environmental bioengineering handbook of environmental engineering volume 11

Environmental Bioengineering
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VOLUME 11
H
ANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
Environmental
Bioengineering
Edited by
Lawrence K. Wang,
PhD, PE, DEE
Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, Massachusetts, USA
Krofta Engineering Corporation, Lenox, Massachusetts, USA
Zorex Corporation, Newtonville, New York, USA
Joo-Hwa Tay, PhD, PE
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Stephen Tiong-Lee Tay, PhD
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Yung-Tse Hung, PhD, PE, DEE
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Cleveland State University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
Editors
Dr.LawrenceK.Wang
Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA, USA
Krofta Engineering Corporation, Lenox, MA, USA
Zorex Corporation, Newtonville, NY, USA

Dr. Joo-Hwa Tay
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

Dr. Stephen Tiong Lee Tay
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

Dr. Yung-Tse Hung
Cleveland State University
Cleveland, OH, USA

ISBN: 978-1-58829-493-7 e-ISBN: 978-1-60327-031-1
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-60327-031-1
Springer New York Dordrecht Heidelberg London
Library of Congress Control Number: 2010928632
c
 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2010
All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher
(Humana Press, c/o Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for
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retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed
is forbidden.
The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such,
is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights.
Printed on acid-free paper
Humana Press is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)
Dedications
The editors of the Handbook of Environmental Engineering series dedicate this volume to
late Mr. Thomas L. Lanigan (1938–2006), who was the founder and president of Humana
Press, and to late Dr. Stephen Tiong-Lee Tay, who served as a Co-editor of this volume and
was an Associate Professor of Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
v
•
Preface

The past 30 years have seen the emergence of a growing desire worldwide that positive
actions be taken to restore and protect the environment from the degrading effects of all forms
of pollution – air, water, soil, and noise. Since pollution is a direct or indirect consequence of
waste production, the seemingly idealistic demand for “zero discharge” can be construed as
an unrealistic demand for zero waste. However, as long as waste continues to exist, we can
only attempt to abate the subsequent pollution by converting it to a less noxious form. Three
major questions usually arise when a particular type of pollution has been identified: (1) How
serious is the pollution? (2) Is the technology to abate it available? and (3) Do the costs of
abatement justify the degree of abatement achieved? This book is one of the volumes of the
Handbook of Environmental Engineering series. The principal intention of this series is to
help readers formulate answers to the above three questions.
The traditional approach of applying tried-and-true solutions to specific pollution problems
has been a major contributing factor to the success of environmental engineering, and has
accounted in large measure for the establishment of a “methodology of pollution control.”
However, the realization of the ever-increasing complexity and interrelated nature of current
environmental problems renders it imperative that intelligent planning of pollution abatement
systems be undertaken. Prerequisite to such planning is an understanding of the performance,
potential, and limitations of the various methods of pollution abatement available for envi-
ronmental scientists and engineers. In this series of handbooks, we will review at a tutorial
level a broad spectrum of engineering systems (processes, operations, and methods) currently
being utilized, or of potential utility, for pollution abatement. We believe that the unified
interdisciplinary approach presented in these handbooks is a logical step in the evolution of
environmental engineering.
Treatment of the various engineering systems presented will show how an engineering
formulation of the subject flows naturally from the fundamental principles and theories of
chemistry, microbiology, physics, and mathematics. This emphasis on fundamental science
recognizes that engineering practice has, in recent years, become more firmly based on
scientific principles rather than on its earlier dependency on empirical accumulation of facts.
It is not intended, though, to neglect empiricism where such data lead quickly to the most
economic design; certain engineering systems are not readily amenable to fundamental scien-

tific analysis, and in these instances we have resorted to less science in favor of more art and
empiricism.
Since an environmental engineer must understand science within the context of application,
we first present the development of the scientific basis of a particular subject, followed by
exposition of the pertinent design concepts and operations, and detailed explanations of their
applications to environmental quality control or remediation. Throughout the series, methods
of practical design and calculation are illustrated by numerical examples. These examples
clearly demonstrate how organized, analytical reasoning leads to the most direct and clear
solutions. Wherever possible, pertinent cost data have been provided.
vii
viii Preface
Our treatment of pollution-abatement engineering is offered in the belief that the trained
engineer should more firmly understand fundamental principles, be more aware of the similar-
ities and/or differences among many of the engineering systems, and exhibit greater flexibility
and originality in the definition and innovative solution of environmental pollution problems.
In short, the environmental engineer should by conviction and practice be more readily
adaptable to change and progress.
Coverage of the unusually broad field of environmental engineering has demanded an
expertise that could only be provided through multiple authorships. Each author (or group
of authors) was permitted to employ, within reasonable limits, the customary personal style in
organizing and presenting a particular subject area; consequently, it has been difficult to treat
all subject material in a homogeneous manner. Moreover, owing to limitations of space, some
of the authors’ favored topics could not be treated in great detail, and many less important
topics had to be merely mentioned or commented on briefly. All authors have provided an
excellent list of references at the end of each chapter for the benefit of interested readers. As
each chapter is meant to be self-contained, some mild repetition among the various texts was
unavoidable. In each case, all omissions or repetitions are the responsibility of the editors and
not the individual authors. With the current trend toward metrication, the question of using a
consistent system of units has been a problem. Wherever possible, the authors have used the
British system (fps) along with the metric equivalent (mks, cgs, or SIU) or vice versa. The

