The Handbook of Chicana/o Psychology and Mental Health pdf

The Handbook of Chicana/o Psychology
and Mental Health

The Handbook of Chicana/o Psychology
and Mental Health
Edited by
Roberto J. Velásquez
San Diego State University
Leticia M. Arellano
University of La Verne
Brian W. McNeill
Washington State University
LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES, PUBLISHERS
2004 Mahwah, New Jersey London
Copyright © 2004 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form,
by photostat, microform, retrieval system, or any other means,
without prior written permission of the publisher.
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers
10 Industrial Avenue
Mahwah, New Jersey 07430
Cover art by Malaquias Montoya. Adapted with permission by
the Julian Samora Research Institute, Michigan State University.
Cover design by Kathryn Houghtaling Lacey.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
The handbook of Chicana/o psychology and mental health / Roberto J. Velásquez,
Leticia M. Arellano, Brian McNeill, editors.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0–8058–4158-X (alk. paper) — ISBN 0–8058–4159–8 (pbk. : alk. paper)

1. Mexican Americans—Psychology—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Mexican
Americans— Mental health services— Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Velásquez, Roberto.
II. Arellano, Leticia M. III. McNeill, Brian.
RC451.5.M48H36 2004
362.2’089’68073 —dc21 2003045646
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2008.
“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”
ISBN 1-4106-1091-8 Master e-book ISBN
To the memory of the late Martha E. Bernal,
an appreciation of whose life follows the preface.
To my children Diego and Diana, my mother Maria Luz,
and the memory of my father, Ventura. I would also like to thank
the quintessential Chicano band, Los Lobos, for their inspiration.
Este libro esta dedicado a mis hijos, Diego y Diana, mi madre, Maria Luz,
y la memoria de mi padre, Ventura. Quiero darle las gracias
al grupo musico, Los Lobos, por su inspiracion.
Roberto Velásquez
To my family, thank you for your constant love and support.
To our creator, who always gives me strength.
Para mi familia, gracias por tu constante amor y apoyo.
A nuestro creador, quien siempre me sostiene.
Leticia M. Arellano
For my Mexican family, especially my Chicana mother.
Para mi familia Mexicana, especialmente mi madre Chicana.
Brian W. McNeill
m

Contributors
Leticia M. Arellano, University of La Verne

Patricia Arredondo, Arizona State University
Christina Ayala-Alcantar, California State University, Northridge
Louise Baca, Argosy University, Phoenix
Manuel Barrera, Jr., Arizona State University
Martha E. Bernal, Arizona State University
Erika Bracamontes, Michigan State University
Maria Patricia Burton, San Diego State University
J. Manuel Casas, University of California, Santa Barbara
Jeanett Castellanos, University of California, Irvine
Felipe González Castro, Arizona State University
Joseph M. Cervantes, California State University, Fullerton
Richard C. Cervantes, Behavioral Assessment, Inc.
Carla Victoria Corral, University of California, Santa Barbara
Israel Cuéllar, Julian Samora Research Institute, Michigan State University
Maria Félix-Ortiz, Florida International University, Miami
A. Cristina Fernandez, Arizona State University
Yolanda Flores Niemann, Washington State University, Tri-Cities
Yvette G. Flores-Ortiz, University of California, Davis
Maria Garrido, University of Rhode Island
Alberta M. Gloria, University of Wisconsin, Madison
Nancy A. Gonzales, Arizona State University
Martin Harris, Vanguard University
Nilda Teresa Hernandez, Yavapai College
Patricia Hernandez, Argosy University, Phoenix
Steven R. López, University of California, Los Angeles
Vera Lopez, Arizona State University
Brian W. McNeill, Washington State University
Kurt C. Organista, University of California, Berkeley
Fernando Ortiz, Washington State University
Loreto R. Prieto, University of Akron

