glocalized solutions for sustainability in manufacturing

Glocalized Solutions for Sustainability in Manufacturing






Jürgen Hesselbach • Christoph Herrmann
in Manufacturing
Editors
Glocalized Solutions for Sustainability
Proceedings of the 18th CIRP International Conference
Braunschweig, Germany, May 2nd - 4th, 2011
on Life Cycle Engineering,
Technische Universität Braunschweig,

ISBN 978-3-642-19691-1 e-ISBN 978-3-642-19692-8
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-19692-8
Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht London New York


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© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011
Editors
Institut für Werkzeugmaschinen Institut für Werkzeugmaschinen
Langer Kamp 19B Langer Kamp 19B
38106 Braunschweig 38106 Braunschweig
Germany Germany

PD Dr Ing. Christoph Herrmann Prof. Dr Ing. Dr. h.c. Jürgen Hesselbach
Technische Universität Braunschweig
und Fertigungstechnik (IWF) und Fertigungstechnik (IWF)
Technische Universität Braunschweig
Library of Congress Control Number: 2011924877
Preface


„
[Sein] Kampf um Klarheit und Übersicht hat ungemein dazu beigetragen, die Probleme,
Methoden und Resultate der Wissenschaft in vielen Köpfen lebendig werden zu lassen.“
1


1
“[His] struggle for clarity and a comprehensive view has contributed immensely to bring the problems, methods and
results of science into life.”

Albert Einstein on the 70th birthday of Arnold Berliner. Die Naturwissenschaften (The Science of Nature),Vol.20/51,
Springer, Berlin (1932).

Globalization, rapid developments in information technology, fast process- and product innovations, changing market requirements (e.g.
environmental policies, increasing energy- and raw material costs) as well as global challenges, as the growing world population and the
intensive use of limited resources, determine the surrounding conditions of producing companies in the 21st century. The comprehension
for the resulting complex structures of social, political, economic, technical, ecological and organizational coherences increases with
growing insights gained from natural sciences and technology.
“Sustainable development” describes a way of how the needs of today’s generations can be satisfied without interfering with the
possibilities of future generations. In order to follow this path, “ecological” change processes have to take place in society and economy.
“Sustainable economies” require innovative products and processes and a life-cycle-oriented way of thinking and acting or rather a way of
thinking and acting in terms of systems, i.e. in value chains and -networks embedded in the natural environment. Only by this means the

shifting of problems can be avoided and integrated solutions can be created. This way of thinking and acting does not end with the
customer, but proceeds up to the disposal of products and handling of materials and products and/or product parts in life cycles. Decisions
on the planning and design of products and processes also have to be made in an integrated manner. This means that technical, economic
and ecological aspects have to be integrated into one approach. This should be accomplished under a ”cradle-to-cradle” view – from the
raw materials extraction up to end-of-life. This view should take into account not only the manufactured products but also the equipment
and auxiliary materials which are necessary for production (e.g. machine tools, cooling lubricants).
For this year’s conference we chose the theme “Glocalized Solutions for Sustainability in Manufacturing”. The term “glocalization” is a
combination of the words “globalization” and “localization”. It was invented to describe a product or service design developed and
distributed globally and also adapted specifically to each locality or culture it is marketed in. However, “Glocalized Solutions for
Sustainability in Manufacturing“ do not only involve products or services that are changed for a local market by simple substitution or the
omitting of functions. We want to address products and services that ensure a high standard of living everywhere. Resources required for
manufacturing and use of such products are limited and not evenly distributed in the world. Locally available resources, local capabilities as
well as local constraints have to be drivers for product- and process innovations.
Thus, “Best of Local” is a starting point for glocalized solutions. This means for example that the availability of fuels based on biomass is a
starting point for engine development in Brazil, whereas solar energy is going to be the most important energy source for future electric
vehicles in countries of the earth’s sun belt (up to 35 degrees north and south of the equator). While water-based cooling lubricants are
developed in Germany, technical animal fats and used edible fats are the basis for the production of cooling lubricants in Spain. Dandelion
is used for the production of rubb
er; thus, car tires develop from renewable resources. The crushed hard shells of fruit stones (e.g. cherry
stones) serve as filling material for polymers or are used as technical abrasives for the cleaning of surfaces. Locally accumulating waste
streams are locally processed into new products. Thus, old PET bottles are not only recycled into world cup soccer shirts, but also into
laptop bags. However, the use of resources is always linked to the environmental impact over all stages of a product life cycle from material
extraction, transport and manufacturing to usage and to the end-of-life. Even if a local scope for design is always linked to global impacts, it
has the potential to reduce the impact to an ecologically compatible minimum. Future glocalized engineering solutions will have the
potential to address global challenges by providing products, services and processes that take into account local capabilities and
constraints to achieve an economically, socially and environmentally sustainable society in a global perspective.
The CIRP International Conference on Life Cycle Engineering is a platform for this wide and complex field. It will require the efforts of all of
us to bring the problems, methods and results of Life Cycle Engineering into life.

Jürgen Hesselbach Christoph Herrmann





Table of Contents


Preface v
a
Organization xiii
a
Keynotes
a
Automotive Life Cycle Engineering
Assessment of Energy and Resource Consumption of Processes and Process Chains within the Automotive Sector 45
R. Schlosser, F. Klocke, B. Döbbeler, B. Riemer, K. Hameyer, T. Herold, W. Zimmermann, O. Nuding, B. A. Schindler, M. Niemczyk
Assessment of Alternative Propulsion Systems for Vehicles 51
C. Herrmann, K. S. Sangwan, M. Mennenga, P. Halubek, P. Egede
Concept and Development of Intelligent Production Control to enable Versatile Production in the Automotive Factories of
the Future 57
S. U. H. Minhas, C. Lehmann, U. Berger
Resource Efficiency – what are the Objectives? 63
M. Gernuks
Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of Remanufacturing and New Manufacturing of a Manual Transmission 67
J. Warsen, M. Laumer, W. Momberg
a

Automotive Life Cycle Engineering - Recycling
Coordination of Design-for-Recycling Activities in Decentralized Product Design Processes in the Automotive Industry 73
K. Schmidt, T. Volling, T. S. Spengler
A Strategic Framework for the Design of Recycling Networks for Lithium-Ion Batteries from Electric Vehicles 79
C. Hoyer, K. Kieckhäfer, T. S. Spengler
Recovery of Active Materials from Spent Lithium-Ion Electrodes and Electrode Production Rejects 85
C. Hanisch, W. Haselrieder, A. Kwade
New Technologies for Remanufacturing of Automotive Systems Communicating via CAN Bus 90
R. Steinhilper, S. Freiberger, M. Albrecht, J. Käufl, E. Binder, C. Brückner
LCM applied to Auto Shredder Residue (ASR) 96
L. Morselli, A. Santini, F. Passarini, I. Vassura, L. Ciacci

Electricity Metering and Monitoring in Manufacturing Systems 1
S. Krinke
Leveraging Manufacturing for a Sustainable Future 17
D. Dornfeld
Sustainability Engineering by Product-Service Systems 22
G. Seliger
H. Jäger
Manufacturing and the Science of Sustainability 32
Indian Solar Thermal Technology – Technology to Protect Environment and Ecology 40
D. Gadhia
Implementing life Cycle Engineering efficiently into Automotive Endustry Processes 11
Solvis Zero-Emission Factory - The 'Solvis way' - Structure and Subject 29
T. G. Gutowski
S. Kara, G. Bogdanski, W. Li
Life Cycle Design - Methods and Tools
Eco-Innovation by Integrating Biomimetic with TRIZ Ideality and Evolution Rules 101
J. L. Chen, Y C. Yang
Reasoning New Eco-Products by Integrating TRIZ with CBR and Simple LCA Methods 107