editors sincerely hope that this duplicity of units’ usage will prove to be useful rather than
being disruptive to the readers.
The goals of the Handbook of Environmental Engineering series are: (1) to cover entire
environmental fields, including air and noise pollution control, solid waste processing and
resource recovery, physicochemical treatment processes, biological treatment processes,
biosolids management, water resources, natural control processes, radioactive waste disposal,
and thermal pollution control; and (2) to employ a multimedia approach to environmental
pollution control since air, water, soil, and energy are all interrelated.
This particular book, Vol. 11, Environmental Bioengineering, deals mainly with engineer-
ing applications of biotechnologies, and is a sister book to Vol. 10, Environmental Biotechnol-
ogy. Previous Vol. 10 introduces the mechanisms of environmental biotechnology processes,
different microbiological classifications useful for environmental engineers, microbiology,
metabolism, microbial ecology, natural and environmental engineering systems, bioengineer-
ing of isolated life support systems, classification and design of solid-state processes and reac-
tors, value-added biotechnological products, design of anaerobic suspended bioprocesses and
reactors, selection and design of membrane bioreactors, and aerobic and anoxic suspended-
growth systems, aerobic and anaerobic attached growth systems, sequencing batch reactors,
innovative flotation biological systems, phosphurs removal biotechnologies, and biosolids and
septage management.
This Vol. 11 introduces land disposal of biosolids, heavy metal removal by crops, pre-
treatment of sludge for sludge digestion, bio-treatment of sludge, fermentaion of kitchen
garbage, phytoremediation for sludge treatment, phyotoremediation for heavy metal contami-
nated soils using vetiver grass, bioremediatioon, wetland treatment, biosorption of heavy met-
als, rotating biological contactors (RBC) for carbon and nitrogen removal, anaerobic biofilm
Preface ix
reactor, biological phosphorus removal, black and grey water treatment, milk wastewater treat-
ment, tomato wastewater treatment, gelatine and animal glue production from skin wastes,
fungal biomass protein production, algae harvest energy conversion, and living machine for
wastewater treatment.
These two books together (Vols. 10 and 11) have been designed to serve as comprehensive

environmental biotechnology and bioengineering textbooks as well as wide-ranging reference
books. We hope and expect they will prove of equal high value to advanced undergraduate and
graduate students, to designers of biotechnology and bioengineering systems, and to scientists
and researchers. The editors welcome comments from readers in all of these categories.
The editors are pleased to acknowledge the encouragement and support received from their
colleagues and the publisher during the conceptual stages of this endeavor. We wish to thank
the contributing authors for their time and effort, and for having patiently borne our reviews
and numerous queries and comments. We are very grateful to our respective families for their
patience and understanding during some rather trying times.
The editors are especially indebted to Ms. Kathleen Hung Li at Texas Hospital Association,
Austin, TX, for her dedicated service as the Consulting Editor of Vol. 11.
Lawrence K. Wang, Lenox, Massachusetts, USA
Joo-Hwa Tay, Singapore
Stephen Tiong-Lee Tay, Singapore
Yung-Tse Hung, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
•
Contents
Preface vii
Contributors xxv
1. Treatment and Disposal of Biosolids
Svetlana Yu. Selivanovskaya, Saniya K. Zaripova, Venera Z. Latypova,
and Yung-Tse Hung 1
1. Wastewater Treatment and Biosolids Formation 1
2. Characteristics of Biosolids 4
2.1. Total Solids Content 4
2.2. Volatile Solids Content 4
2.3. pH 5
2.4. Organic Matter 5
2.5. Nutrients 5
3. Regulations Governing Agricultural Use of Biosolids 10