Stephen M. Quintana, University of Wisconsin, Madison
Jason Duque Raley, University of California, Santa Barbara
vii
Manual Ramirez III, University of Texas, Austin
Teresa Renteria, Vanguard University
Richard A. Rodriguez, University of Colorado, Boulder
Theresa A. Segura-Herrera, University of Wisconsin, Madison
Roxana I. Siles, Michigan State University
Lisa I. Sweatt, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo
Melba J. T. Vasquez, Vasquez & Associates Mental Health Services
Roberto J. Velásquez, San Diego State University
Elizabeth M. Vera, Loyola University, Chicago
Amy Weisman, University of Miami
Jerre White, Vanguard University
Cynthia A. Yamokoski, University of Akron
viii
CONTRIBUTORS
Contents
Preface xiii
An Appreciation of Dr. Martha E. Bernal (1931–2001) xvii
Melba J. T. Vasquez
I. BEING AND BECOMING A CHICANA/O: GENERAL ISSUES
1
1 Mestiza/o and Chicana/o Psychology: Theory, Research, 3
and Application
Manuel Ramirez III
2 Acculturation: A Psychological Construct of Continuing Relevance 23
for Chicana/o Psychology
Israel Cuéllar, Roxana I. Siles, and Erika Bracamontes
3 Ethnic Identity Development in Chicana/o Youth 43

Elizabeth M. Vera and Stephen M. Quintana
4 Stereotypes of Chicanas and Chicanos: Impact on Family Functioning, 61
Individual Expectations, Goals, and Behavior
Yolanda Flores Niemann
5 Problem Behaviors of Chicana/o and Latina/o Adolescents: 83
An Analysis of Prevalence, Risk, and Protective Factors
Manuel Barrera, Jr., Nancy A. Gonzales, Vera Lopez, and A. Cristina Fernandez
6 Folk Healing and Curanderismo Within the Contemporary 111
Chicana/o Community: Current Status
Martin Harris, Roberto J. Velásquez, Jerre White, and Teresa Renteria
II. PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF CHICANA/OS
127
7 Integrating a Cultural Perspective in Psychological Test Development 129
Steven R. López and Amy Weisman
ix
8 Culturally Competent Assessment of Chicana/os With the 153
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2
Roberto J. Velásquez, Maria Garrido, Jeanett Castellanos,
and Maria Patricia Burton
III. CONCEPTUALIZING EFFECTIVE INTERVENTION:
175
LA MUJER Y EL HOMBRE
9 Psychotherapy of Chicano Men 177
Roberto J. Velásquez and Maria Patricia Burton
10 Psychotherapy With Gay Chicanos 193
Richard A. Rodriguez
11 Multiracial Feminism for Chicana/o Psychology 215
Leticia M. Arellano and Christina Ayala-Alcantar
12 Psychotherapy With Chicanas 231
Patricia Arredondo

13 Group Therapy With Chicanas 251
Louise Baca and Patricia Hernandez
IV. CONCEPTUALIZING EFFECTIVE INTERVENTION: LA FAMILIA
265
14 Domestic Violence in Chicana/o Families 267
Yvette G. Flores-Ortiz
15 Family Therapy With Chicana/os 285
Joseph M. Cervantes and Lisa I. Sweatt
V. RISKS AND PREVENTION
323
16 Substance Abuse Among Chicanos and Other Mexican Groups 325
Richard C. Cervantes and María Félix-Ortiz
17 Culturally and Socially Competent HIV Prevention With Mexican 353
Farm Workers
Kurt C. Organista
18 A Cultural Perspective on Prevention Interventions 371
Felipe González Castro and Nilda Teresa Hernandez
VI. NEW DIRECTIONS
399
19 Ambrocia and Omar Go to College: A Psychosociocultural Examination 401
of Chicana/os in Higher Education
Alberta M. Gloria and Theresa A. Segura-Herrera
x
CONTENTS
20 Cultural Competency: Teaching, Training, and the Delivery of Services 427
for Chicana/os
Brian W. McNeill, Loreto R. Prieto, Fernando Ortiz, and Cynthia A. Yamokoski
21 Quality de Vida: Browning Our Understanding of Quality of Life 455
Jason Duque Raley, J. Manuel Casas, and Carla Victoria Corral
Epilogue: Challenges and Opportunities for Chicana/o Psychologists:

469
Past, Present, and Future
Martha E. Bernal
About the Editors and Contributors
483
About Other Pioneers in Chicana/o Psychology 491
CONTENTS xi

Preface
Latina/os are now the largest and fastest growing minority group in the United
States, representing approximately 33 million in the year 2000, and two thirds of
them are Chicana/os. However, there are major differences among Latino subgroups
in terms of their cultural characteristics, immigration experiences, history, socio-
economic levels, and other important factors. It is no longer appropriate to negate
these differences or to assume that all Latinos share similar psychological issues
(McNeill et al., 2001).
However, despite their increasingly strong presence, as a distinct population, they
face various challenges such as low educational attainment rates. Approximately
51% are high school graduates and less than 7% have obtained a bachelor’s or higher
degree. Chicana/os are also confronted with harsh economic conditions, such as
poverty, unemployment, and underemployment: For instance, 24% of Chicana/os
lived below the poverty level in 1999 (Therrien & Ramirez, 2000).
Chicana/os, through recent legislation in many states, have been denied affirma-
tive action and access to key institutions. Chicana/os’ use of their native language
has also recently been legislated in English-only movements. Many Mejicana/os now
living in the United States remain undocumented, marginalized, and oppressed.
Even apart from economic and educational factors, problems stemming from immi-
gration and migration, high rates of substance use, gang involvement, high incarcer-
ation rates, racism, sexism and homophobia, single-parent households, domestic vio-
lence, and separation from family all contribute to Chicana/os’ risk for psychological

and medical disorders.
The relevance of this book, at this time in our history, is critical for many reasons.
The last book on the psychology of Chicana/os (Martinez & Mendoza, Chicano Psy-
chology, second edition, 1984) was published nearly 20 years ago as a second edition
of a book originally published in 1977 (Martinez, 1977). Both editions followed con-
ferences in a small series organized by Chicana/o psychologists as pioneering
efforts to stimulate the development of theory and research. The first conference,
“Increasing Educational Opportunities for Chicana/os Psychology,” was held at the
University of California, Riverside in 1973. At this meeting, papers highlighted con-
cerns and necessary changes in psychology to ensure that Chicana/os were largely
represented at the undergraduate and graduate levels. This conference was held at
the height of the Chicana/o civil rights movement and reflected changes taking
xiii
place on many university campuses such as Chicana/o Studies programs, Chi-
cana/o student organizations, and high school walkouts in California and Texas
(Navarro, 1995).
The second conference, First Symposium on Chicano Psychology, was held in 1976
at the University of California, Irvine. This conference focused on areas of research
including bilingual education, the IQ controversy, and culturally sensitive mental
health services. Given the increase in the number of Chicana/os enrolled in Ph. D.
programs, graduate students were also represented. The proceedings of the confer-
ence were published in Chicano Psychology (Martinez, 1977). Another outcome of the
conference was the legendary National Conference of Hispanic Psychologists, also
known as the Lake Arrowhead Meeting.
The third conference, Second Symposium on Chicano Psychology, was held in
1982 at the University of California, Riverside. Like those of the second conference,
conference proceedings were published in the second edition of Chicano Psychology
(Martinez & Mendoza, 1984). Unfortunately, the conference was held in the context
of the decline of the Chicana/o civil rights movement and severe cutbacks in social
programs during the Reagan and Bush administrations. The rollbacks in social pro-