C. J. Yang , J. L. Chen
Proposal of an Integrated Eco-Design Framework of Products and Processes 113
S. Kondoh, N. Mishima
Development of CAD System for Life Cycle Scenario-Based Product Design 118
E. Kunii, S. Fukushige, Y. Umeda
Environmental Impact Assessment Model for Wireless Sensor Networks 124
J. Bonvoisin, A. Lelah, F. Mathieux, D. Brissaud
Considering the Social Dimension in Environmental Design 130
B. Dreux-Gerphagnon, N. Haoues
Proposal of an Ecodesign Maturity Model: supporting Companies to improve Environmental Sustainability 136
D. C. A. Pigosso, H. Rozenfeld
Environmental and Operational Analysis of Ecodesign Methods Based on QFD and FMEA 142
F. N. Puglieri, A. R. Ometto
Synergico: a new “Design for Energy Efficiency” Method enhancing the Design of more environmentally friendly
Electr(on)ic Equipments 148
L. Domingo, D. Evrard, F. Mathieux, G. Moenne-Loccoz
Improving Product Design based on Energy Considerations 154
Y. Seow, S. Rahimifard
Eco-Design Tool to support the Use of Renewable Polymers within Packaging Applications 160
J. Colwill, S. Rahimifard, A. Clegg
A
Life Cycle Design - Selected Applications
State-of-the-art Ecodesign on the Electronics Shop Shelves? A Quantitative Analysis of Developments in Ecodesign of TV
Sets 167
C. Boks, R. Wever, A. Stevels
Simultaneous Application of Design for Sustainable Behavior and Linked Benefit Strategies in Practice 173
J. Schmalz, C. Boks
Strategic Evaluation of Manufacturing Technologies 179
G. Reinhart, S. Schindler, P. Krebs
Consideration of the Precautionary Principle – the Responsible Development of Nano Technologies 185

M. Weil
Proposal of a Design Support Method for Sustainability Scenarios 1st Report: Designing Forecasting Scenarios 189
H. Wada, Y. Kishita, Y. Mizuno, M. Hirosaki, S. Fukushige, Y. Umeda
a
Sustainability in Manufacturing
Evaluating Trade-Offs Between Sustainability, Performance, and Cost of Green Machining Technologies 195
M. Helu, J. Rühl, D. Dornfeld, P. Werner, G. Lanza
Sustainable Production by Integrating Business Models of Manufacturing and Recycling Industries 201
C. Jonsson, J. Felix , A. Sundelin , B. Johansson
Life Cycle Engineering – Integration of New Products on Existing Production Systems in Automotive Industry 207
W. Walla, J. Kiefer
Managing Sustainability in Product Design and Manufacturing 213
K. Ioannou, A. Veshagh
A System for Resource Efficient Process Planning for Wire EDM 219
S. Dhanik, P. Xirouchakis, R. Perez
Increased Trustability of Reliability Prognoses for Machine Tools 225
G. Lanza, P. Werner, D. Appel, B. Behmann

Table of Contents
viii
Hidden Aspects of Industrial Packaging - The Driving Forces behind Packaging Selection Processes at Industrial Packaging
Suppliers 229
Applying Functionally Graded Materials by Laser Cladding: a cost-effective way to improve the Lifetime of Die-Casting
Dies 235
S. Müller, H. Pries, K. Dilger, S. Ocylok, A. Weisheit, I. Kelbassa
A Total Life-Cycle Approach towards Developing Product Metrics for Sustainable Manufacturing 240
A. Gupta, A. D. Jayal, M. Chimienti, I. S. Jawahir
Carbon Footprint Analysis for Energy Improvement in Flour Milling Production 246
C. W. P. Shi, F. Rugrungruang, Z. Yeo, B. Song
a

Sustainability in Manufacturing - Energy Efficiency in Machine Tools
Modelling Machine Tools for Self-Optimisation of Energy Consumption 253
R. Schmitt, J. L. Bittencourt, R. Bonefeld
Energy-Efficient Machine Tools through Simulation in the Design Process 258
C. Eisele, S. Schrems, E. Abele
Energy Consumption Characterization and Reduction Strategies for Milling Machine Tool Use 263
N. Diaz, E. Redelsheimer, D. Dornfeld
An Investigation into Fixed Energy Consumption of Machine Tools 268
W. Li, A. Zein, S. Kara, C. Herrmann
Energy Efficiency Measures for the Design and Operation of Machine Tools: An Axiomatic Approach 274
Analyzing Energy Consumption of Machine Tool Spindle Units and Identification of Potential for Improvements of
Efficiency 280
E. Abele, T. Sielaff, A. Schiffler, S. Rothenbücher
a
Sustainability in Manufacturing - Energy Efficiency in Process Chains
Energy Consumption as One Possible Exclusion Criterion for the Reuse of Old Equipment in New Production Lines 287
L. Weyand, H. Bley, M. Swat, K. Trapp, D. Bähre
Optimizing Energy Costs by Intelligent Production Scheduling 293
A. Pechmann, I. Schöler
Methodology for an Energy and Resource Efficient Process Chain Design 299
S. Schrems, C. Eisele, E. Abele
A New Shop Scheduling Approach in Support of Sustainable Manufacturing 305
K. Fang, N. Uhan, F. Zhao, J. W. Sutherland
Comparison of the Resource Efficiency of Alternative Process Chains for Surface Hardening 311
G. Reinhart, S. Reinhardt, T. Föckerer, M. F. Zäh
Synergies from Process and Energy Oriented Process Chain Simulation – A Case Study from the Aluminium Die Casting
Industry 317
C. Herrmann, T. Heinemann, S. Thiede
a
Sustainability in Manufacturing - Methods and Tools for Energy Efficiency

Context-Aware Analysis Approach to Enhance Industrial Smart Metering 323
C. Herrmann, S H. Suh, G. Bogdanski, A. Zein, J M. Cha, J. Um, S. Jeong, A. Guzman
Exergy Efficiency Definitions for Manufacturing Processes 329
Renaldi, K. Kellens, W. Dewulf, J. R. Duflou
State of Research and an innovative Approach for simulating Energy Flows of Manufacturing Systems 335
S. Thiede, C. Herrmann, S. Kara
Modular Modeling of Energy Consumption for Monitoring and Control 341
A. Verl, E. Abele, U. Heisel, A. Dietmair, P. Eberspächer, R. Rahäuser, S. Schrems, S. Braun
Architecture for Multilevel Monitoring and Control of Energy Consumption 347
A. Verl, E. Westkämper, E. Abele, A. Dietmair, J. Schlechtendahl, J. Friedrich, H. Haag, S. Schrems

Table of Contents
ix
S. S. Casell
A. Zein, W. Li, C. Herrmann, S. Kara
Sustainability in Manufacturing - Selected Applications
Green Performance Map – An Industrial Tool for Enhancing Environmental Improvements within a Production System 353
K. Romvall, M. Kurdve, M. Bellgran, J. Wictorsson
Analysis and Quantification of Improvement in Green Manufacturing Process of Silicon Nitride Products 359
N. Mishima, S. Kondoh, H. Hyuga, Y. Zhou, K. Hirao
Evaluation of the Environmental Impact of different Lubrorefrigeration Conditions in Milling of γ-TiAl Alloy 365
G. Rotella, P. C. Priarone, S. Rizzuti, L. Settineri
Quantitative and Qualitative Benefits of Green Manufacturing: an Empirical Study of Indian Small and Medium Enterprises 371
K. S. Sangwan
Preliminary Environmental Assessment of Electrical Discharge Machining 377
K. Kellens, Renaldi, W. Dewulf, J. R. Duflou
Development of an Interpretive Structural Model of Obstacles to Environmentally Conscious Technology adoption in Indian
Industry 383
V. K. Mittal, K. S. Sangwan
Identifying Carbon Footprint Reduction Opportunities through Energy Measurements in Sheet Metal Part Manufacturing 389

C. W. P. Shi, F. Rugrungruang, Z. Yeo, K. H. K. Gwee, R. Ng, B. Song
Sustainable Production Research - a Proposed Method to design the Sustainability Measures 395
Green Production of CFRP Parts by Application of Inductive Heating 401
M. Frauenhofer, S. Kreling, H. Kunz, K. Dilger
Saving Potential of Water for Foundry Sand Using Treated Coolant Water 407
a
End of Life Management - Reuse and Remanufacturing
Modular Grouping Exploration to design Remanufacturable Products 413
N. Tchertchian, D. Millet, O. Pialot
Development of Part Agents for the Promotion of Reuse of Parts through Experiment and Simulation 419
H. Hiraoka, K. Ito, K. Nishida, K. Horii, Y. Shigeji
Systematic Categorization of Reuse and Identification of Issues in Reuse Management in the Closed Loop Manufacturing 425
T. Sakai, S. Takata
Approach for Integration of Sustainability Aspects into Innovation Processes 431
S. Severengiz, P. Gausemeier, G. Seliger, F. A. Pereira
Remanufacturing Engineering Literature Overview and Future Research Needs 437
Q. Ke, H C. Zhang, G. Liu, B. Li
a
End of Life Management - Selected Applications
Effects of Lateral Transshipments in Multi-Echelon Closed-Loop Supply Chains 443
K. Tracht, M. Mederer, D. Schneider
Development of an Interpretive Structural Model of Barriers to Reverse Logistics Implementation in Indian Industry 448
A. Jindal, K. S. Sangwan
Recycling of LCD Screens in Europe - State of the Art and Challenges 454
S. Salhofer, M. Spitzbart, K. Maurer
End of Life Strategies in the Aviation Industry 459
J. Feldhusen, J. Pollmanns, J. E. Heller
Contribution of Recycling Processes to Sustainable Resource Management 465
A. Pehlken, K D. Thoben
Business Issues in Remanufacturing: Two Brazilian Cases in the Automotive Industry 470