3.1. Standards for Pathogens 10
3.2. Pollutant Limits 16
4. Sludge Treatment Processes 23
4.1. Volume Reduction Processes 24
4.2. Stabilization Processes 25
4.3. Other Sludge Treatment Processes 35
5. Biosolids Use and Disposal 35
5.1. Land Application 36
5.2. Landfilling and Incineration. 44
References 47
2. Ultrasound Pretreatment of Sludge for Anaerobic Digestion
Kuan Yeow Show, Joo Hwa Tay, and Yung-Tse Hung 53
1. Introduction 53
2. Pretreatment of Sludge for Anaerobic Digestion 55
2.1. Anaerobic Digestion 55
2.2. Methods of Pretreatment 56
3. Fundamental of Ultrasound 58
3.1. Introduction. 58
3.2. Acoustic Cavitation 59
3.3. Bubble Dynamics 60
4. Effects of Ultrasound 61
4.1. Chemical Effects 61
4.2. Biological Effects 61
5. Industrial Ultrasound Applications. 62
5.1. Process Parameters 62
5.2. Industrial Applications 63
xi
xii Contents
6. Ultrasonication for Environmental Engineering Applications 63
6.1. Ultrasonication on Wastewater Treatment 64

6.2. Ultrasonication on Anaerobic Digestion 66
References 71
3. Solubilization of Sewage Sludge to Improve Anaerobic Digestion
Tsuyoshi Imai, Yuyu Liu, Masao Ukita, and Yung-Tse Hung 75
1. Introduction 75
2. Optimum Operating Conditions of Experimental Apparatus 78
2.1. Experimental Apparatus and Methods 78
2.2. Optimum Operating Conditions of Experimental Apparatus 80
2.3. Results and Discussion 85
3. Biodegradation of the Sludge Treated by Solubilization Process 86
3.1. Anaerobic Biodegradation 86
3.2. Aerobic Biodegradation 99
3.3. Batch Test on Anaerobic Biodegradation of Digested Sludge Treated After Solubilization. 107
4. Comparison With Other Methods of Sludge Solubilization. 112
4.1. Comparison of Ultrasonic Method and High-Speed Rotary Disk Process Method 112
4.2. Comparison of Pressure Exploded Process and High-Speed Rotary Disk Process 114
Nomenclature 118
References 119
4. Applications of Composted Solid Wastes for Farmland Amendment
and Nutrient Balance in Soils
Tsuyoshi Imai, Yuyu Liu, Masao Ukita, and Yung-Tse Hung 123
1. Introduction 123
2. Chemical Elements in Composted Solids and Composts-Amended Soil 128
2.1. Sampling, Pretreatment, and Analysis of Composts and Soil 128
2.2. Macronutrient Elements (P, K, Ca, Mg) in Composted Solid Wastes and Compost-amended Soil 130
2.3. Micronutrient Elements (Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn) in Composted Solid Wastes and Composts-amended Soil 133
2.4. Heavy Metals (Cd, Cr, Ni, Co, Pb) in Composted Solid Wastes and Composts-Amended Soil 142
2.5. Organic Matter and Moisture Content in Composts and Unpolluted Soil 147
3. Farmland Applications of Composted Solid Wastes for Nutrient Balance 148
3.1. Principle of Nutrient Balance in Soil 148

3.2. Evaluation of the Compost Application in Farmland 149
4. Summary 158
Nomenclature 158
References 159
5. Biotreatment of Sludge and Reuse
Azni Idris, Katayon Saed, and Yung-Tse Hung 165
1. Introduction 165
2. Sewage Sludge 167
2.1. Sewage Sludge Generation 167
2.2. Health Impacts of Sludge Utilization. 167
2.3. Regulatory Issues on Sludge Disposal 168
2.4. A Sustainable Approach for Sludge Disposal 170
Contents xiii
3. Composting of Sludge 171
3.1. Historical Background of Composting 171
3.2. Composting Process 172
4. Types of Composting Systems 173
5. Factors Affecting Composting Process 174
5.1. Temperature 174
5.2. Time 175
5.3. pH 175
5.4. C/N ratio 175
5.5. Moisture Content 176
5.6. Aeration 176
5.7. Mixing 177
5.8. Size 177
5.9. Microorganism 177
5.10. Use of Inocula 177
5.11. Seeding and Reseeding 177
6. Solid State Bioconversion Technique 178