grams were also felt on university campuses across the country, as ethnic studies
programs were scaled back. Unfortunately, efforts to recruit minority students into
graduate programs of psychology were reduced.
After a gap of 16 years, a fourth conference, “Innovations in Chicana/o Psychol-
ogy: Looking Towards the 21st Century,” was held at Michigan State University. The
primary aims of the conference were to present a forum for the presentation of state-
of-the-art psychological research on Chicana/os and to increase the coverage of
previously neglected issues, such as Chicanas and students. Chicanas, underrepre-
sented in previous conference programs, also participated in workshops, presenta-
tions, and panel discussions, and a special poster session was included to highlight
the work of students. Many generations were represented by the approximately 400
conference participants. A special feature of the conference was a tribute to pioneer-
ing Chicana/o psychologists who mentored those who followed.
We designed this Handbook with four goals in mind: First, we wanted to present
current empirically based data on the mental health and health status of Chicana/os.
Mainstream psychologists have often argued that a subfield of Chicana/o psy-
chology is not needed or that the absence of empirical data makes a psychology of
Chicana/os irrelevant or unecessary. The data that are presented in this volume
clearly rebut these arguments.
Second, we wanted to showcase the talent that has laid the foundation of a psy-
chology of the Chicana/o experience. Today, as in the past, many mainstream psychol-
ogy journals refuse to publish research that relates to ethnicity or race or that argues
for the need for culture-driven psychologies. We have invited many young scholars
to present their work in this book to disseminate their innovative ideas, ideas that we
hope will now resonate in a wider world.
Third, we wanted to pay tribute to many of the psychologists who were present
at the beginning, who fought the many battles to establish Chicana/o psychology as
a legitimate field of study. We invited many of these pioneers to contribute to this
book by presenting summaries of their life’s work. We also acknowledge the work of
xiv

PREFACE
others in the section entitled “About Other Pioneers in Chicana/o Psychology” at the
end of this volume.
Fourth, we wanted to include a balance of male and female contributors in order
to offer the important perspective of gender, and made every effort to do so. Al-
though the numbers of Chicana psychologists continues to increase, only one Chi-
cana, Maria Nieto Senour (1977), contributed to the first edition of Chicano Psychology
(Martinez, 1977). Her chapter on La Chicana remains a classic treatise on the experi-
ence of being a Chicana. In this volume, we present diverse perspectives on the
Chicana experience.
Any working theory of Chicana/o psychology must reflect the diversity of the
Chicana/o community, which varies with respect to ethnic identity, age, religion, cit-
izenship, sexual orientation, theoretical orientation, and education. The contributors
also bring a diversity of experiences to their task. Some are academics, while others
are practitioners, or both. Many of the pioneers have directed major research insti-
tutes or programs devoted to the study of Chicana/os, others have founded journals.
Still others have been leaders and activists in professional organizations such as the
American Psychological Association. At least three authors have held public office in
their communities.
The Handbook is divided into six main sections on general issues, assessment,
intervention with individual men and women, intervention with families, risks and
prevention, and new directions, respectively. An epilogue contributed by the late
Martha E. Bernal reflects on the challenges Chicana/o psychologists have faced and
continue to face as they seek both to reinforce the research and theoretical base of
Chicana/o psychology and to serve their people.
In the text, we use the terms Mexican American and Chicana/o interchangeably. As
noted by McNeill et al. (2001), there are a variety of labels of self-identification uti-
lized by Americans of Mexican descent that may vary by generation or region. How-
ever, it is in the spirit of past conferences and publications that we proudly use the
identifying labels Chicano and the feminine equivalent Chicana, as these terms are