O. T. Oiko, A. P. B. Barquet, A. R. Ometto
A Systematic Investigation for Reducing Shredder Residue for Complex Automotive Seat Subassemblies 476
S. Barakat, J. Urbanic
Eco Quality Polymers-EQP 482
C. Luttropp, E. Strömberg
Table of Contents
x
M. K. Wedel, B. Johansson, A. Dagman, J. Stahre
J. O. Gomes, V. E. O. Gomes, J. F. de Souza, E. Y. Kawachi
Intelligent Products to Support Closed-Loop Reverse Logistics 486
K. A. Hribernik, M. von Stietencron, C. Hans, K D. Thoben
The Prospects of Managing WEEE in Indonesia 492
J. Hanafi, H. J. Kristina, E. Jobiliong, A. Christiani, A. V. Halim, D. Santoso, E. Melini
Medical Electrical Equipment - Good Refurbishment Practice at Siemens AG Healthcare 497
M. Plumeyer, M. Braun
a
Information and Knowledge Management
Sustainable Product Lifecycle Management: A Lifecycle based Conception of Monitoring a Sustainable Product
Development 501
M. Eigner, M. von Hauff, P. D. Schäfer
Semantic Web Based Dynamic Energy Analysis and Forecasts in Manufacturing Engineering 507
K. Wenzel, J. Riegel, A. Schlegel, M. Putz
Energy Data Acquisition and Utilization for Energy-Oriented Product Data Management 513
T. Reichel, G. Rünger, D. Steger, U. Frieß, M. Wabner
Integrating Energy-Saving Process Chains and Product Data Models 519
G. Rünger, A. Schubert, S. Goller, B. Krellner, D. Steger
Challenges in Data Management in Product Life Cycle Engineering 525
T. Fasoli, S. Terzi, E. Jantunen, J. Kortelainen, J Sääski, T. Salonen
Business Game for Total Life Cycle Management 531
S. Böhme, T. Heinemann, C. Herrmann, M. Mennenga, R. Nohr, J. Othmer

Requirements Management – a Premise for adequate Life Cycle Design 537
S. Klute, C. Kolbe, R. Refflinghaus
Towards a Methodology for Analyzing Sustainability Standards using the Zachman Framework 543
S. Rachuri, P. Sarkar, A. Narayanan, J. H. Lee, P. Witherell
Sustainability through Next Generation PLM in Telecommunications Industry 549
J. Golovatchev, O. Budde
Challenges of an Efficient Data Management for Sustainable Product Design 554
T. Leitner, M. Stachura, A. Schiffleitner, N. Stein
Product and Policy Life Cycle Inventories with Market Driven Demand: An Engine Selection Case Study 558
H. Grimes-Casey, C. Girata, K. Whitefoot, G. A. Keloeian, J. J. Winebrake, S. J. Skerlos
A Case-Study: Finding References to Product Development Knowledge from Analysis of Face-to-Face Meetings 564
B. Piorkowski, J. Gao, R. Evans
a
Life Cycle Assessment - Methods and Tools
CAD-Integrated LCA Tool: Comparison with dedicated LCA Software and Guidelines for the Improvement 569
A. Morbidoni, C. Favi, M. Germani
Comparison of two LCA Methodologies in the Machine-Tools Environmental Performance Improvement Process 575
M. Azevedo, M. Oliveira, J. P. Pereira, A. Reis
Developing Impact Assessment Methods: an Approach for addressing inherent Problems 581
M. Toxopeus, V. Kickert, E. Lutters
Developing a Conceptual Framework for UT based LCA 587
J M. Cha, S H. Suh
Towards the Integration of Local and Global Environmental Assessment Methods: Application to Computer System Power
Management 593
V. Moreau, N. Gondran, V. Laforest
Cradle to Cradle and LCA – is there a Conflict? 599
A. Bjørn, M. Z. Hauschild

Table of Contents
xi
Life Cycle Assessment - Selected Applications
Environmental Assessment of Printed Circuit Boards from Biobased Materials 605
Y. Deng, K. Van Acker, W. Dewulf, J. R. Duflou
Application of Life Cycle Engineering for the Comparison of Biodegradable Polymers Injection Moulding
Performance 611
D. Almeida, P. Peças, I. Ribeiro, P. Teixeira, E. Henriques
Using Ecological Assessment during the Conceptual Design Phase of Chemical Processes – a Case Study 617
L. Grundemann, J. C. Kuschnerow, T. Brinkmann, S. Scholl
Environmental Footprint of Single-Use Surgical Instruments in Comparison with Multi-Use Surgical Instruments 623
J. Schulz, J. Pschorn, S. Kara, C. Herrmann, S. Ibbotson, T. Dettmer, T. Luger
Comparative Carbon Footprint Assessment of Door made from Recycled Wood Waste versus Virgin Hardwood: Case Study
of a Singapore Wood Waste Recycling Plant 629
R. Ng, C. W. P. Shi, J. S. C. Low, H. M. Lee, B. Song
a
Life Cycle Costing
A Target Costing-Based Approach for Design to Energy Efficiency 635
A. Bierer, U. Götze
Life Cycle Costing Assessment with both Internal and External Costs Estimation 641
S. Martinez, M. Hassanzadeh, Y. Bouzidi, N. Antheaume
Environmental and Economic Evaluation of Solar Thermal Panels using Exergy and Dimensional Analysis 647
G. Medyna, E. Coatanea, D. Millet
Implications of Material Flow Cost Accounting for Life Cycle Engineering 652
T. Viere, M. Prox, A. Möller, M. Schmidt
a
Life Cycle Costing - Modelling
Aircraft Engine Component Deterioration and Life Cycle Cost Estimation 657
Y. Zhao, A. Harrison, R. Roy, J. Mehnen

Life Cycle Cost Estimation using a Modeling Tool for the Design of Control Systems 663
H. Komoto, T. Tomiyama
Assessing the Value of Sub-System Technologies including Life Cycle Alternatives 669
A. Bertoni, O. Isaksson, M. Bertoni, T. Larsson
Costing for Avionic Through-Life Availability 675
L. Newnes, A. Mileham, G. Rees, P. Green
Eco Global Evaluation: Cross Benefits of Economic and Ecological Evaluation 681
N. Perry, A. Bernard, M. Bosch-Mauchand, J. LeDuigou, Y. Xu
A
Index of Authors 687

Table of Contents
xii

Organization

CHAIRMEN
Prof. J. Hesselbach
PD Dr Ing. Christoph Herrmann

ORGANIZING COMMITTEE

Chief Organizers
Dipl Wirtsch Ing. Mark Mennenga
Dipl Wirtsch Ing. Tim Heinemann

Organizing Committee
Hannah Jule Schäfer, M.A. Dipl Wirtsch Ing. Katrin Kuntzky
Dipl Ing. (FH) Stefan Andrew Dr Ing. Tobias Luger
Dr Ing. Ralf Bock Dipl Chem. Gerlind Öhlschläger

Dipl Ing. Gerrit Bogdanski Anne-Marie Schlake, M.A.
Dr Ing. Tina Dettmer Dipl Wirtsch Ing. Tim Spiering
Dipl Wirtsch Ing. Patricia Egede Dipl Wirtsch Ing. Julian Stehr
Dipl Wirtsch Ing. Philipp Halubek Dipl Wirtsch Ing. Sebastian Thiede
Dipl Ing. Mohamad Jamal Kayasa Dipl Wirtsch Ing. Marius Winter
Dipl Ing. Michael Krause Dipl Wirtsch Ing. André Zein


INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE

Prof. L. Alting / DK Prof. N. Nasr / US
Porf. C. Boks / NO Prof. A. Nee / SG
Prof. B. Bras / US Prof. R. Neugebauer / DE
Prof. D. Brissaud / FR Prof. A. Ometto / BR
Prof. J. L. Chen / TW Prof. S. Salhofer / AT
Prof. W. Dewulf / BE Prof. K. S. Sangwan / IN
Prof. D. Dornfeld / US Prof. G. Seliger / DE
Prof. J. Duflou / BE Prof. W. Sihn / AT
Prof. T. Gutowski / US Prof. S. Skerlos / US
Prof. M. Hauschild / DK Prof. T. Spengler / DE
Prof. H. Kaebernick / AU Prof. S. H. Suh / KR
Prof. S. Kara / AU Prof. J. Sutherland / US
Prof. F. Kimura / JP Prof. S. Takata / JP
Prof. W. Knight / US Prof. S. Tichkiewitch / FR
Prof. T. Lien / NO Prof. T. Tomiyama / NL
Dr. C. Luttropp / SW Prof. Y. Umeda / JP
Prof. H. Meier / DE Prof. E. Westkämper / DE
Prof. L. Morselli / I Prof. H. Zhang / US