7. Microbial Basis of SSB Processes 178
7.1. Microbial Type 178
7.2. Bacteria 179
7.3. Yeasts 179
7.4. Filamentous Fungi 179
8. Case Studies 179
8.1. Case 1: Utilization of Sewage Sludge as Fertilizer and as Potting Media 179
8.2. Case 2: Reduction of Heavy Metals in Sewage Sludge During Composting 181
8.3. Case 3: Solid State Bioconversion of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Brunches (EFB) into Compost by
Selected Microbes 181
8.4. Case 4: Composting of Selected Organic Sludges Using Rotary Drum 183
8.5. Case 5: Bioreactor Co-composting of Sewage Sludge and Restaurant Waste 186
Nomenclature 187
References 189
6. Kitchen Refuse Fermentation
Mohd Ali Hassan, Shahrakbah Yacob, Cheong Weng Chung,
Yoshihito Shirai, and Yung-Tse Hung 193
1. Introduction 193
1.1. Availability and Potential of Kitchen Refuse Biomass 194
2. Fermentation of Kitchen Refuse 195
2.1. Natural Fermentation Process 195
2.2. Controlled Fermentation 197
3. Production of Methane 197
4. Production of Organic Acids 199
5. Production of
L-Lactic Acid 200
6. Potential Applications of Kitchen Refuse Fermentation Products 202
6.1. Production of Poly-3-Hydroxyalkanoates Using Organic Acids 202
6.2. Production of Poly-Lactate Using Organic Acids 204
6.3. Environmental Mitigation of Greenhouse Gases Effect 206

7. Integrated Zero Discharge Concepts of Municipal Solid Waste Management and Handling 206
References 208
xiv Contents
7. Heavy Metal Removal by Crops from Land Application of Sludge
Ab. Aziz bin Abd. Latiff, Ahmad Tarmizi bin Abdul Karim, Mohd. Baharudin
Bin Ridzuan, David Eng Chuan Yeoh, and Yung-Tse Hung 211
1. Introduction 211
1.1. Definition of Phytoremediation 212
1.2. Heavy Metals in Soil 213
1.3. Heavy Metals from Sludge 215
1.4. Land Application of Sludge 215
2. Principles of Phytoremediation 220
2.1. Types of Crops and the Uptake Relationship of Heavy Metal 220
2.2. Design Parameters 223
2.3. Empirical Equations 225
2.4. Health Effects 225
3. Standards and Regulations 226
3.1. Sludge Application on Land 226
3.2. Standards and Regulations of Sludge Applications in Malaysia, the USA, and Europe 227
4. Case Studies and Research Findings 228
5. Design Example 230
6. Future Direction Research 230
References 231
8. Phytoremediation of Heavy Metal Contaminated Soils
and Water Using Vetiver Grass
Paul N. V. Truong, Yin Kwan Foong, Michael Guthrie,
and Yung-Tse Hung 233
1. Global Soil Contamination 233
2. Remediation Techniques 234
2.1. Physical and Chemical Techniques 234

2.2. Bioremediation Techniques 234
2.3. Phytoremediation 234
3. Vetiver Grass as an Ideal Plant for Phytoremediation 236
3.1. Unique Morphology and Physiology 237
3.2. Tolerance to Adverse Soil Conditions 237
3.3. Tolerance to High Acidity and Manganese Toxicity 237
3.4. Tolerance to High Acidity and Aluminum Toxicity 238
3.5. Tolerance to High Soil Salinity 238
3.6. Tolerance to Strongly Alkaline and Strongly Sodic Soil Conditions 240
3.7. Tolerance to Heavy Metals 240
3.8. Tolerance to Extreme Nutrient Levels 242
3.9. Tolerance to Agrochemicals 242
3.10. Breaking Up of Agrochemicals 243
3.11. Growth 243
3.12. Weed Potential 244
4. Phytoremediation Using Vetiver 244
5. Case Studies 245
5.1. Australia 245
5.2. China 266
5.3. South Africa 267
Contents xv
6. Recent Research in Heavy Metal Phytoremediation Using Vetiver 267
6.1. Growth 268
6.2. Results 269
7. Future LargeScale Applications 270
7.1. Phyto-extraction 271
7.2. Phyto-stabilization and Mine Site Rehabilitation . 271
7.3. Landfill Rehabilitation and Leachate Treatment 271
7.4. Wastewater Treatment 271
7.5. Other Land Rehabilitation. 271

8. Benefits of Phytoremediation with Vetiver Grass 271
9. Conclusion 272
References 272
9. Bioremediation
Joseph F. Hawumba, Peter Sseruwagi, Yung-Tse Hung,
and Lawrence K. Wang 277
1. Introduction 277
1.1. Environmental Pollution: An Overview 277
1.2. Environmental Remediation Strategies 278
1.3. Bioremediation: A Concept 278
1.4. Advantages of Bioremediation 279
2. Environmental Contaminants 280
2.1. Environmental Contaminants 280
2.2. Chlorinated Contaminants 280
2.3. Polycyclic Hydrocarbons and Petroleum Contaminants 287
2.4. BTEX and Pesticides Contaminants 289
2.5. Heavy Metal Contaminants 291
3. Bioremediation Strategies 298
3.1. Landfarming 298
3.2. Composting 298
3.3. In Situ Intrinsic Bioremediation 300
3.4. ExSitu or Slurry Bioremediation 301
3.5. Bioaugmentation 301
4. Application of Bioremediation 302
4.1. Case Studies of Bioremediation 302
4.2. Factors for Designing a Bioremediation Process 306
4.3. Bioremediation Process Design and Implementation 308
5. Limitation of Bioremediation Strategy 308
6. Future Prospects 309
Nomenclature 310

