealed that many
learners employ learning strategies in vocabulary learning more frequently than in
other language learning activities. Research has also shown that one of the most
important factors that distinguishes successful learners from unsuccessful ones is
their learning strategies. In other words, successful learners do use some effective
learning strategies to deal with problems that emerge during their learning process
while unsuccessful ones employ inappropriate or ineffective strategies resulting in
their

below-expectation results.

This

finding

has

provoked interests

among

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researchers and teachers in identifying learning strategies employed by good
language learners with a view to train ineffective learners to use such effective learning
strategies.
There are two important questions, which studies on this topic try to find the
answers: (i) which strategies are the most commonly used and (ii) which are likely to
prove the most effective. Lawson and Hogben‟s study (cited in Pavicic, 2008) reported
that the most common approaches were repetition strategies but that, by and large,
these were not especially successful; elaboration strategies were more likely to promote
successful recall. Ahmed (1989) (cited in Pavicic, 2008) found good learners tended to
make effective use of both monolingual and bilingual dictionaries. Meanwhile, Schmitt
(1997) discovered that adult learners were more likely to employ meaning-based
strategies than their younger counterparts (school children) who relied on
memorisation and consolidated learning by focusing almost exclusively on word forms.
With regard to the choice of strategies, the studies in this field indicated that it
may be connected with the level of knowledge. Beginners often employ mechanical
strategies such as memorisation (Cohen & Aphek, 1981, cited in Pavicic, 2008) or
repetition (O‟Malley et al., 1985a cited in Pavicic, 2008) because they cannot
successfully use strategies requiring higher levels of the second language knowledge.
On the other hand, some studies confirmed that complex strategies such as making
associations result in more successful learning, i.e. longer retention of vocabulary.
Such strategies can be used by more proficient learners of the target language. It means

that there exists a relationship between the use of vocabulary learning strategies and
learners‟ proficiency level. This relationship is supported in the study by Gu and Johns
(1996), involving Chinese English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners. In this
research, they used a questionnaire, a vocabulary size test and a proficiency test to
compare the frequency of vocabulary learning strategy usage with learners‟ beliefs
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about vocabulary learning, level of development of learners‟ vocabulary and learning
success. The results showed that two metacognitive strategies (self-initiating and
selective attention) and cognitive strategies such as guessing from context, using a
dictionary for learning, note-taking, attending to word formation, contextual coding
and deliberate activation of new words were important to the level of development of
learners‟ vocabulary and learning success.
In Vietnam, language learning strategies as well as vocabulary learning
strategies have received more and more attention. Some studies into this field have
been conducted with different types of learners to find out particular vocabulary
learning strategies employed by effective and ineffective learners such as Huyen‟s
study (2001) for students majoring in English at Qui Nhon university, or Lien‟s
study (2010) for non-English major freshers. Both studies were conducted to find out
the frequency use of different vocabulary learning strategies. Questionnaire was the
main research tool in these researches.
Of all the studies mentioned, there are none in which the participants are
vocationally-trained students. Meanwhile in Vietnam, there exists a situation that
vocational students have high working skills but limited English competence, which
narrows their chances to find a job in an international environment. Thus, to help them
have better job opportunities in the environment of globalization, it is necessary to
increase their English ability through effective English teaching and learning activities.

This reality has arisen a demand of carrying out a research of which subjects are
vocationally-trained students. As mentioned above, vocabulary plays an important role
in the success of the learning process; it is a good idea to find out how this group of
learners learns the vocabulary. From the information gathered, teachers can find the
best ways to help them achieve their goals.

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1.4.3. Taxonomies of Vocabulary Learning Strategies
The classification of vocabulary learning strategies depending on such factors as
aspects of knowing a word, the acquisition of the second language, and the vocabulary
learning process. Taking all into consideration, researchers have attempted to classify
vocabulary learning strategies into different groups. For instance, Stoffer (1995, cited
in Schmitt, 1997) put vocabulary learning strategies into nine categories with 53
individual strategies:
(1) Strategies involving authentic language use,
(2) Strategies involving creative activities,
(3) Strategies used for self-motivation,
(4) Strategies used to create mental linkages,
(5) Memory strategies ,
(6) Visual/auditory strategies,
(7) Strategies involving physical action,
(8) Strategies used to overcome anxiety and
(9) Strategies used to organize words.
Gu and Johnson (1996) developed a classification of vocabulary learning
strategies including beliefs about vocabulary learning, metacognitive regulation,
guessing strategies, dictionary strategies, note-taking strategies, memory strategies

based on rehearsal, memory strategies based on encoding, and activation strategies.
Based on Oxford's (1990) taxonomy of language learning strategies, which
grouped language learning strategies into social, memory, cognitive, and metacognitive
categories (as discussed in part 1.4.1.2),

Schmitt (1997) proposed a list of 58

individual vocabulary learning strategies. First, the list is divided into two major

