Luận văn thạc sĩ VNU ULIS developing students’ critical thinking skills through project based learning – an action research study at a high school in bac giang province

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HA NOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

NGÔ THỊ THU TRANG

DEVELOPING STUDENTS’ CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS
THROUGH PROJECT - BASED LEARNING –
AN ACTION RESEARCH STUDY AT A HIGH SCHOOL
IN BAC GIANG PROVINCE
(Phát triển kỹ năng tư duy phê phán cho học sinh thông qua dạy học dự ánNghiên cứu cải tiến sư phạm tại một trường trung học phổ thông tỉnh Bắc Giang)

M.A. MINOR THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60140111

HANOI – 2017

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VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HA NOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

NGÔ THỊ THU TRANG

DEVELOPING STUDENTS’ CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS
THROUGH PROJECT - BASED LEARNING –
AN ACTION RESEARCH STUDY AT A HIGH SCHOOL

IN BAC GIANG PROVINCE
(Phát triển kỹ năng tư duy phê phán cho học sinh thông qua dạy học dự ánNghiên cứu cải tiến sư phạm tại một trường trung học phổ thông tỉnh Bắc Giang)

M.A. MINOR THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60140111
Supervisor: Dr. VŨ THỊ THANH NHÃ

HANOI - 2017

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DECLARATION
I hereby certify the thesis entitled “Developing students’criticalstudents’
critical thinking skills through project-based learning – An action research study
at a high school in Bac Giang province” as my own work in the fulfillment of the
requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts at the University of Languages and
International Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi.

Bac Giang, 2017
Student‟s signaifiture

Ngô Thị Thu Trang

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This thesis would not be completed without the help of a number of people. I
would like to express my thanks to all of them.
First of all, I would like to express my great gratitude to my supervisor, Dr.
Vu Thi Thanh Nha, for her continuous support, careful guidance and valuable
advice throughout the whole research process. With her comprehensive instruction,
her insprirationinspiration, enthusiasm and immense knowledge, she helped me step
by step write up my thesis to the best of my ability and open my
knowlegeknowledge of literature.
Second, I am also grateful to all teachers attheat the Faculty of PostGraduated Department at the University of Languages and International Studies,
Vietnam National University, Hanoi for their devotion and their useful lectures
contributing to my understanding of the problem and leading to the completion of
the thesis.
Last but not least, I would like to take this opportunity to send my love to my
family and my friends, especially my parents, my younger brother, my husband, my
little son, who have been encouraging me and supporting me wholeheartedly.Thanksheartedly. Thanks for their spiritual support throughout this study.
To them all I dedicate this thesis.

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ABSTRACT

This study is an action research project conducted with students in class
11A1 at Lang Giang 1 High School- a high school in a mountainous province in the
North of Vietnam. It provides an overview of the conceptions of critical thinking

skills and project-based learning, seeks to investigate the effects of project-based
learning

on

developing

critical

thinking

skills.

Classroom

observation,

questionairesquestionnaires, and interview were used as instruments to collect data
for reflection throughout the research. Data from classroom observations were
analyzed quantitatively. Data gained through the questionnaire at the end of the
second circle were analyzed with the use of descriptive statistics and data obtained
from interviews were also analyzed qualitatively.

The findings from the

observation reveal that activities such as evaluating the realiabilityreliability of
sources of information; critical questioning; making connections between prior
knowlegeknowledge and topics; collecting, analysinganalyzing and evaluating
information; creating the final products; evaluating the projects- using rubrics and
feedback form can fostercriticalfoster critical thinking skills among students with

the teacher‟ role as a facilitator in the classroom. According to the results of
questionairesquestionnaires and interview, almost all students are generally satisfied
with project-based learning to develop critical thinking. They realized the benefits
of activities in project-based learning to enhance their critical thinking as well as
their English skills.