References 311
10. Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment
Azni Idris, Abdul Ghani Liew Abdullah, Yung-Tse Hung,
and Lawrence K. Wang 317
1. Introduction 317
2. What are Wetlands? 318
2.1. Wetland Functions and Values 319
3. Natural Wetlands 319
xvi Contents
4. Constructed Wetlands 320
4.1. Components of Constructed Wetlands 321
4.2. Advantages of Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment 321
4.3. Types of Constructed Wetlands 322
5. Mechanisms of Treatment Processes for Constructed Wetlands 324
5.1. Biodegradable Organic Matter Removal Mechanism 324
5.2. Suspended Solids Removal Mechanism 325
5.3. Nitrogen Removal Mechanism 326
5.4. Heavy Metals Removal Mechanism 326
5.5. Pathogenic Bacteria and Viruses Removal Mechanism 327
5.6. Other Pollutants Removal Mechanism 327
6. Selection of Wetland Plant 327
6.1. Function of Wetland Plants 327
6.2. Roles of Wetland Plants 328
6.3. Types of Wetland Plants 329
6.4. Selection of Wetland Plants 329
7. Design of Constructed Wetland Systems 334
7.1. Design Principles 334
7.2. Hydraulics 334
7.3. General Design Procedures 336
8. Wetland Monitoring and Maintenance 340

8.1. Water Quality Monitoring. 341
9. Case Study 342
9.1. Putrajaya Wetlands, Malaysia 342
9.2. Acle, Norfolk, United Kingdom 343
9.3. Arcata, California 344
Nomenclature 347
References 349
11. Modeling of Biosorption Processes
Khim Hoong Chu and Yung-Tse Hung 351
1. Introduction 351
2. Batch Operation 353
2.1. Batch Process Models 353
2.2. Equilibrium Isotherms 353
2.3. Rate Models 356
2.4. Pore Diffusion Model 356
2.5. Homogeneous Surface Diffusion Model 358
2.6. Second-Order Reversible Reaction Model 360
3. Column Operation 361
3.1. Fixed Bed Process Models 361
3.2. Rate Models 362
3.3. Pore Diffusion Model 362
3.4. Homogeneous Surface Diffusion Model 363
3.5. Second-Order Reversible Reaction Model 365
3.6. Quasichemical Kinetic Model 366
4. Examples 367
Nomenclature 372
References 374
Contents xvii
12. Heavy Metal Removal by Microbial Biosorbents
Dae Haeng Cho, Eui Yong Kim, and Yung-Tse Hung 375

1. Introduction 375
2. Conventional Technologies for Heavy Metal Removal 377
2.1. Chemical Precipitation 377
2.2. Ion Exchange 377
2.3. Membrane Technology 378
2.4. Flocculation and Coagulation 378
2.5. Flotation 378
2.6. Electrodialysis 378
3. Heavy Metal Removal by Microbial Biosorbents 380
3.1. Biosorption 380
3.2. Microbial Biosorbents 381
3.3. Environmental Factors for Biosorption 382
3.4. Biosorption Mechanisms 384
3.5. Biosorption Sites 386
4. Biosorption Isotherms 388
4.1. The Langmuir Isotherm 388
4.2. The Freundlich Isotherm 389
4.3. The Redlich–Peterson Isotherm 390
5. Biosorption Kinetics 390
5.1. Pseudo-First-Order Kinetic Model 392
5.2. Pseudo-Second-Order Kinetic Model 392
5.3. Elovich Kinetic Model 393
6. Examples 395
References 399
13. Simultaneous Removal of Carbon and Nitrogen from Domestic
Wastewater in an Aerobic RBC
Gupta Sudhir Kumar, Anushuya Ramakrishnan, and Yung-Tse Hung 403
1. Introduction 403
1.1. Characteristics of Domestic Wastewaters 404
1.2. Adverse Effects of Nitrogenous Discharges 405