associated with the sociopolitical and civil rights movimiento (movement) born in the
late 1960s and reflect a political awareness of resistance, defiance, and ethnic pride.
We hope that students and psychologists use this Handbook to enhance their
understanding of the psychology of Chicana/os and are encouraged by it to add,
themselves, to the growing body of relevant literature. We dedicate our efforts in cre-
ating this volume to the memory of the late Martha E. Bernal, a mentor to so many of
us. An appreciation of her life and works by Melba J. T. Vasquez follows.
Roberto J. Velásquez, San Diego State University
Leticia M. Arellano, University of La Verne
Brian W. McNeill, Washington State University
SPECIAL ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The editors would like to acknowledge the tireless efforts of Virgina Cardon for her
assistance in the typing and preparation of this book. ¡Mil gracias Virgina!
PREFACE xv
REFERENCES
Martinez, J. L. (Ed.). (1977). Chicano psychology. New York: Academic Press.
Martinez, J. L., & Mendoza, R. H. (Eds.). (1984). Chicano psychology (2nd ed.). New York: Academic Press.
McNeill, B. W., Prieto, L., Niemann, Y. F., Pizarro, M., Vera, E. M., & Gómez, S. (2001). Current directions in
Chicana/o psychology. The Counseling Psychologist, 29, 5–17.
Navarro, A. (1995). Mexican American Youth Organization. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Nieto Senour, M. (1977). Psychology of the Chicana. In J. L. Martinez, Jr. (Ed.), Chicano psychology (pp. 329–
342). New York: Academic Press.
Therrien, M., & Ramirez, R. R. (2000). The Hispanic population in the United States: March 2000 (Current Pop-
ulation Report No. P20-535). Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of the Census.
xvi PREFACE
An Appreciation of Dr. Martha E. Bernal
(1931–2001)
Melba J. T. Vasquez
Vasquez & Associates, Mental Health Services
Austin, TX

The authors have chosen to dedicate this book to Dr. Martha E. Bernal. It is fitting
that many of us honor her in various ways. She was the first known Chicana in the
United States to earn a doctorate in psychology, in 1962 from Indiana University in
Bloomington. The focus of her research during the first part of her career was parent-
training approaches for behaviorally deviant children. Later, it shifted to the ethnic
identity of Mexican American children. Dr. Bernal presented numerous papers at
professional conferences and published approximately 60 articles, book chapters,
and several books. She served as a member of the editorial board of several journals
and also worked as a guest editor of various special issues. In the early 1970s, she
dedicated herself to the goal of ensuring that more Chicana/os had the opportunity
to receive graduate training and she worked to increase ethnic minority recruitment
and retention and to improve training across the spectrum of minority groups. Her
seminal articles in The American Psychologist and The Counseling Psychologist docu-
mented the dearth of minority graduate students and faculty members in psychol-
ogy departments throughout the United States.
Dr. Bernal implemented a variety of strategies to achieve her goals. She received
an NIMH Minority Clinical Training Grant and served as the director of that pro-
gram at the University of Denver. At Arizona State University, she helped sponsor an
annual Ethnic Identity Symposium for several years, which was attended by some
of the leading researchers and students in the field. She and her colleague, George
Knight, along with graduate and undergraduate students, worked to develop a
methodology for measuring ethnic identity, collected normative data, and studied its
developmental course as well as its correlates in Mexican American children. Her
work has been widely cited, and has had a tremendous impact in the field.
Dr. Bernal was a pioneer in using her research knowledge to advocate for change.
She promoted awareness of the importance of ethnic minority psychology to the
leadership of psychology organizations. She was one of a handful of Chicana/o psy-
chologists who met at American Psychological Association conventions to lobby
xvii
APA on ethnic minority concerns and issues. She continued to promote a minority