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LIST OF ABBRIVIATIONS

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LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES, CHARTS

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Figure 1: 21st Century Student Outcomes and Support Systems and Support
Systems........................................................................................................................ 1
Table 1: Bloom‟s Taxonomy by Bloom (1956) .......................................................... 6
Table 2: Revised taxonomy by Anderson and Krathwohl (2000) ............................ 13
Table 3: Students‟ interest about topics of projects .................................................. 36

Table 4: Students‟ changes after taking part in the lessons using project-based
learning to develop critical thinking skills ................................................................ 37
Chart 1 : Project- based learning with the development of students’ English skills .. 38

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

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DECLARATION ........................................................................................................ i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................ ii
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................. iii
LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES, CHARTS .............................................................. v
PART A: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1
1. Rationale for the study ............................................................................................ 1
2. Aims of the study .................................................................................................... 2
3. Research questions .................................................................................................. 2
4. Significance of the study ......................................................................................... 3
5. Scope of the study ................................................................................................... 3
6. Method of the study ................................................................................................ 3
7. Design of the study.................................................................................................. 3
PART B: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................ 5
1.1. Critical thinking skills .......................................................................................... 5
1.2. The importance of teaching critical thinking skills in foreign language

education ..................................................................................................................... 6
1.3. Project-based learning .......................................................................................... 7
1.4. Relations between project-based learning and the development of students‟
critical thinking skills .................................................................................................. 9
1.5. How can project-based learning improve students‟ critical thinking skills? ..... 10
1.5.1. Evaluating the reliability of sources of information ....................................... 11
1.5.2. Critical questioning ......................................................................................... 11
1.5.3. Making connection between prior knowledge and topics ............................... 12
1.5.4. Collecting , analyzing and evaluating information ......................................... 12
1.5.5. Creating the final products .............................................................................. 13
1.5.6. Evaluating the project - using rubrics and feedback form .............................. 14
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1.6. Summary ............................................................................................................ 14
CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY ......................................................................... 16
2.1. Context of the study .......................................................................................... 16
2.2. Research questions ............................................................................................. 17
2.3. The study ............................................................................................................ 17
2.3.1. Participants .................................................................................................... 17
2.3.2. Reasons for using action research .................................................................. 17
2.3.3. Action procedures .......................................................................................... 18
2.4. Research instruments ....................................................................................... 18
2.4.1. Observation ..................................................................................................... 18
2.4.2. Questionnaires ................................................................................................. 19
2.5. Data collection procedures ................................................................................. 20
2.5.1. Stage 1: Plan - Plan the action ........................................................................ 20
2.5.2. Stage 2: Act- Putting the plan into action ....................................................... 21

2.5.3. Stage 3: Observe – Observing the results of the plan................................. 23
2.5.4. Stage 4: Reflect – Reflecting and planning for further action ................... 24
2.6. Data analysis ...................................................................................................... 24
2.7. Summary ........................................................................................................... 26
CHAPTER 3: FINDINGS ...................................................................................... 27
3.1. Findings from the observation ........................................................................... 27
3.1.1. The first cycle - Project “ For a better community” ....................................... 27
3.1.2. The second cycle - Project “ The best invention” .......................................... 32
3.2. Findings from the questionnaires ....................................................................... 36
3.2.1 Students‟ interest about topics of projects ....................................................... 36
3.2.2. Students‟ changes after taking part in the lessons using project-based learning
to develop critical thinking skills .............................................................................. 37
3.2.3 Project- based learning with the development of students‟ English skills....... 38
3.3. Findings from interview ..................................................................................... 39
3.4. Summary ............................................................................................................ 41
PART C: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ................................................... 42
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1. Recapitulation of the research ............................................................................... 42
2. Discussion ............................................................................................................. 43
3. Limitations of the study ........................................................................................ 45
4. Recommendations of the study ............................................................................. 45
5. Suggestions for further study ................................................................................ 46
6. Conclusion............................................................................................................. 46
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................ 48
APPENDENCES
APPENDIX 1 LESSON PLAN Project 1: “ FOR A BETTER COMMUNITY” I