1.3. Nitrogen Forms and Transformation in Wastewater Treatment 405
2. Carbon and Nitrogen Removal from Domestic Wastewaters 406
2.1. Biochemical Reactions 407
3. Bio-Reactors Employed for Carbon and Nitrogen Removal 408
3.1. Trickling Filters 409
3.2. Rotating Biological Contactor 409
3.3. Conventional Activated Sludge Processes at Low Loadings 410
3.4. Two-Stage Activated Sludge Systems with Separate Carbonaceous Oxidation and Nitrification Systems 410
4. Processes Employed for Simultaneous Carbon and Nitrogen Removal 410
4.1. Separated Stage Process 411
4.2. Single Stage Process 411
5. Development of RBC
S 412
5.1. Application of Rotating Biological Contactors for Domestic Wastewater Treatment 413
5.2. Importance of Aerobic RBC 416
5.3. Advantages of Aerobic RBC 421
5.4. Demerits of RBC 422
xviii Contents
5.5. Major Design Criteria for New Generation RBCs 423
5.6. Recent Developments 423
6. Summaryand Conclusions 427
7. Design Examples 428
Nomenclature 437
References 438
14. Anaerobic Treatment of Low-Strength Wastewater
by a Biofilm Reactor
Ioannis D. Manariotis, Sotirios G. Grigoropoulos, and Yung-Tse Hung 445
1. Anaerobic Process 445
1.1. Anaerobic Metabolism 445
1.2. Anaerobic Process Dependence 447

1.3. Direct Anaerobic Treatment of Wastewater 448
2. Anaerobic Treatment Systems 451
2.1. Historical Development 451
2.2. Anaerobic Reactors 452
3. Anaerobic Biofilm Reactors. 455
3.1. Reactor Configuration and Hydraulic Characteristics. 455
3.2. Packing Media 456
3.3. Biomass Development and Time of Operation 458
4. Low-Strength Wastewater Treatment 459
4.1. Anaerobic Filters 459
4.2. Modified Systems 469
4.3. Process Modeling 470
4.4. Seasonal Operation 472
4.5. Reactor Design Recommendations 473
4.6. Posttreatment 474
5. Design Examples 479
Nomenclature 487
References 488
15. Biological Phosphorus Removal Processes
Yong-Qiang Liu, Yu Liu, Joo-Hwa Tay, and Yung-Tse Hung 497
1. Introduction 497
2. Biochemical Models for Enhanced Biological Phosphorus Removal 498
2.1. The Comeau/Wentzel Model 499
2.2. The Mino Model 500
2.3. The Adapted Mino Model 502
3. Microbiology of the EBPR Processes 503
3.1. Phosphorus Accumulating Organisms 503
3.2. Non-polyphosphate Glycogen Accumulating Organisms 505
4. Biological Phosphorus Removal Processes 505
4.1. Process Description 506

4.2. Process Applications and Limitations 509
5. Factors Affecting EBPR 510
5.1. Type of Substrate 510
5.2. Organic Loading 511
5.3. Magnesium and Potassium 511
Contents xix
5.4. Nitrate Content in the Influent 511
5.5. Phosphorus Loading 512
5.6. Temperature 512
5.7. pH 512
5.8. Dissolved Oxygen 513
5.9. Lengths of Anaerobic and Aerobic Phases 513
5.10. Solid Retention Time 514
References 514
16. Total Treatment of Black and Grey Water for Rural Communities
Avanish K. Panikkar, Susan A. Okalebo, Steven J. Riley,
Surendra P. Shrestha, and Yung-Tse Hung 523
1. Introduction 523
2. Domestic Wastewater Characteristics 526
2.1. Physical Parameters 527
2.2. Chemical Parameters 528
2.3. Microorganisms 532
3. Guidelines for Water Treatment and Testing 532
4. Traditional Wastewater Treatment 533
4.1. Wastewater Treatment and Reuse 536
5. Ecologically Sustainable Wastewater Management System: A Case Study 540
5.1. Background 540
5.2. Design Parameters and Considerations 540
5.3. Sampling and Testing 544
5.4. Treatment Performance 544