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classes: (1) strategies that are useful for the initial discovery of a word‟s meaning, and
(2) those useful for remembering that word once it has been introduced. The reason for
this classification, as explained by Schmitt, is: “this reflects the different processes
necessary for working out a new word‟s meaning and usage, and for consolidating it in
memory for future use”. Second, the strategies are further classified into five following
groups, four of which are the same with those from Oxford‟s taxonomy.
1. Determination strategies (DET):Strategies learners use to discover the
meaning of new words without recourse to another person‟s expertise. This
group of strategies includes guessing from one‟s structural knowledge of a
language, guessing from the first language cognate, guessing from context, or
using reference materials.
2. Social strategies (SOC): Learners use interaction with other people to improve
language learning. Usually, learners ask teachers or classmates for information
about a new word and they can give them the first language translation,
definition, synonyms, antonyms, and so on. These strategies can also be used for
consolidating in such activities as group work or interaction with native

speakers
3. Memory strategies (MEM) (traditionally known as mnemonics), involve
relating the word with some previously learned knowledge by using some form
of imagery or grouping. A new word can be integrated into many kinds of
existing knowledge (e.g., previous experiences or known words) or images can
be custom-made for retrieval (e.g., images of the word‟s form or meaning
attributes). Grouping and the use of physical action are also useful for recalling.

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4. Cognitive strategies (COG) are somewhat similar to memory strategies but the
difference is that they are not focused so specifically on manipulative mental
processing. This group includes repetition and mechanical means of learning
vocabulary such as word lists, flashcards, and vocabulary notebooks.
5. Metacognitive strategies (MET) involving a conscious overview of the
learning process and making decision about planning, monitoring or evaluating
the best way to study. The consciousness can be seen in learners‟ decision of
learning method, self test of vocabulary knowledge, choice of word to learn, and
improvement of access to input.
Nation (2001) proposed a taxonomy for vocabulary learning strategies including
three classes corresponding to three aspects of second language vocabulary learning:
(1) aspects of vocabulary knowledge, (2) sources of vocabulary knowledge, and (3)
learning processes. They are strategies for planning vocabulary learning, strategies for
finding out information about words (sources), and strategies for establishing
knowledge (processes). In each class, strategies are subdivided into different strategies
as in the following table:
Table 2: Nation’s taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies

General class of strategies

Types of strategies

Planning: choosing what to

 Choosing words

focus on and when to focus

 Choosing the aspects of word knowledge

on

 Choosing the strategies
 Planning repetition

Sources: finding

 Analyze the word

information about words

 Using word parts

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 Learning from word cards
 Using context
 Using a dictionary
 Consulting a reference source in the first or
second language
 Using parallels in the first and second language
Processes: establishing

 Noticing

knowledge

 Retrieving
 Generating

Overall, vocabulary learning strategies have been classified differently in
various

ways

by

different

researchers.

Some

offered

vocabulary

learning

categories are distinctive, while some others are inter-connected in a list. Although
some of these categories have been named differently and seem overlapped, they
seem to share some common strategies. The most common or notable individual
vocabulary learning strategies tend to fall largely in the Memory category. This
is followed by Metacognitive, Cognitive, Social and Determination categories.
Most vocabulary learning strategies can be applied to a wide range of
vocabulary learning, and are useful at all levels or stages of vocabulary learning.
These vocabulary learning strategies are very important for language learners
since they promote language learners to take control of their learning away from
the teacher. In other words, language learners with a variety of vocabulary
learning strategies would make themselves more self-directed learners. They
would also make their vocabulary learning easier, faster, more enjoyable and more
effective themselves.
Of all the classifications suggested, the one by Schmitt has been used the most
as the source of reference in studies on vocabulary learning strategies. The reason lies
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in the fact that it was developed based on the study of approximately 600 learners of
different groups of age, ranging from young learners to adults. Therefore, it
representatively reflects the strategies learners use in vocabulary learning. Besides,
these strategies help learners fulfill the requirements of knowing a word, and fit with
processes of learning a word which are discovery and consolidation. Most of these
strategies can also be found in two classes in Nation‟s taxonomy, which are sources

and processes. However, in his classification, Nation added strategies relating to
elements of vocabulary. These strategies reflect learner‟s awareness of what and how
they should learn. In other words, they show learners‟ autonomy in learning the
vocabulary. Since vocabulary learning includes implicit and explicit learning,
autonomy is an important factor to measure the efficiency of the vocabulary learning.
With the objectives of finding out learners‟ use of strategies in vocabulary learning,
Schmitt (1997) and Nation (2001) taxonomies have been used as the reference sources
for the current study.
1.5.

Summary
Related theories on language learning strategies in general and vocabulary

learning strategies in particular have been presented in this chapter. Some of the main
points can be summarized as follows. Concerning

the

definition

of

learning

strategies, there have been different points of views by different scholars. Some
scholars see learning strategies as behaviors while others view them as thoughts
and behaviors. However, it is generally agreed that language learning strategies play
an important role in second language learning and these can be trained to help learners
achieve higher results.
In terms of vocabulary learning strategies, chapter 1 has presented the role of

vocabulary in language learning, and some important aspects in vocabulary learning

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