APPENDIX 2 LESSON PLAN Project 2: “ THE BEST INVENTION” ........... III
APPENDIX 3 ACTIVITIES IN PROJECT-BASED LEARNING TO
DEVELOP CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS ...................................................... V
APPENDIX 4 PRE-OBSERVATION ................................................................. VII
APPENDIX 5 CLASSROOM OBSERVATION ............................................... VIII
APPENDIX 6 QUESTIONNAIRES ......................................................................IX
APPENDIX 7 TALLY SHEET ..............................................................................XI
APPENDIX 8 SAMPLE PRODUCT 1 ................................................................. XII
APPENDIX 9 SAMPLE PRODUCT 2 .............................................................. XVII
APPENDIX 10 FEEDBACK FORM.................................................................. XX
APPENDIX 11 INTERVIEW QUESTIONS ..................................................... XXI
APPENDIX 12 TRANSCRIPT OF STUDENTS’ ANSWERS IN THE
INTERVIEW ...................................................................................................... XXII

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PART A: INTRODUCTION

1. Rationale for the study
While the traditional classroom tends to require passive learning, the classroom
over the last few decades has taken place a significant shift to meet the demand of
the changing workforce. It focuses attention on fostering important skills required
for 21st-century education: critical thinking, communication, collaboration and
creativity that are developed in the Partnership Forum for 21st-Century Skills.

Figure 1: 21st Century Student Outcomes and Support Systems and Support
Systems
Critical thinking has been included in many models of skills that are
important for education and workforce success (Trilling & Fadel, 2009).
Understanding and fostering the ability to help students think critically is essential
to their educational success. Students need to think deeply about global issues, solve
problems creatively, work in teams, learn ever-changing technologies and deal with
a flood of information. Teaching critical thinking in the classroom is vital for
students. Learning critical thinking leads students to develop other skills, such as a
higher level of concentration, deeper analytical abilities. It is teachers‟ job as
educators to equip students with the strategies and skills which they need to think

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deeply about global issues, solve problems creatively, work in teams, learn everchanging technologies and deal with abundant information.
Unlike students in Western educational systems, many Vietnamese students,
epeciallyespecially students at schools in remote and mountainous areas, have not
benefited from the explicit inclusion of developing critical thinking skills as an
educational goal over a number of years. Critical thinking skills are also the point

missed in Vietnamese students. In Vietnam, “teachers provide information for the
students to learn by heart forexaminationsfor examinations” and “the students are
notmotivatednot motivated to learn beyond the exam” (OanhOanh, 2006). As a
result,

learners

emphasiseemphasize

repetition,

recitation,

memorisationmemorization of factual information from the textbook while they are
uncritical of the information they receive from their teachers or from the textbook (
Le, 2011).
One question coming to the researcher‟s mind is “How to develop my students‟
critical thinking skill?”Manyskills? “Many scholartsscholars report that projectbased learning provides opportunities for students to learn deep content knowledge
and critical thinking skills (Bell, 2010, Blumenfeld et al, 1991). Many benefits of
incorporating project work in teaching foreign languages have been suggested. The
facts above urge the researcher to carry out the action research, which is aimed at
developing students‟ critical thinking skills through project-based learning.
2. Aims of the study
The study aims at exploring the impact of project-based learning on the
development of students‟ critical thinking skills, and use project – based learning as
a guiding framework for teachers‟ implementation. Aware that the goal is to know
the effect of project-based learning to scaffold critical thinking, the researcher
thinks of activities focusing on developing critical thinking skills.
3. Research questions
In order to achieve the research objective, the researcher will answer the

following questions:
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(1) What activities in project-based learning can teachers do to develop critical
thinking for students?
(2) What are the students’ attitudes towards project-based learning to develop
critical thinking skills ?

4. Significance of the study
The study focuses on exploring how project-based learning influences the
development of students‟ citicalcritical thinking skills. Hence, once the thesis is
completed, it can have both theoretical and practical contributions. In terms of
theoretical contributions, the research is expected to provide the demonstration of
critical thinking skills in foreign language classroom and influences of projectbased learning to the development of students‟ critical thinking skills. In addition,
this thesis is hoped to serve as a realiablereliable and useful reference material about
project-based learning in a pedagogical environment for high school teachers in
Vietnam.
5. Scope of the study
The researcher is concerned with the implementation of project-based
learning to developing students‟ critical thinking skills. The participants of study
include 40 students from class 11A1 in Lang Giang 1 High School- a mountainous
school in Bac Giang Province.
6. Method of the study
The method employed in this study is action research, with the use of a
number of instruments, namely observation, questionnaires, and interview.
Action research has been proved to be the best choice for this study because the
study was aimed at improving the students‟ critical thinking skills within a certain