5.5. Conclusions 548
Acknowledgement 548
References 549
17. Anaerobic Treatment of Milk Processing Wastewater
Maria Helena G. A. G. Nadais, Maria Isabel A. P. F. Capela,
Luís Manuel G. A. Arroja, and Yung-Tse Hung 555
1. Introduction 555
1.1. The Milk Processing Industry 556
1.2. Major Environmental Problems Caused by Milk Processing Effluents 556
2. The Effluents from Milk Processing Industries 558
2.1. Origins of Liquid Pollution in the Milk Processing Industry 558
2.2. Characterization of Effluents from Milk Processing Industry 560
2.3. The Specific Problems of Cheese Whey 563
2.4. Good Management Practices and Benchmarking 567
3. The Anaerobic Treatment Process 568
3.1. Description of Anaerobic Process 569
4. The Anaerobic Treatment of Milk Processing Effluents 576
4.1. Benefits of Anaerobic Process for Milk Processing Effluents 576
4.2. The Role of Anaerobic Systems in a Treatment Plant for Milk Processing Effluents 577
4.3. Anaerobic Digestion of Effluent Components 580
4.4. Special Considerations for Anaerobic Treatment of Milk Processing Effluents 585
4.5. Application of Anaerobic Technology to Milk Processing Effluents 588
xx Contents
5. Case Studies 603
5.1. Case Study 1: Organic Shock Load (Whey Discharge) 604
5.2. Case Study 2: Toxic Discharge (Concentrated Aniline) 605
5.3. Case Study 3: Chemical Discharge (Soda Lime) 606
5.4. Case Study 4: Change in Cleaning Products 607
6. Design Examples and Questions 608
6.1. Design Example 1: Anaerobic Contact Reactor (Cheese Mill) 608

6.2. Design Example 2: UASB Reactor IC Type (Milk Processing Mill) 610
6.3. Design Example 3: UASB Reactor IC Type (Cheese Mill) 611
6.4. Design Example 4: Anaerobic Filter Reactor (Cheese Mill) 612
7. Trends in Anaerobic Treatment of Milk Processing Effluents 613
7.1. Results of Recent Investigations on Anaerobic Treatment of Milk Wastewater 613
7.2. Future Expected Developments 616
Nomenclature 619
References 620
18. Biological Wastewater Treatment of Nutrient-Deficient Tomato-Processing
and Bean-Processing Wastewater
George Nakhla, Zhongda Xu, Alpesh Gohil, Andrew Lugowski,
and Yung-Tse Hung 629
1. Introduction 629
2. Wastewater Characteristics 631
3. Treatment Technologies 633
4. Novel Biological Treatment Technologies 633
4.1. Pilot-Scale Anaerobic/Aerobic Treatment System 634
4.2. Bench-Scale Anaerobic/Aerobic Treatment System 644
4.3. Bench-Scale UASB-Anoxic/Oxic System 653
5. Wastewater Characterization and Modeling 662
5.1. Characterization of Tomato-Processing Wastewater 662
5.2. Modeling of Tomato-Processing Wastewater Treatment System 668
6. Design Example 674
7. Economic Evaluation of Treatment Alternatives. 676
8. Summary 679
Nomenclature 679
References 681
19. Animal Glue Production from Skin Wastes
Azni Idris, Katayon Saed, and Yung-Tse Hung 685
1. Introduction 685

1.1. Animal Skin Generation Rates 686
1.2. Hide Removal from Cattle and Sheep 686
2. Animal Glue 686
2.1. General 687
2.2. Type 687
2.3. Properties and Chemical Composition 688
2.4. Manufacturing 689
3. Pretreatment and Conditioning 690
3.1. Acidic Pretreatment 690
3.2. Alkali (Lime) Pretreatment 690
3.3. Enzymic Proteolysis 691
Contents xxi
4. Extraction 691
4.1. Denaturation 692
4.2. Thermal Treatment 692
5. Chemical Modification 693
6. Application 694
7. Case Study: Production of Glue 694
References 696
20. An Integrated Biotechnological Process for Fungal Biomass Protein Production
and Wastewater Reclamation
Bo Jin, Qiming Yu, J (Hans) van Leeuwen, and Yung-Tse Hung 699
1. Introduction 699
2. Fungal Biomass Protein Production 700
2.1. Fungal Biomass Protein 700
2.2. Fungal Biomass Protein Production 701
2.3. Fungal Biomass Protein Production from Starch Processing Wastewater 702
3. Reactor Configuration and Process Flow Diagram 706
3.1. Reactor Configuration 706
3.2. Process Flow Diagram 708

4. Oxygen Transfer and Hydrodynamics 709
4.1. Oxygen Transfer 709
4.2. Rheological Properties and DO levels 710
4.3. Hydrodynamic Characteristics and Oxygen Transfer Coefficient 711
4.4. Aeration Rate and Oxygen Transfer Coefficient 711
5. Process Design and Operation 714
5.1. Batch Process 714
5.2. Semi-continuous Process 715
5.3. Continuous Process 717
6. Summaryand Conclusions 719
Nomenclature 719
References 720
21. Algae Harvest Energy Conversion
Yung-Tse Hung, O. Sarafadeen Amuda, A. Olanrewaju Alade, I. Adekunle
Amoo, Stephen Tiong-Lee Tay, and Kathleen Hung Li 723
1. Introduction 723
1.1. Algae Description 723
1.2. Composition of Algae 724
1.3. Classification of Microalgae 724
2. Cultivation 725
2.1. Factors Affecting Cultivation 725
2.2. Cultivation System 727
2.3. Harvesting 732
3. Biofuel from Algae 733
3.1. Biodiesel 733
3.2. Hydrogen Fuel 735
3.3. Biogas 735
3.4. Biomass 736
3.5. Ethanol 736
xxii Contents