Electricity Metering and Monitoring in Manufacturing Systems
S. Kara
1, 2
, G. Bogdanski
1, 3
, W. Li
1, 2
1
Joint German-Australian Research Group in Sustainable Manufacturing and Life Cycle Management
2
Life Cycle Engineering & Management Research Group, School of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, The
University of New South Wales, Australia
3
Institute of Machine Tools and Production Technology (IWF), Product- and Life-Cycle-Management Research Group,
Technische Universität Braunschweig, Germany

Abstract
Traditionally, electricity costs in manufacturing have been considered as an overhead cost. In the last decade, the
manufacturing industry has witnessed a dramatic increase in electricity costs, which can no longer be treated as an
overhead, but a valuable resource to be managed strategically. However, this can only be achieved by strategically
gathering electricity consumption data by metering and monitoring. This keynote paper presents the latest
developments and challenges in electricity metering and monitoring systems and standards in the context of
manufacturing systems. An industry case is presented to emphasise the challenges and the possible solutions to
address them.

Keywords:
Manufacturing Systems; Energy Efficiency; Metering and Monitoring
1 INTRODUCTION
Global warming and its disastrous environmental and economic
effects are considered as one of the major challenges that today’s

and future generations have to face during the 21 century. One of
the main attribute of this challenge is due to the environmental
impact e.g. Green House Gas (GWP) emission, caused during the
generation of electricity from fossil fuels [1]. Therefore, one of the
possible ways to reduce GWP emission is to reduce the electricity
consumption, which is also enforced by national and international
initiatives, e.g. Kyoto agreement. In addition, industry has a high
interest in reducing the energy consumption, because energy has
become a major cost driver, especially for high technology
industries with their energy intensive manufacturing processes.
Energy cost has long been treated as a necessary overhead cost
for creating value-added products. However, more and more
industrial companies are consciously shifting towards treating
energy as a valuable resource, which needs to be planned and
managed as a variable input for their plant. A necessary
prerequisite for such energy-conscious behaviour is to be able to
systematically measure energy consumption in a manufacturing
plant. One of the challenges plant managers facing today is to gain
transparency inside complex energy distribution networks of their
manufacturing plants. A fundamental prerequisite for achieving this
transparency is primarily to meter the consumed energy and its
related characteristics in time. In order to gain full awareness, the
metered physical values need to be monitored, interpreted and
visualized in plant management systems.
be converted into many lower energy forms such as heat, light,
compressed air, mechanical torque and many others. Consumption
of electrical energy, in comparison to other energy forms, can be
measured easily and precisely. Therefore, other energy forms are
usually converted by sensors and transducers into electrical signals
which themselves can be picked up by standard procedures of

electrical signal metering techniques.
In this paper the evolution and the latest development in electricity
metering and monitoring technologies are first introduced. A rapid
development in measurement instruments requires up-to-date
standards in order to compare and select appropriate device. After
giving an overview about the most relevant international and
national standards, the potentials of electricity metering and
monitoring in manufacturing plants are illustrated and technical
requirements for metering and monitoring systems are presented.
The most important aspects that need to be considered when
designing metering strategies are highlighted with a case study
from an Australian manufacturing company.

2 EVOLUTION OF ELECTRICITY MEASUREMENT AND
MONITORING
Since the introduction of electricity distribution grids, there has been
a demand for devices to measure the energy consumption in order
to assist suppliers for distributing, pricing and monitoring their
service. As early as during the 1880s, companies were authorized
to sell electricity. One of the first patents for an electricity meter had
been taken out by Pulvermacher in 1868 for an electrolytic meter
[2]. Besides the electrolytic meters, there were other early
inventions for measuring electricity, for instance thermal meters,
clock meters and motor meters. In 1884 the Aron Meter Co. started
selling the first meters of the true dynamometer type electricity
meter pa
tented by Hermann Aron. They were considered to have
the highest degree of accuracy of the available meters at that time.
As one form of the motor meters, the induction meter (Ferraris disc
meter), had emerged to meet the needs of the emerging multi-

phase generation and transmission of electric power for high
precision Alternating Current (AC) meters. The induction meter is
still in general use today but is reaching its limits of accuracy and
lacking ability to communicate its metering values. Recent
developments try to meet the demands of the evolving smart grid
technology calling for multi-value measurement and bi-directional
communication ability [3]. The advances in semiconductor
technology have led to the technological overrun of bulky electro-
mechanical meters by smaller dimensioned, solely electronic
metering devices by the early 1990s. By removing all complex
1 J. Hesselbach and C. Herrmann (eds.), Glocalized Solutions for Sustainability in Manufacturing: Proceedings of the 18th CIRP International
Electrical energy is in high favour of industry because it can easily
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-19692-8_1, © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011
Conference on Life Cycle Engineering, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany, May 2nd - 4th, 2011,
moving mechanical parts, the electronic meters are able to house
multi-sensors within highly integrated circuits [4].
For simple kilowatt-hour metering the electromechanical meters
such as Ferraris disc meters, are still considered to be the most
economical solution because of its extremely long life and durability
[5-6]. The metering industry has been trying to lengthen the
technology life of the predominant electromechanical technology by
using hybrid solutions, e.g. adding electronics to the present
devices, to fulfil additional functions like maximum demand
calculations as demanded by today’s suppliers to price industry and
medium to large sized commercial electricity customers [6]. With
the help of add-on electronics, hybrid meters can provide their
users various other functions such as multi-rate registers, seasonal
registers, historical value registers, maximum demand, and
consumptions threshold definition. The inevitable next step in the
evolution of electricity meters is the electronic meters. In contrast to

electromechanical meters different principles are used to measure
the basic values of electricity, from which all other values of interest
are usually derived by means of electronic calculation. Basic
elements for each power phase are:
 analogue/digital converter circuitry for the basic measurements
such as current and voltage
 multiplier for the instantaneous measurement values
 time to frequency converters for voltage and current [6].
The overall structure of measuring elements of electronic meters is
basically the same. However, the applied measurement techniques
are, in contrast to electromechanical metering systems, very
different. The multiplication of voltage and current for example can
be done by a hall multiplier, a time division multiplier or digital
multiplier [5-6]. Providing at least the same functionality as hybrid
meters the electronic meters aim at offering extended information to
the user. This is done through digital signal processing by means of
microprocessors or customized integrated circuits. The digital
circuitry can perform time accurate calculation of active, reactive,
apparent energy and power factor as well as frequency and
harmonic distortion metering with many mathematical functionalities
such as averaging, min/max detection, integration and
accumulation [4, 6]. All performed metering is provided to serve for
billing and controlling of the supplied and used electrical energy.
The application of different measurement principles and individually
designed integrated circuitry in metering devices calls for national
and international standards to allow users to verify their metered
value in accordance to approved limitations. As an example for
international standards, the IEC 62053 and the ANSI C12.20
mandates the accuracy of static watt-hour meters and have defined
four different classes: class 2, class 1, class 0.5 and class 0.2 (e.g.

class 0.5 requires a repeatable meter precision of 0.5% of nominal
current and voltage) [7-8]. The revised German VDE 0410 had even
clustered these classes into utility measurement ranging from class
1 to class 5 and into precision measurement ranging from class 0.1
to class 0.5 for directly indicating metering devices with a scale. The
VDE 0410 has been overworked in the IEC 60051, within a much
more comprehensive international standard for direct acting
analogue electrical measuring instruments [9-10].
The electrical meters measurement chain is subject to an error of
the measurement chain, expressed in the accuracy G, indicated by
the class and enabling the user to calculate the limitations of
maximum and minimum deviation ∆x inside a given metering
measurement range x
max-min
of the instrument
∆x = G x
max-min
/ 100%. (1)
Current digital electricity meters available on the market already
claim to some extent, to meet the accuracy limitation of 0.1% or
lower, causing buyers to be confused because there is no existing
international standard of 0.1% accuracy which a manufacturer could
claim compliance to [11]. Therefore, standards need to keep up the
pace of technological innovation in order to ensure that metering
equipment buyers are able to compare and benchmark claimed
accuracy by providing manufacturers a specified set of tests over
the whole range of operation conditions of load current, power
factor, temperature and harmonic distortion.