agenda at other major conferences, such as the Vail Conference, where she was the
only Latina participant, and the Lake Arrowhead Conference, where she presented
one of the principal papers formally detailing recommendations for increasing the
numbers of Chicana/os in psychology. Her recommendations at the Dulles Confer-
ence contributed to the development of the APA Board of Ethnic Minority Affairs
(BEMA). She was involved in drafting its by-laws and in the rest of the complex
process involved in establishing it. Once BEMA was established, she served on its
Education and Training Committee. One of the founders of the Hispanic Psychologi-
cal Association, she served as its second president, as well as treasurer, and was an
active member of its executive committee from its beginning.
Despite health problems, which forced her to drop out of leadership activities for
a period of time, she served on the Commission on Ethnic Minority, Recruitment,
Retention, and Training (CEMRRAT) appointed by former APA President Ron Fox
and chaired by former APA President Dick Suinn. She subsequently served on the
Board for the Advancement of Psychology in the Public Interest CEMRRAT 2 Task
Force, which oversaw the implementation of CEMRRAT’s recommendations. At the
time of her death, she was serving on the APA Committee of Gay, Lesbian, and Bisex-
ual Concerns.
Dr. Bernal received numerous awards, including the Distinguished Life Achieve-
ment Award from APA Division 45, the Society for the Psychological Study of Ethnic
Minority Issues, and the Hispanic Research Center Lifetime Award from Arizona
State University. She was honored as one of four “Pioneer Senior Women of Color”
at the first National Multicultural Conference and Summit held in Newport Beach,
California, in 1999. She received the Carolyn Attneave award for life-long contribu-
tions to ethnic minority psychology and received the highly esteemed Distinguished
Contribution to Psychology in the Public Interest Award at the American Psycholog-
ical Association in 2001, which honored the full range of her research and profes-
sional activities.
Dr. Bernal influenced many colleagues, young professionals, and students. She
was willing to be a situational mentor for many students and professionals across the

country at times. She directly and indirectly provided guidance and inspiration to a
wide range and number of psychologists of color, both men and women. She will be
missed, but her influence will endure in the lives of all of those she touched.
xviii
APPRECIATION
I
Being and Becoming a Chicana/o:
General Issues

1
Mestiza/o and Chicana/o Psychology:
Theory, Research, and Application
Manuel Ramirez III
University of Texas, Austin
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the history of and recent developments
in Chicana/o psychology and to point out new directions for theory and research.
The concept of mestizaje (multicultural-multiracial world view) and the seven basic
tenets of Chicana/o psychology are introduced.
WHAT IS CHICANA/O PSYCHOLOGY?
Chicana/o psychology is a psychology grounded in the tradition of the famous Afri-
can American educator and civil rights leader, W. E. B. DuBois, and the first Chicano
psychologist, George I. Sanchez. It is also a psychology based on the work of many
subsequent Chicana and Chicano psychologists whose research has been devoted
to they study of Chicanas and Chicanos as well as other multiracial-multicultural
peoples in the Americas. The principal objective of Chicana/o psychology is to
develop new concepts and strategies for understanding the struggles, trials, and
tribulations of persons of Mexican descent as well as those of all of the cultural and
genetic Mestizo peoples living in the United States.
Chicana/o psychology is a multicultural-multiracial field of study illuminated
by the mestiza/o world view that has challenged the restrictive and exclusionary

perspectives of North American and western European psychology. The first to
articulate this world view was the Mexican philosopher-politician-educator Jose Vas-
concellos. In his major works entitled La Raza Cosmica (1925) and Indologia (1927),
Vasconcellos extolled the advantages offered by the synthesis of racial and cultural
diversity through the amalgamation process of “mestizoisation.” He argued that the
genetic and cultural amalgamation of different races and cultures in Latin America
offered the promise of a more enlightened way of life for all the peoples of the world.
Vasconcellos believed that the Mestiza/o, the product of the synthesis of the Native
American Indian and European groups in the Americas, was the end result of the
3
intial stages in the development of the ideal citizen of the world: “Our major hope for
salvation is found in the fact that we are not a pure race, but an aggregation of races
in formation, an aggregation that can produce a race more powerful than those
which are the products of only one race” (1927, p. 1202).
Taking Vasconcellos’s perspective, the pioneers of Chicana/o psychology have
questioned and changed the concepts, theories, and strategies of the larger field
of psychology—and reached out to other fields, including sociology, anthropology,
history, education, theology, political science, and Chicana/o studies—in an effort to
create a more inclusive and socially responsible psychological science that is reflec-
tive of our new global society. This new psychology seeks to liberate those who are
disenfranchised in society by eradicating stereotypes and denigrating images and
other negative influences on people who are considered to be different, freeing them
from feelings of inferiority, insecurity, uncertainty, and dependence. Chicana/o psy-
chology seeks to produce research that is methodologically sound, but also congru-
ent with and useful to those who need it most, la gente “the people.”
Chicana/o psychology also aims to address societal problems—racism, sexism,
and ageism—that affect those who feel different and who are alienated from main-
stream American society. Other objectives include empowering individuals, families,
and communities to combat poverty, crime, lack of education, and internalized
racism and improving ethnic pride and self-esteem.