context. The combination of different instruments used in this research would help
the researcher to gain reliable data and have a close investigation into the
effectiveness of project-based learning.
7. Design of the study
The study is divided into three main parts as follow:
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Part A: Introduction presents the rationale for study, aims, research questions, the
significance, the scope, the method and the design of the study.
Part B: Development is organized around three chapters as follows:
Chapter 1- Literature review synthesizes the theoretical framework of the study
related to critical thinking skills, project-based learning,theirlearning, their relations
as well as the ways project-based learning improve students‟ critical thinking skills.
Chapter 2 – Methodology illustrates the context, the methodology used in this
study including the subject, the data collection instruments, data collection
procedure, and data analysis.
Chapter 3 – Findings consists of a comprehensive analysis of the data.
Part C: Discussion and Conclusions summarizes the main issues discussed in the

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thesis, discusses the findings, points out some limitations of the research and
implications for teaching and English together with suggestions for further studies.

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PART B: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter will briefly present a theoretical background of the study which
includes overview of critical thinking skills, the importance of teaching critical thinking
skills in foreign language education, project-based learning, relations between projectbased learning and the development of students‟ critical thinking skills as well as the
ways project-based learning improve students‟ critical thinking skills.
1.1. Critical thinking skills
We must have heard at some point in our daily life the concept “critical
thinking”. It seems to be present in speeches, the mass media and in the syllabus, but it
is hard to define, which results in different interpretations in different contexts.
The initial ideas to explore the theoretical foundation of modern critical
thinking tradition was developed by John Dewey, an American philosopher,
psychologist, and educator. He defines it as an “active, persistent and careful
consideration of a belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds
which support it and the further conclusions to which it tends” ( Dewey, 1933, p.9).
In this definition, Dewey emphasizes reflective thinking, asking oneself questions
about what to believe through evaluating reasoning, and considering the
implications of one‟s beliefs. As outlined by Glaser (1941), critical thinking
involves three main components: (1) an attitude of being disposed to consider in a
thoughtful way the problems and subjects that come within the range of one's
experiences, (2) knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning, and (3)
some skills in applying those methods. Critical thinking requires an ability to
recognize problems, using the knowledge in the light of evidence to draw
conclusions and to render judgementsjudgments about specific things and qualities
in everyday life. The approaches to critical thinking are also subsumed in the
perception of Black et al ( 2012). They state that critical thinking is based on
analysis

and

rationality.

The

processes

which

lead

to

that

end

are

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“AnalysingAnalyzing arguments; judging the relevance of significance of
information;

evaluating

claims,

inferences,

arguments

and

explanations;

constructing clear and coherent arguments; forming well-reasoned judgments and
decisions.” (Black et al., 2012, p.58).
Although a number of different researchers have defined critical thinking,
Bloom‟s Taxonomy (1956) ( See Figure 1) is the most cited work in terms of
critical thinking, covering a number of commonalities of frameworks of such skills
(Gall, 1970). The six levels within the cognitive domain are divided into two levels
of thinking skills:
-

Lower-Order Thinking Skills : Knowledge, Comprehension and Application

-

Higher-Order Thinking Skills : Analysis, Synthesis and Evaluation. (Bloom, 1956)
Table 1: Bloom’s Taxonomy by Bloom (1956)

1.
2.
3.

4.