3 PURPOSE OF ELECTRICITY MEASUREMENT AND

MONITORING IN INDUSTRY
Electricity metering and monitoring in industrial applications address
a wide range of applications, which can be divided into three broad
levels of application:
 Factory Level
 Department Level
 Unit Process Level.
In general, from the customer perspective, metering and monitoring
of electricity in industry applications is done to gain transparency
into electricity billing, internal electricity distribution and energy
controlling. Each of the three stated levels above contains its own
set of technical requirements concerning the metering equipment
and the attached monitoring system. They also have their own
associated potential benefits and degree of transparency
requirement from the application of electricity metering and
monitoring. Figure 1 shows a factory from an electricity consumer
perspective with all its organisational sub-consumers within the
three levels.

Figure 1: Three levels of a factory as a consumer of electricity.
The most important fact that needs to be stated is that the
organisational structure rarely complies with the technical electricity
distribution network, which brings additional challenges during
department level electricity metering and monitoring which will be
discussed later.
What all three levels have in common in relation to metering
electricity is the basic measurement values that all other specific
information can be mathematically driven from: voltage and current
with respect to time. For instance, in a general 3 phase system, the
total active power P

W tot
can be calculated as:
P
W tot
= P
W1
+ P
W2
+ P
W3
(2)
= U
1N eff
I
1 eff
cos φ
1
+ U
2N eff
I
2 eff
cos φ
2

+ U
3N eff
I
3 eff
cos φ
3.

(3)
Factory
…Department 1 Department n
Sub-
Department
1.1
Sub-
Department
1.m

…
Sub-
Department
n.1
Sub-
Department
n.m
Machine
1
…
Machine
i
Periphery
System 1
Periphery
System j
…
FactoryDepartmentUnit Process
Transparency gains through electricity
metering and monitoring

• energy billing
• energy contract
•…
• energy accounting
• identify hot-spots
• transparency of
energy flow within the
factory
•…
• energy modelling
• process simulation
• machine efficiency
redesign
•
Organizational level
structure
Keynotes
2
Where φ
n
is the phase angle between the current I
n
and the voltage
U
n
of the n-th phase. In 2-phase-systems it is theoretically possible
to meter only two lines because one line can be seen as the
neutral. Nevertheless, it is often seen that 3-phase-systems are
also equipped with three separate power meters to monitor three
phases and to ensure a higher accuracy of the metering result,

especially at low powers and high phase angles [12]. The accuracy
of a measurement is therefore always directly related to the
accuracy of the current and voltage measurement error and needs
to be calculated accordingly.
Usually a galvanic isolation, as depicted in Figure 2, is used in the
current and voltage meters to prevent them from accidental
overload from harming the sensitive metering equipment. The most
widespread application to realize a galvanic isolation is a simple
current and voltage transformer which is going into saturation if an
overload is applied on the primary windings. The secondary
windings are short circuited by the current meter. The
transformation rate is generally dimensioned to conduct 1 or 5 A
(current meter) and 100 V (voltage meter) on the secondary
windings.
The transformers are also regarded as part of the measuring chain
and are also adding their own error in terms of accuracy limitation to
the total measurement system. The IEC 60044-1 is dealing with the
technical requirements of current transformers for instruments as
well as their indicated accuracy classes [13]. Assuming a normal
distribution of the measurement errors of the components, the total
measurement systems accuracy G
tot
is calculated as considering
the accuracy levels of the transformer G
trans
and of the instrument
G
inst
:
G

tot
= ( G
trans
2
+ G
inst
2
)
1/2
. (4)
The error of a current transformer is actually consisting of a basic
error, which can be very low in a good technically designed
transformer, and an angular error, which is highly dependent on the
applied apparent current burden [12]. The following section will
present a more specific view on the potential gains from metering
and monitoring applications on the three organizational levels.
Recent publications show, that the industrialized countries are
facing a multidimensional pressure from the economical, ecological
as well as legislative side to shift their field of actions more towards
energy and resource efficient processes and structures within their
company, their products and their services to stay competitive in the
global market environment.
3.1 Factory Level
The electricity metering and monitoring on factory level is done on
the interface between the electricity supplier and the consumer
(factory inlet). Electricity is an energy resource that is demanded by
the manufacturing industry ever since the light bulb was invented
and the establishment of the electricity industry in the late
nineteenth century. With the rising demand, quality and the
continuity of the supply have become a serious concern [14]. As a

result, today’s electricity grid and the supply of electric voltage are
standardized within different regulations. For instance in Europe,
the EN 50160 written by the European Electrotechnical Standards
Body CENELEC is used [15]. The EN 50160 address the electric
voltage as a good and the quality has to be ensured in the provision
to the customer. Otherwise the customer would be able to claim a
better product quality from the supplier. Electricity is a very unique
product, being produced, delivered and used at the same instant of
time [14]. Due to a high level of dependence on electric voltage
supply, the industry and the public have to be sure that they can
operate their electrical equipment without incurring additional capital
expenditures due to a lack of quality in the electricity supply from
the low (LV) and the medium voltage (MV) grids. The voltage
quality can be imagined as the usability of electrical energy without
interruptions. The subject of voltage quality is becoming more and
more important in highly developed countries, because of the
increased use of applications, which are very sensitive to
disturbances of the voltage amplitude or of the voltage wave shape
[16]. In order to check the quality of the electrical voltage supplied
to the customer according to the given characteristics of the EN
50160, metering equipment suitable for that task needs to be
deployed. Table 1 lists an extract of specifications from EN 50160
that brings in another important aspect of modern digital electricity
meters – the resolution in time [4]. A high resolution of metering
data can be ensured by a high sampling rate of the analogue-digital
circuitry and a short settling time of any analogue components like
the current and the voltage transformers and the amplification
circuits.

Supply voltage phenomenon Acceptable limits

Measurement
interval
Monitoring period
Grid Frequency 49.5 Hz to 50.5 Hz, 47 Hz to 52 Hz 10 s 1 week
Slow Voltage Changes 230 V ±10% 10 min 1 week
Voltage Sags or Dips (≤ 1 min) 10 to 1000 times per year (under 85% of nominal) 10 ms 1 year
Short Interruptions (≤ 3 min) 10 to 100 times per year (under 1% of nominal) 10 ms 1 year
Accidental, long interruptions (> 3 min) 10 to 50 times per year (under 1% of nominal) 10 ms 1 year
Temporary Overvoltages (line to ground) Mostly < 1.5 kV 10 ms -
Transient Overvoltages (line to ground) Mostly < 6 kV - -
Voltage Unbalance Mostly 2%, but occasionally 3% 10 min 1 week
Harmonic Voltages 8% total harmonic distortion (THD) 10 min 1 week
Table 1: Summary of electricity specifications from EN 50160 and related measurement intervals from Shtargot [4].
(a)

(b)

Figure 2: Current (a) and voltage (b) transformer circuits [12].
I1
I2
K
kl
L
v
U
V
u
Keynotes
3
On the factory level, several aspects of the electric energy are

essential to be metered in order to gain the certain state of
transparency of the factory’s energy consumption from a holistic
perspective [17-18].
Table 2 lists a summary of possible cost factors based on the
electricity consumption on the factory level and possible potential
benefits that can be achieved by gaining a certain level of
transparency through metering key values such as listed in Table 1.
By using a simple initial monitoring and controlling of consumption
the electricity consumer will be able to address the problems on
time and not retrospectively after receiving the bill. Electricity
metering and monitoring on the factory level enables the consumer
to check the quality characteristics of the supplied product and
enables him to gain an important amount of transparency for time
dependent controlling of energy consumption.
Factory level:
Cost factors Total energy consumed, peak power
demand, power factor limitation, THD
feedback
Potential benefits
enabled through
electricity metering
Adaption of the electricity supply contract;
preventing of peak charges through
rescheduling of processes or events
Table 2: Cost factors and potential benefits through electricity
metering and monitoring on factory level.
3.2 Department level
The department level structure usually consists of n departments
which can show the functional units of the factory. Table 3 shows
the major cost factors concerning electricity and related potential

benefits through electricity metering and monitoring on department
level.
Department level:
Cost factors Specific energy consumed, peak power
demand, power factor limitation
Potential benefits
enabled through
electricity metering
Energy intensive process scheduling;
ability to deploy and track continuous
improvement measures; department based
energy saving targeting and benchmarking;
simulative improvement of energy costing;
effective utilization of secondary energy
carriers produced by electricity; quantify
energy savings
Table 3: Cost factors and potential benefits through electricity
metering and monitoring on department level.
The contents of Table 3 comply very much with the goals of smart
metering and energy accounting, known from private households.
The main goal is to try shortening the informational feedback time
from the consumption of energy to the moment of billing [19]. For
industry the simple monitoring is already a big leap forward to raise
the corporate awareness and to motivate each individual to
minimize their own share of energy consumption and their related
costs. This will also lead to putting some effort into reducing their
individual energy consumption without just shifting consumption
from one individual consumer to the other.
It has been shown that an extended holistic process and system
understanding is beneficial in order to increase energy and