WHAT CHICANA/O PSYCHOLOGY IS NOT
It is not merely a subfield of psychology, nor is it based solely on Anglo or west-
ern European models of behavior and development. While recognizing that some
mainstream psychological concepts and constructs may be useful in understanding
multicultural-multiracial people, Chicana/o psychology emphasizes that all concep-
tual frameworks need to be carefully scrutinized before they are applied. The new
multicultural-multiracial psychology is not a psychology of racial and cultural supe-
riority; it offers new perspectives on reality that can enhance and enrich mainstream
psychological theory and research.
TENETS OF CHICANA/O PSYCHOLOGY
The fundamental tenets of Chicana/o psychology were derived from the knowledge
and experience of the mestizo peoples in the Americas. They reflect the developmen-
tal forces that influenced the cultures of Native American Indian, African American,
Asian American, and European peoples. There are seven principles of underlying the
Mestiza/o world view:
1. The person is an open system. In the Mestiza/o world view, the person is insepa-
rable from the physical and social environments in which he or she lives. Traits,
characteristics, skills, perceptions of the world, and philosophies of life evolve
by meeting the environmental challenges the person encounters. Information and
knowledge derived from others and the environment is regarded as modifying,
4
RAMIREZ
incorporating, and influencing the dynamics of the person. The individual modifies
and affects others and the environment as he or she interacts with these elements.
In this ecological context, person-environment fit is the primary criterion for deter-
mining the quality of human adaptation.
2. The spiritual world holds the key to destiny, personal identity, and life mission. In
addition, spiritualism serves to link the individual with supernatural forces in the
cosmos from the Mestiza/o perspective and can influence individual and group or
collective destiny. The developmental emphasis is on achieving control over the

supernatural by attaining self-control and self-knowledge as well as on enlisting the
help of a person or spirit who can mediate between the supernatural and the indi-
vidual. A strong identification with the group to whom the individual belongs is also
important because the group can provide access to knowledge concerning the main-
tenance of a proper balance between the individual and the supernatural.
Persons believed to have special knowledge, access to supernatural powers, or
possession of these powers play an important role in personality development and
functioning. For example, wisdom is highly valued in Chicana/o culture and is often
sought from “special persons” within the community, including curandera/os,
espiritistas, shamans, and clergy. These individuals all assist people in their search
for self-knowledge and identity, provide treatment, and advise individuals experi-
encing personal conflicts, existential crises, or adjustment problems. In many com-
munities, contemporary Chicana/o psychologists take on the role of such special per-
sons and are frequently sought out for consultation regarding such issues. It is also
important to note that the community is likely to view the Chicana/o psychologist as
a person who has many powers, often magical, spiritual, or psychological.
In addition, some aspects of the Mestiza/o world view have been influenced by
the belief that, through achieving communication with the spiritual world, a person
can experience a vision or a dream that may provide an adult identity, a life mission,
and a spirit-helper to facilitate the attainment of life goals. For example, it is very
common among Chicana/os to talk about their deceased relatives in the present
tense and to find solace and comfort in honoring the presence of these relatives in
everyday life. Spirituality is also perceived to play an important role in achieving
harmony with and protection from negative supernatural forces. Not only does reli-
gion provide models with which to identify and codes of conduct that facilitate the
achievement of meaning in life and death, it also provides confession as a means of
achieving reconciliation with the self and the supernatural.
3. Community identity and responsibility to the group are of central importance in devel-
opment. In the Mestiza/o world view, the individual is socialized to develop a strong
sense of responsibility to the group, whether it is the family community or ethnic