Levels
Knowledge
Comprehension
Application
Analysis

Skills
Retrieving information
Interpreting information
Applying knowledge to new situations
Breaking information into pieces
Integrating parts or elements together
into a whole new unit
Evaluating and justifying

5. Synthesis
6. Evaluation

In this study the definition of critical thinking of Moon (2007) in language
learning is proposed, specifically for English language teaching situations. Critical
thinking is defined as the ability to consider a range of information derived from
many different sources, to process this information in a creative and logical manner,
challenging it, analyzing it and arriving at considered conclusions which can be
defended and justified ( Moon, 2007).
1.2. The importance of teaching critical thinking skills in foreign language
education
The main objective of language education along with other pedagogies is to
produce creative and critical learners. Critical thinking has been studied by

educational scholars for many years and is still gaining ground in terms of its
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perceived importance by teachers, scholars, and administrators. The importance of
critical thinking in educational curricula has been extensively researched.
Modern societies often require people to possess wide knowledge and strong
thinking skills referred to as critical thinking skills as well. Parallel to social life, the
classroom environment needs to be much more dynamic. In such a dynamic
environment, critical thinking stands at the very center of the learning process.
Critical thinking development provides students with the skills they need to make
decisions in a rapidly changing world, discover solutions to social justice problems,
and develop into lifelong learners (Ku, 2009).
The reason why students need to develop critical thinking skills also lies in
the fact that it is the English language that has taken the role of the lingua franca
and is used globally by non-native speakers of English for intercultural
communication. As Liaw indicates (2007, p.51) “Since higher-order thinking skills
are increasingly required for success in a knowledge-based society, it is the
responsibility of teachers to assist their students to acquire critical thinking skills
while learning English.”
Undoubtedly, there is a consensus among researchers that providing students
with opportunities to act on their thinking is essential for students to engage
effectively in language learning and thinking.
1.3. Project-based learning
Project-based learning is increasingly recognized as a powerful instructional
approach. In this section, the researcher explores its definition, features, teacher‟s
roles, students‟sstudents‟ participation, benefits and process of project-based
learning.

Thomas (2000) reports that project-based learning is a model that organizes
learning around projects. It can be described as student-centered instruction that
occurs over an extended period, during which students select, plan, investigate and
produce a product, presentation, or performance that answers a real-world question
or responds to an authentic challenge (Holm, 2011). From the definitions, it can be
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concluded that project-based learning is suitable to be implemented for students
because this approach involves learners in activities that require investigation and
put them in the real situation.
According to the definitions found in project-based learning handbooks for
teachers, projects are complex tasks, based on challenging questions or problems,
that involve students in design, problem-solving, decision making, or investigative
activities; give students the opportunity to work relatively autonomously over
extended periods of time; and culminate in realistic products or presentations
(Thomas, 2000). In terms of the final product, Stoller (2006) outlines several
variations such as production projects, performance projects, and organizational
projects. For the purosepurpose of the study, a project is defined as a longtermlongterm ( several weeks) activity that involves a variety of individual or cooperative
tasks such as developing research questions, and implementing the plan through
empirical or document research that includes collecting, analyzing and
reporingreporting data orally.
Besides, students‟ participation in project-based learning is active instead of
the passive role in traditional approaches. Bell (2010) points out that in a projectbased learning classroom, students are provided with a topic which they should
develop through research or project work for their individual or group learning and
teachers should monitor the project performed by students. In project-based
learning, students collaborate in groups to solve authentic and curriculum-based
problems and decide how to approach a question and what activities to pursue

(Solomon, 2003). As a result, students are trained to be critical and responsible for
their learning (Bell, 2010; Postholm, 2005).
Various authors suggest different ways project-based learning be
implemented. For the sake of this work there is a model of project-based learning
described which is carried out within the framework and documentation of project
management alongside four phases advocated by Kriwas (1999).

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Stage 1: Speculation: A suitable topic is identified following discussion among the
group members.
Stage 2: Designing the project activities: Activities are designed and roles are
assigned, as well as where information and resources will be sourced from and a
structure is devised for the tasks in the projects.
Stage 3: Conducting the project activities: At this stage the groups implement the
activities designed in the previous stage. Students gather information, process and
categorize it. The next phase is synthesis and processing of information gathered.
The final products are displayed in the school or the wider community, and become
a stimulus for thought and action for other students, teachers and local community.
Stage 4: Evaluation: Evaluation refers to the assessment of the activities from
participants and discussion about whether the initial aims and goals have been
achieved, implementation of the process, and final products. Evaluation includes
evaluation from others, as well as self-evaluation.
It can be concluded that project-based learning has gained popularity in a
number of research based on various theoretical perspective and methodologies
with results that indicate the significance to create learning process and environment
more enjoyable, meaningful and authentic that is impossible in the traditional