resource efficiency measures in manufacturing sites. This is due to
the fact that many sub-systems are interlinked and have indirect or
direct coupled energy consumption, which are not obvious at first
sight and can cause a problem shift if efficiency measures are only
applied from a narrow point of view [20]. Several researchers have
already stated the basic need for reliable energy consumption data
for a successful development towards more energy efficient
processes and factories e.g. by use of software tools (energy aware
process chain simulation, LCI of manufacturing process chains,
evaluation of machine tool configuration) [21-24]. Some even put a
special focus on the energy aware upper level planning and control
of production, which can be defined as an interface between all
three levels of a factory [25-26]. Some researchers have even tried
to break down the assessed energy of the whole factory in order to
allocate it to one product manufactured at the site, stating that a
more efficient monitoring and control of energy used in
infrastructure and technical services can help to optimise the plant
level activities [27].
When planning and ultimately deploying an electricity metering and
monitoring concept in a factory, it quickly becomes obvious that the
electrical distribution network structure inside a factory highly varies
from a simple organisational structure. This makes setting-up of a
consistent metering network with proper upper level monitoring
quite challenging. Especially, when the department structures are
being monitored with the purpose of energy accounting based on
organizational structures, the complexity of the deployed metering
strategy increases dramatically.
3.3 Unit process level
Unit process level of electricity metering and monitoring is
considered as the lowest hierarchical type of metering point

selection. Meters are directly attached to single machines or
machine components (e.g. auxiliary pumps, ventilation systems)
and peripheral units such as decentralized coolant treatment or
decentralized compressed air production systems. On this lowest
level the most detail of electrical energy consumption can be
obtained [17]. Direct monitoring of single machines may be required
for energy optimized production planning around highly energy
intensive processes or to conduct a deeper understanding of the
energy flow distribution onto sub-components of production
machines or to better understand the energetic coupling of in-line
production processes [24, 28-30]. Table 4 shows the major cost
factors concerning electricity and related potential benefits through
electricity metering and monitoring on unit process level.
Unit process level:
Cost factors Specific Energy Consumption (SEC), peak
power demand, power factor limitation,
THD feedback
Potential benefits
enabled through
electricity metering
Supplementing unit process values to
machine LCI databases; energy
forecasting in production design, process
planning and control; energy labelling of
machine tools and products; specific
quantification of single efficiency
measures; evaluation of technical
improvements; condition monitoring as a
prophylactic measure in energy and
resource sufficiency

Table 4: Cost factors and potential benefits through electricity
metering and monitoring on unit process level.
Other publications utilized electricity metering and monitoring on
unit process level by using energy and time studies to assess the
specific environmental and economic impact of particular production
processes which can then be used to build Life Cycle Inventory
(LCI) databases [31-32].
Keynotes
4
In addition to impact assessment and efficiency improvements as
planning tools, electricity metering and monitoring can also be used
for condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines and
processes. This enables to prevent energy and resource losses
ahead of time such as tool changes, planning of maintenance
cycles as well as early detection of tool wear. The international
standard such as ISO 13374-1, are helping users to implement
such established measures [33]. Others have also demonstrated
additional benefit by combining electricity metering and monitoring
data with machine control data (e.g. from programmable logic
controllers) to gain beneficial additional transparency into process
specific environmental impact assessment [34-35].

4 GUIDELINE FOR ELECTRICTY METERING AND
MONITORING IN MANUFACTURING
Rohdin and Thollander have listed in detail the barriers that
especially non-energy intensive manufacturing companies are
confronted with, when being faced by a decision to actually go for
energy efficiency assessments and measures [36]. The study
indicated that responsible staff often fears the interruption of
production processes, the lack of insufficient sub-metering in the

company structure to quantify and assess implemented efficiency
measures and some even face a lack of technical skill to put
metering and monitoring into action.
Occupational Health and Safety is also critical in use and selection
of measurement instruments. The IEC 61010-1 declares the
general safety requirements for electrical test and measurement
equipment for electrical industrial process control and laboratory
equipment [37]. For easier recognition of suitable devices, the
standard defines four categories (CAT I, II, III and IV) indicating the
specified area of usage for the specific instrument (ranging from
measurement in circuits not directly connected to the network up to
measurement on overvoltage protection devices).
To ensure a true comparability of measurement instruments
brought into the market in the European Union, the European
Parliament has issued the directive 2004/22/EC, also known as the
MID [38]. The MID and related European and international
standards like the IEC 60359 ensure a proper indication of
performance criteria, basic functional requirements, which are a
common way to indicate measurement ranges and limitations of
uncertainties of measurement as well as indication of calibration
results [39]. Various metering instruments and monitoring solutions
are available on the market, which are able to fulfil the requested
task of the user. Therefore, the challenge of the user is to define the
task. Although, researchers like Schleich have already identified
that a lack of information about energy consumption patterns has
been found to be a barrier for energy efficiency, which can be
overcome by installing metering devices and implementing energy
management systems [40]; the biggest difficulty is in fact to define
and execute the corresponding metering strategy. Designing a
metering strategy incorporates the definition of a metering task, the

goal which also describes the characteristics of the resulting
measurement in terms of accuracy and resolution. A metering
strategy also implies an estimation of the expected value to be
metered in order to dimension the metering equipment accordingly.
An over or under dimensioned metering system can result in a low
accuracy and high variance of the metered value or even an
overload situations with fatal errors. Only a few publications are
seen in the community of manufacturing engineering that actually
address how electricity metering of single devices is actually
performed and which measurement instruments are recommended
to be used [41].
In the following sections of the paper a guideline for electrical
energy metering and monitoring will be presented. Technical and
economical challenges will be addressed and specific ranges of
technical specifications suitable for the three defined levels of
application will be suggested. The decision of selecting suitable
measurement instruments always depends on the minimum
requirements due to the defined task and the economic aspect as a
limiting factor for the upper range of requirements.
Technical challenges: Electricity metering instruments are
designed to cover a lot of measurement purposes. Some have been
developed for highly accurate and real time monitoring like
oscilloscopes and others have been designed to suit a variety of
tasks such as multi-meters for network quality analysis. Each one of
the instruments has different technical specifications that the user
has to be aware of before making the purchasing decision. Against
each task required, individual set of technical specifications need to
be clarified by formulating a measurement strategy while giving
certain ranges of specifications of the informational degree.
Economical challenges: Selecting the most cost-effective

metering solution requires a clear vision of the required outcome.
More available options and features are always more expensive
and are a quick step towards over-dimensioning. The economical
challenges of each level provide
some considerations that inevitably
come with designing a measurement strategy and implementing
electricity metering and monitoring.
Factory Level:
Selecting the right accuracy class is essential to be able to control
electricity billing.
Technical challenges: Factory level metering is done on or near
the interface between the electricity supplier and the customer. The
installed meters from the supplier in industry applications are
usually electronic meters that do not simply meter the energy
consumption in kilowatt-hours but additionally use certain register
intervals in which the specific amount of energy is accumulated. For
instance, the register interval in Germany is fixed to 15 minutes,
which means the resulting accumulated 15 minute energy is used to
charge peak loads in individual electricity supply contracts for
industry consumers. The register values from the electronic meters
are collected by the supplier by using remote instrument reading.
The MID as well as the IEC 62053 enable the customer to select
appropriate metering instruments to meter with a higher accuracy
and in higher temporal resolution. As a result, breaking down the 15
minute standard register interval from the supplier to 30 second
intervals can be used to gain transparency into how 15 minute peak
charges occur and be a first step towards evaluation of whether
load management could be used to lower the charges.
Economical challenges: The investment for metering equipment
on this level is considered low since only a few meters (at least one