group. Individuals come to feel that they are always representative of the group.
In contemporary times, this is especially the case with Chicanos and Chicanas who
have obtained high levels of education and who are highly valued and esteemed
by their respective communities. The statement “I am the people” is often used by
members of Native American Indian groups because identity cannot be separated
into individual and group levels. LaFramboise (1983) observed that a central value
of Native American cultures is the importance of close ties to the homeland and
extended family. She reported that this value is inculcated in children because the
entire community participates in the socialization and parenting processes. Commu-
1. MESTIZA/O AND CHICANA/O PSYCHOLOGY 5
nity socialization is familiar to Chicana/os, who are socialized not only by the imme-
diate family, but also by the extended family and the community. Identification with
family and community is encouraged through extended family involvement in mod-
eling and instruction in cultural traditions and rituals. This mode of socialization
among Native American Indians is most evident in the powwows (Parfit & Harvey,
1994) that are held regularly by the Indian nations of North America. Powwows
serve to maintain a sense of community by teaching and reinforcing traditions and
values to the young and by keeping the culture alive.
From the Mestiza/o world view, the individual is seen as embedded in the context
of the family group. Recognition of the important role of family identity, or familism,
within the social sciences and helping professions has been one of the major contri-
butions of the Native American Indian cultures of the Americas and the world. For
example, as much as a Chicana/o may attempt to separate from family, this can never
be fully accomplished because of built-in psychological mechanisms that keep that
person joined to the family.
4. The foundations of a good adjustment to life (mental health) are liberation, justice, free-
dom, and empowerment. The history of the cultures of mixed ethnic peoples is one of
struggles against political, social, and economic oppression; the stories surrounding
these struggles are important to the education and socialization of children. The
heroes of these struggles are held up as models for young children and adolescents

and also serve to pull the individual back home, especially when the person is alien-
ated. Poverty, human misery, racism, linguistic barriers, repression of individual
rights, state-sanctioned brutality, and equality of opportunity are all visible realities
for people of mixed heritage. For example, if one is to study the effects of coloni-
zation on a Chicana/o community, one important factor that must be understood is
that of police-community relations. These factors also affect the socialization of indi-
viduals; they are the principal reason for the pragmatic orientation of a Mestiza/o,
multicultural-multiracial psychology. The Native American Indian nations of North
America have influenced the development of Mestiza/o psychology because, unlike
many European societies, Native American communities are free of rulers, slavery,
and social classes based on land or materialistic ownership. Indeed, many early
European ethnographers and philosophers frequently described American Indian
societies as just, equitable, and democratic when compared to various European soci-
eties (Weatherford, 1988).
5. Total development of abilities and skills is achieved through self-challenge. A promi-
nent Native American Indian belief is that self-challenge and endurance of pain,
hardship, hunger, and frustration encourage the development of an individual’s full
potential. Children are encouraged to seek out competitive situations and the goal of
education is the full development of capacity. Lee (1976) observed that Native Amer-
icans were historically taught “to engage themselves in the elements—to meet them
with an answering strength. If a torrential rain fell, they learned to strip and run out
in it, however cool the weather. Little boys were trained to walk with men for miles
through heavy snow drifts in the face of biting winds, and to take pride in the hard-
ship endured” (p. 53). One of the principal goals of such self-challenge is to learn
restraint and self-control. LaFramboise (1983) reported that, in Native American
Indian cultures, respect is accorded those individuals who are self-disciplined.
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RAMIREZ