classrooms.
1.4. Relations between project-based learning and the development of students’
critical thinking skills
Researchers have also found that project-based learning is a successful way
of teaching 21st-century skills because it increases student engagement and content
learning (Bell, 2010).
In 1986, Meyer published a paper in which he suggested four elements for a
learning environment to be conducive for the development of critical thinking: (1)
stimulating students‟ interest, (2) creating meaningful discussion, (3) exposure to
thoughts and views of others, and (4) fostering a trusting and supportive
atmosphere.

When the principles and processes of project-based learning are

examined, it seems that this learning strategy encapsulates those four elements
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proposed by Meyers(1986). This strategy requires students to make connections
between existing knowledge and new knowledge acquired in the course of
considering the problem. Students play an active role in understanding concepts
and content, and it enables them to develop 21st-century skills, which fosters an
enduring curiosity and hunger for knowledge. Since students are able to apply
classroom content to real-life phenomena, project-based learning also facilitates
career exploration, technology use, student engagement, community connections,
and content relevancy (Blumenfeld et al, 1991).
Hence, the synthesis of the literature shows that there are numerous benefits
for both teachers and students in using project-based learning to develop critical

thinking skills in foreign language learning and teaching environments. In practice,
what tasks and activities should be employed to promote students‟ critical thinking
skills in particular? The issue of project work and its use in language teaching will
be dealt with in details in later parts of the thesis.
1.5. How can project-based learning improve students’ critical thinking skills?
So far the author has concentrated on exploring some theoretical ideas of
critical thinking and project-based learning, but it might not be an easy task to apply
and develop project-based learning that addresses critical thinking. Critical thinking
is not a natural skill as speaking or running, it is a deliberately developed complex
set of skills and features that take years to acquire. It is clear that critical thinking
skills are difficult to teach and develop, but not impossible. Angelo (1995) suggests
that teachers improve students‟ critical thinking skills by:
(1) Providing time for well-planned, focused and interactive student discussions that
connect prior and subsequent knowledge;
(2) Providing guide practice and then assess students‟ ability to solve problems and
explain how they solve problems;
(3) Talking through various strategies to direct and control attention and thinking.
When giving projects, teachers should provide students with opportunities to
exercise judgment: in gathering and assembling information, in analyzing and
synthesizing it, and in formulating and evaluating conclusions. ActivitesActivities
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such as evaluating the realiabilityreliability of sources of information; critical
questioning, making connection between prior knowlegeknowledge and topics;
collecting , analysinganalyzing and evaluating information; creating the final
products; evaluating the project-using rubrics and feedback form also play an
important role in developing students‟ critical thinking skills ( Hughes, J. 2014)

1.5.1. Evaluating the realiabilityreliability of sources of information
Evaluating information sources is an important part of project-based
learning. Not all information is reliable or true, nor will all information be suitable
for their project. “The explosion of information available electronically means
students need to be able to judge the credibility of an ever-widening array of
sources” (Brookhart, 2010).They will need to make decisions about what to search for,
where to look, and once they've found material on your topic, if it is a valid or useful
source for their projects.Whenprojects. When students evaluate sources of information
for research and for other purposes, they become “agents of texts and not victims of
texts” ( Harste & Albers, 2010, p123). The ability to locate, question, and validate
information allows a student to become an independent, lifelong learner and critical
thinker.
1.5.2. Critical questioning
What is even more important is that the act of thinking is often driven by
questions (Elder & Paul, 1998). Therefore, teachers can use questions to help
students build understanding and think critically and creatively. Elder and Paul
(1998, p.62) strongly advocated that “ thinking is driven by questions, not answer,
and “ questions define tasks, express problems and deleneatedelineate issues”.
Wiggle (1999) points out that a questioning strategy may involve all students in the
learning process; encourage all students to make an effort to prepare a response;
allow adequate wait-time for cognitive processing; and facilitate opportunities for
students to engage in higher level thinking. According to Bloom‟s Taxonomy
(1956), the questions can be divided into six types: knowledge, comprehension,
application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. Seen from the functions of each type
of questions, knowledge demonstrates remembering previously learned material.
Comprehension refers to understanding of facts and ideas. Application is the use of
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principles, formulas, theories, concepts, or procedure in a new context to solve a
problem. Analysis consists of breaking a piece of material or concepts into
component parts and interpreting their interrelated relationship. Synthesis is to build
a structure or pattern from diverse elements, putting parts together to form a new
whole with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure. Evaluation is to make
reasoned judgments about the value of ideas or materials. In the analysis of
Kennedy et al. (1991), the three highest levels of skills (analysis, synthesis and
evaluation) are often representative of critical thinking. Among all types of
questions, asking higher order questions is imperative to the development of
students‟ critical thinking ability.
1.5.3. Making connection between prior knowlegeknowledge and topics
Students go to school with a broad range of pre-existing knowledge, skills,
beliefs, and attitudes, which influence how they attend, interpret and organize incoming information. How they process and integrate new information will, in turn,