at each medium voltage transformer inlet) are needed. The
resulting data volume is considered negligible. Despite this, the
selection of the metering instrument is not a simple task. Scientific
discussions from the early nineties up until now have stated that
higher levels of sophistication in electricity metering will be essential
to prepare the suppliers and customers for the inevitable utilization
of the smart grid [42-43]. It should be kept in mind that the
consumed amount of kilowatt-hours is not the only number that is of
interest for the electricity suppliers. There are other parameters
such as current, voltage, apparent power and their specific
behaviour in time that demands costly improvements and
maintenance actions in the distribution networks. Therefore, it might
be in the interest of the customer to know in advance about these
parameters in order to have transparency into energy billing. The
selection of a metering device with the capability to meter active
power, apparent power, power factor and the total harmonic
Keynotes
5
distortion as a quality parameter with a temporal resolution of 30
seconds up to 15 minutes with accuracies complying with the
standards described earlier (as well as with the local requirements
of the state legislations) is highly recommended as a quality
parameter. The amount of data collected from one metering device
in standard office applications will result in a data volume ranging
from 280 megabytes to 8.2 gigabytes per year (depending on the
selected resolution).
Department level:
Metering on department level is done to gain a better transparency
of the energy flows inside the organisational and the technical
distribution network of the factory. A certain degree of transparency

enables organisational and technical energy efficiency measures.
The metering strategy and the related challenges in the selection of
metering equipment on department level are highly dependent on
the consumption behaviour of the single substructures. This paper
draws a distinction between highly dynamic behaviour, low dynamic
behaviour and near static behaviour as addressed in Table 5.
Highly dynamic energy consumption behaviour can be found in
assembly or production departments or single lines with several
inline processes and machines that perform highly variable
processes. As a result, energy demand from the grid is highly
variable as well. Low dynamic consumption behaviour can be found
in technical building services and are represented by processes like
compressed air production, technical air ventilation or facility
heating. Near static consumption behaviour can be found in office
complexes or in server rooms. These substructures show distinct
periodic cycles over days or weeks while being not very prone to
sudden changes or peak demands.
Technical challenge: Table 5 presents recommendations for
metering specifications for different metering strategies on
department level related to the dynamic consumption behaviour of
the regarded department. The recommended temporal resolution of
the output data of the electronic metering devices are linked with
the dynamic behaviour. A high dynamic behaviour needs high
resolutions of the metering output data in order to achieve certain
transparency and a satisfactory understanding of the consumption
behaviour of the department.
Behaviour Resolution Parameters
Depart-
ment
Highly dynamic 1 s – 1 min Wh, VAh, PF

Low dynamic 30 s – 5 min Wh, VAh, PF
Near static 1 min – 30 min Wh, PF
Table 5: Department level metering specifications.
Economical challenge: The department level metering has
probably the highest variety of possible economic impacts that tend
to be very case specific. However, general propositions can still be
made to address the challenges. Metering on department level is
often used to do energy accounting for a fixed sub structure, which
can be an organisational structure (department), a production line
for a specific product or a storage area. Each one of these clusters
of defined sub consumers is drawing electricity from the internal
distribution network. Since organisational structures and technical
structures are mostly not same due to the building design, the
consumer clusters might not be situated in the same branch of the
distribution network, which will result in a high number of sub-
meters. These meters can also be used for determining the unit
process energy consumption pattern on individual processes.
Complex structures of metering systems on this level requires a
well structured communication and data computation system to
handle the monitoring of the complex metering output data. Single
meters with a data output resolution of 1 second, as recommended
for high dynamic metering tasks, would result in a yearly data
volume of 256 gigabyte (raw data) if three parameters (active
power, apparent power and power factor) are logged continuously.
Each sub meter added to the metering and monitoring structure
adds its part of the data volume share that needs to be handled by
the data processing system. The measurement instruments itself
will also play a considerable role in the economical challenge.
Measurement instruments with high accuracy classes and
capabilities to meter THD and PF characteristics are usually too

expensive to be distributed on department level metering
applications. However, more and more, ultra low cost power quality
meters and energy management systems with class A IEC 61000-
4-30 compliance are emerging which will make electricity
measurement possible on this level in the near future [44]. In fact,
electricity metering and monitoring on department level can actually
pay off very quickly as shown in a case study by Stephenson and
Paun. The authors demonstrated how a small manufacturer was
able to shift and reschedule some of his manufacturing machines to
avoid peak charges, and power factor charges by soft starting
controls for machine start-ups on Mondays and deferring electrical
consumption on activities like energy intensive drying processes or
chilled water production by less than two hours without affecting
production requirements [45].
Unit process level:
On unit process level the single process, machine, or component is
being metered and monitored. As mentioned above, it might be
needed to do unit process metering in applications considered as
department level metering and monitoring, but the actual unit
process metering is mostly considered to be research related or
only short term metering rather than continuous.
In the scientific community unit process metering and monitoring
are often found throughout many case studies. Solding et al. have
used metering data of unit processes to accumulate the
fundamental data basis for energy aware production simulation in
various degrees of detail [46]. Considering consumption profiles
from products Elias et al. have shown the importance of electricity
metering in order to evaluate the user behaviour’s influence on the
product’s electric energy consumption [47]. Whereas Dietmair et al.
have used electricity metering and monitoring on unit process level

to analyse and evaluate machine tool design strategies to foster
energy efficiency [48]. Li et al developed an empirical approach to
model and predict unit process energy consumption for material
removal processes [49].
Behaviour Resolution Parameters
Unit
process
Highly dynamic 10 ms – 1 min
Wh, VAh, PF,
THD
Low dynamic 1 s – 5 min
Wh, VAh, PF,
THD
Table 6: Unit process level metering specifications.
In all these electricity metering and monitoring applications, the
accuracy is not of primary importance since no monetary value is
calculated from the metered values. Moreover it is the qualitative
importance of the metered values directly related to the high
temporal resolution which enables an understanding into the
process.
Technical challenge: As in department level, the unit process
metering specifications are closely related to the dynamics of the
unit process’ electrical energy consumption behaviour. Highly
dynamic behaviour is likely to be seen in high speed machining
processes or robotic applications, whereas low dynamic processes
can be seen in thermal or galvanic processes. As Table 6 shows,
Keynotes
6
the recommended temporal resolution can go down to 10
milliseconds for highly dynamic processes. On unit process level,

the source of the harmonic distortion and low power factor can also
be found and compensated by making use of continuous unit
process metering as an input for closed loop controls.
Economical challenge: The investment for metering equipment on
this level is estimated to be high, because only the highly
sophisticated metering systems are able to provide such high
temporal resolutions and are able to handle the high data output
volume from the single metering equipment. This high data volume
enables real time monitoring, but at the same time makes logging
applications very data intensive. Especially on unit process level,
the harmonic distortion charge of the suppliers can be addressed,
as the countermeasures can be applied directly at the source. Total
harmonic distortion (THD) is an electrical noise feedback caused by
electrical inverters and phase controlled modulators. THD does not
only lower the quality of the distribution network, but also severely
impacts local machines and sensitive devices.
The following section of this paper addresses difficulties in selecting
the right measurement equipment for a given task.

5 REVIEW OF AVAILABLE ENERGY METERING DEVICES
In the previous chapter it has been shown that within each
electricity measurement task, whether to enable energy efficiency
measures or to do energy accounting within organisational
structures, it is always a challenge to formulate the right
measurement strategy and to select the right measurement
instruments for the task of metering. This section gives a brief
overview of some typically metering devices found in the market as
well as explaining some basic distinguishing features that must be
considered in industrial and research applications. Table 7 presents
a selection of most commonly used electricity metering instruments

from industrial and research applications. The aim is neither to
provide a complete list nor to rate the instruments in any way. The
selection is just a very limited selection of some important features
that distinguish the single instruments.
The instrument features range from installation, which describe
whether the device can be mounted in a fixed location or if it can be
used in mobile applications. Mobile applications are usually found in
short time measurement for quick energy assessments on factory
or unit process level or in special research applications. Fixed types
of devices can be found in the long time measurement applications
available on all levels. Such devices can be built-in directly into
control or distribution cabinets.
As the evolution of electricity metering devices has allowed user to
obtain not only single measurands meters (Ferraris disc meter) but
also multi measurands meters, a broad selection of possible
measurands becomes available and allows more integrated
applications. This enables for example single devices at factory
level to provide users the information about active energy
consumption for energy controlling as well as reactive energy and
total harmonic distortion values for quality monitoring at the same
time. The amounts of measurands that can be read from the single
devices are defined by the complexity of the electronic meters and
often manifest itself in the purchasing price.
Table 5 and Table 6 show certain ranges of recommended
resolutions of the metering points needed to perform metering
applications. The output resolution presented in Table 7 should
match these required resolutions in order to be well dimensioned for
the metering task. The degree of output resolution is directly
proportional the purchasing price of the instruments. Data loggers
with resolutions of higher than a metering point per second can

exceed 5000 EUR. A high output data resolution is not always a
sign of quality. It is rather an indication of the possible types of
information that can be gained from the metering data through
analysis. As discussed earlier, a high degree of metering data
resolution can quickly result into high additional costs for handling
of the large amounts of resulting data if centralized monitoring is
used. Selecting the right degree of detail is an essential part of the
right dimensioning of a metering strategy.
In large metering networks, commonly found in department level
metering and monitoring, the communications interface plays a very
important role as well. Metering and monitoring applications have to
be able to use the same communication interface. Real-time
monitoring and control applications often use industrial bus
interfaces like Profibus or in near real-time applications interfaces
like Ethernet. Simple applications such as monitoring for energy
accounting do not rely on real-time data and are usually working
with bus systems based on RS485 or even impulse signal
recognition. The communication interface matching is very
important when designing cost-effective metering strategies. Multi
interface applications can easily lead to complex and costly
software and hardware conflicts. If a holistic department level
Measurement ins
trument:
Brand, series/type
Installation Measurands* Output
resolution*
Communication interface*
IME, NEMO 96 Fixed type V, A, W, VA, PF, THD 60 s RS485, Impulse
Siemens, SIMEAS Fixed type V, A, W, VAR, VA, PF, THD < 1s Profibus, RS485
Schneider, Electrics, PM Fixed type V, A, W, VA, PF, THD 60 s RS485, Impulse