4. Commercial Prospects and Problems 736
4.1. Prospect 736
4.2. Case Study 738
4.3. Problems 739
5. Summary 739
References 739
22. Living Machines
Yung-Tse Hung, Joseph F. Hawumba, and Lawrence K. Wang 743
1. Introduction 743
1.1. Ecological Pollution 743
1.2. Bioremediation Strategies and Advanced Ecologically Engineered Systems 745
2. Living Machines: as Concept in Bioremediation 746
2.1. Advantages of Living Machines 748
2.2. Limitations of Living Machines 749
3. Components of the Living Machines. 749
3.1. Microbial Communities 749
3.2. Macro-bio Communities (Animal Diversity) 750
3.3. Photosynthetic Communities 752
3.4. Nutrient and Micro-nutrient Reservoirs 752
4. Types of Living Machines or Restorers 753
4.1. Constructed Wetlands 753
4.2. Lake Restorers 754
4.3. Eco-Restorers 755
4.4. Reedbeds 757
5. Principle Underlying the Construction of Living Machines 757
5.1. Living Machine Design to be Consistent with Ecological Principles 758
5.2. Living Machine Design to Deal with Site-Specific Situation 758
5.3. Living Machine Design to Maintain the Independence of Its Functional Requirements 759
5.4. Living Machine Design to Enhance Efficiency in Energy and Information 760
5.5. Living Machines Design to Acknowledge and Retain it Values and Purposes 760

6. Operationalization of Living Machine Technology 761
6.1. Anaerobic Reactor (Step 1) 762
6.2. Anoxic Reactor (Step 2) 762
6.3. Closed Aerobic Reactor (Step 3) 762
6.4. Open Aerobic Reactors (Step 4) 762
6.5. Clarifier (Step 5) 763
6.6. Ecological Fluidized Beds (Step 6) 763
7. Case Studies of Constructed Living Machine 763
7.1. Sewage Treatment in Cold Climates: South Burlington, Vermont AEES, USA 763
7.2. Environmental Restoration: Flax Pond, Harwich, Massachusetts, USA 765
7.3. Organic Industrial Wastewater Treatment from a Poultry Processing Waste in Coastal Maryland:
Using Floating AEES Restorer 766
7.4. Architectural Integration: Oberlin College, Ohio, USA 766
7.5. Tyson Foods at Berlin, Maryland, USA 767
8. Future Prospects of Living Machines 768
8.1. Integration of Industrial and Agricultural Sectors: Proposed Eco-Park in Burlington, Vermont, USA 768
8.2. Aquaculture 769
Nomenclature 769
References 770
Contents xxiii
23. Global Perspective of Anaerobic Treatment of Industrial Wastewater
Kuan Yeow Show, Joo Hwa Tay, and Yung-Tse Hung 773
1. Global Perspective of Anaerobic Treatment 773
2. Development of the Anaerobic Processes 775
2.1. History of Anaerobic Treatment 775
2.2. Industrial Wastewater Treatment 777
3. Anaerobic Biochemistry and Microbiology 778
3.1. Hydrolysis 779
3.2. Acidogenesis 779
3.3. Acetogenesis 780

3.4. Methanogenesis 780
4. Comparison Between Aerobic and Anaerobic Processes 781
5. Global Applications of Anaerobic Treatment 784
5.1. The Number of Anaerobic Treatment Plants Installed Worldwide 784
5.2. Types of Anaerobic Treatment Plants Installed Worldwide 785
5.3. Scope of Industrial Applications 786
5.4. The Development of UASB and EGSB 786
6. Applications of Anaerobic Processes for Industrial Wastewater 787
6.1. Anaerobic Fluidized Bed Reactor 787
6.2. Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor 788
6.3. Upflow Anaerobic Filter. 791
6.4. Anaerobic Fixed Bed Reactor 793
6.5. Anaerobic Baffled Reactor 793
6.6. Expanded Granular Sludge Bed Reactor 795
6.7. Hybrid Anaerobic Reactors 796
7. The Future of Anaerobic Treatment 798
8. Conclusion 800
References 801
Appendix: Conversion Factors for Environmental Engineers
Lawrence K. Wang 809
Index 855
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