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affect how they remember, think, apply, and create new knowledge. The activity
“making connections between prior knowlegeknowledge and topics” in project-

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based learning fosters critical thinking skills which is the making, suspending or

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revising judgment. Students connect what they learn to what they already know,
interpreting incoming information, and even sensory perception, through the lens of

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their existing knowledge, beliefs, and assumptions (Vygotsky, 1978 ; National
Research Council, 2000 ). In fact, there is a widespread agreement among
researchers that students must connect new knowledge to previous knowledge in
order to learn (Bransford ,1986 ; Resnick, 1987 ).

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1.5.4. Collecting , analysinganalyzing and evaluating information

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Analytical skills refer

to

the ability to collect and analyze information,

problem- solve, and make decisions. McPeck, J. E. (1990) defines critical thinking as

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“The process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing,

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synthesizing and evaluating information to reach an answer or conclusion. In project-

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based learning, it is necessary for students to learn to find, analyseanalyze and

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evaluate the informaioninformation in order to use high-quality evidence to back up

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their arguments.

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1.5.5. Creating the final products
Revised taxonomy by Anderson and Krathwohl (2000) seems to be
appropriate for project- based learning, based on the rationale that a finished
product will be the final stage after thorough and careful examination. The

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following table provides examples which express how we can foster students‟

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critical thinking skills by project-based learning according to Anderson and

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Krathwohl‟s Taxonomy (2000):

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Table 2: Revised taxonomy by Anderson and Krathwohl (2000)
Collection of information – identifying all related information
about questionnaire/ report/ poster and the topic. Retrieving,
recalling, or recognizing knowledge from memory.
Remembering is when memory is used to produce definitions,
facts, or lists, or recite or retrieve material.
Understanding what/ how a/an questionnaire/ report/ poster look
Level 2
(Understanding) like and understand the function. Constructing meaning from
different types of functions be they written or graphic messages
activities like interpreting, exemplifying, classifying,
summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining.

Application of the idea of questionnaire/ report/ poster. Carrying
Level 3
out or using a procedure through executing, or implementing.
(Applying)
Applying related and refers to situations where learned material
is used through products.
Analyzing the need and the requirements of questionnaire/
Level 4
report/ poster, analyzing the items to be included, addition and
(Analyzing)
omission are analysedanalyzed. Breaking material or concepts
into parts, determining how the parts relate or interrelate to one
another or to an overall structure or purpose. Mental actions
included in this function are differentiating, organizing, and
attributing, as well as being able to distinguish between the
components or parts. When one is analyzing he/she can
illustrate this mental function by creating the product.
Evaluating the questionnaire/ report/ poster with the certain
Level 5
criteria that was discussed in the class. Making judgments based
(Evaluating)
on criteria and standards through checking and critiquing.
Critiques, recommendations, and reports are some of the
products that can be created to demonstrate the processes of
evaluation.
Creating the product- questionnaire/ report/ poster ready.
Level 6
Putting elements together to form a coherent or functional
(Creating)
whole; reorganizing elements into a new pattern or structure

Level 1
(Remembering)

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