Simpson, GIMA1000 Fixed type V, A, W, VAR, VA, PF 1 s RS485, Impulse
Yokogawa, Fixed type V, A, W, VAR, VA, PF <1 s Ethernet, RS485, Pulse
AccuEnergy, Acuvim Fixed type V, A, W, VAR, VA, PF, THD <1 s Ethernet, Profibus, RS485, Impulse
Janitza Electronics, UMG 604 Fixed type V, A, W, VAR, VA, PF, THD <1 s Ethernet, Profibus, Impulse
Chauvin Arnoux, C.A.8335 Mobile type V, A, W, VAR, VA, PF, THD 1 s USB
Fluke, 434 Mobile type V, A, W, VAR, VA, PF, THD 0.5 s USB
Voltech, PM3000 Mobile type V, A, W, VAR, VA, PF, THD <10 ms RS232, IEEE488
Load Controls, PPC Mobile type W 15 ms Analogue 0-10 volts or 4-20 milliampere
National Instruments, cDAQ* Mobile type V, A <1 s USB
*the listed features are retrieved from the datasheets of the devices and are due to change in future instrument revisions
Table 7: Selection of often found electricity measurement instruments with a selection of important distinguishing features.
Keynotes
7
metering strategy is to be deployed, a high amount of time has to
be invested for investigating the possible existing communications
infrastructure and resulting requirements for the new data
communication system.

6 REVIEW OF SELECTED ELECTRICITY METERING AND
MONITORING SYSTEMS FOR RESEARCH PURPOSES
In this section, a special emphasis will be given to electricity
metering and monitoring systems for research related purposes. As
stated before, research applications most often utilize mobile
systems in order to redeploy them easier. The last five instruments
listed in Table 7 are mobile metering devices with different features,
individual advantages and weaknesses.
The two devices from Fluke and Chauvin Arnoux are highly
sophisticated industrial multi-measurands instruments that are
capable to log measurement values in high temporal resolution of
up to 0.5 and 0.1 seconds respectively. Plug and play features

allow users to perform highly mobile measurement strategies as
found in quick energy assessments or simple before-and-after
measurements to evaluate energy efficiency measures.
Other instruments like from Voltech and Load Controls are very
likely to be used in detail energy system analyses. Very high
metering data resolutions in the range of hundredth of a second
allow analysing transients, inrush currents and other short term
electrical events. The specific characteristic of these two devices is
that they need additional external digital analogue converters with
high sampling rates for logging purposes of the analogue data
output interface, which is additionally affecting the accuracy of the
logged metering values.
The last item on the list from National Instruments is a typical
laboratory solution for research tasks, with an open programming
platform to create individual metering algorithms. The individual
algorithms and the specifications of the individual input modules
define the amount of calculated measurands and their accuracy.
Since such an open platform is not sufficient for energy accounting
or related purposes on factory or department level, this mobile
device is solely meant for research applications with a high degree
of individuality and freedom.

7 INDUSTRY CASE: ONGOING CHALLENGES OF
DEPLOYING A METERING AND MONITORING STRATEGY
IN AN AUSTRALIAN MANUFACTURER
The presented case is derived from the analysis of a bio-medical
products manufacturing company in Australia. The increasing
energy bill due to both business growth and rising energy cost has
been considered as one of the main issues in this company. This
not only impacts the environmental performance of this company

but also affects its business strategy. Reducing energy
consumption would benefit the company both economically and
ecologically. The main aim was to identify the areas of improvement
as well as implementing energy accounting for individual functional
units, processes and ultimately for the individual products. Thus, the
company has decided to implement an energy management
system. The first step taken is to establish a metering and
monitoring system in order to achieve transparency into its energy
consumption.
The company initially aims to monitor the energy consumption
behaviour from top factory level down to sub-department levels.
Multiple energy meters were thus allocated throughout the
distribution network. The factory plant is powered by an 11 kV
electrical connection from the energy supplier. The voltage is
decreased to 400 V three-phases by 3 transformers, which powers
3 main switch boards and then splits into different distribution
boards. The energy meters attached at the three main transformers
is to be able to perform parallel metering on the factory, which aims
to check the accuracy of the electricity bill from the supplier. The
metering devices at the distribution boards and circuit breakers
were then assigned to individual department or sub-departments. A
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition system (SCADA) here
allows the real time management of energy consumption. The
system also allows the user to configure analysis and reports to
show the previous and current energy consumptions. By performing
the analysis of the demand for each department or area,
management can determine the Key Performance Indicator (KPI)
and apply procedures to minimise demand, which leads to energy
savings and lower energy bill. The output from the power meter
devices were collected with the SCADA server via RS485

communication, which requires gateways to access them to the
factory Ethernet communication network. However, the deployed
energy metering and monitoring system failed to provide reliable
information of energy consumption of the plant. The aggregation of
energy consumption measured at three main transformers did not
agree with the electricity bill. The gap between measured value and
billed amount far exceeded the errors due to the measurement.
Assuming that the energy supplier measured the real amount of
energy consumption and billed correctly, the failure to obtain similar
total energy consumption reading internally may possibly due to the
selection of power meters. As the energy supplier charges not only
the total work load but also peak power, low power factor and THD,
the current meters did not cope with the range of all the energy
billing categories. The following Figure 3 shows the energy
consumption profile of the factory over a year per period.

Figure 3: Break-down of energy consumption profile over a year.
The reading of the power meters at the distribution boards and
circuit breakers experienced inconsistency
throughout the period.
For example, the recorded data for one department gave zero
energy consumption for the whole year, where the plant actually
runs 24/7. Another example is that some unusual spike was
recorded for Administration department as shown in Figure 3, which
even exceeded the total energy consumption of the main
transformers. The possible reason for this failure is mainly due to
the connection problem within the communication system between
power meters and SCADA server.
Furthermore, the layout of distribution network did not agree with
the organizational structure as shown in Figure 4. In order to

implement energy accounting for each organizational department,
the energy monitoring system requires new metering points in the
distribution network. As a result a new energy monitoring system
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Main
Transformers
Plant Room
Administration
Bottle Filling
Energy [kWh]
Keynotes
8
has been implemented, which resulted in changing some of the
existing devices and installing new ones in order to extend the
monitoring and measuring to individual processes. A considerable
cost is thus caused to improve the energy metering and monitoring
system.

Figure 4: Factory organisational structure and the existing metering
system.
After these changes, company’s external reading and energy bill
have started to agree with the internal measurements. Currently the
company, in collaboration with the authors, has been developing a
new energy oriented factory planning system in order to link the
material flow to the energy flow within the factory. Currently the
company’s energy bill exceeds $1M a year. Despite the initial
investment with the introduction of the new system, company is
expected to reduce its energy bill by about 30% as well as reducing
its carbon foot-print substantially.

8 SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK
Today’s manufacturing companies are facing a more stringent cost
pressure than ever before due to rising energy and resource costs
and the associated environmental impact. Manufacturing
companies have come to realisation the importance of electrical
energy metering and monitoring as a foundation to work out energy
efficiency improvement potentials. This key note paper presented a
short review of the evolution and the latest developments in
electricity metering monitoring systems. A special emphasis is given
the challenges of the designing of metering strategies in order to
properly dimension metering instruments for a given task. In
addition, the paper addressed the critical aspects of data
communication and the compatibility of interfaces in relation to
different application areas. An exemplary list of metering devices
was presented to demonstrate how the features of the different
measurement instruments can be matched for certain measurement
tasks on different application levels. In order to emphasise the
importance of a well designed metering strategy and selection of
the right metering and monitoring equipments, a case study from a
manufacturing company was presented.

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