fundamentals of natural gas processing

© 2006 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
Fundamentals of
Natural Gas
Processing
© 2006 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
A Series of Textbooks and Reference Books
Founding Editor
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and Department of Mechanical Engineering
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1.
Spring Designer’s Handbook
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Computer-Aided Graphics and Design
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3.
Lubrication Fundamentals
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4.
Solar Engineering for Domestic Buildings
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Applied Engineering Mechanics: Statics and Dynamics
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and C. Poli
6.
Centrifugal Pump Clinic

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Computer-Aided Kinetics for Machine Design
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Plastics Products Design Handbook, Part A: Materials
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Turbomachinery: Basic Theory and Applications
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Vibrations of Shells and Plates
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Flat and Corrugated Diaphragm Design Handbook
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Practical Stress Analysis in Engineering Design
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An Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Bolted Joints
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14.
Optimal Engineering Design: Principles and Applications
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Spring Manufacturing Handbook
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Industrial Noise Control: Fundamentals and Applications
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Gears and Their Vibration: A Basic Approach to Understanding Gear
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Corrosion and Corrosion Protection Handbook
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Controlling In-Plant Airborne Contaminants: Systems Design
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Mechanical Fastening of Plastics: An Engineering Handbook
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Lubrication in Practice: Second Edition
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Principles of Automated Drafting
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Practical Seal Design
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Engineering Documentation for CAD/CAM Applications
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Design Dimensioning with Computer Graphics Applications
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32.
Mechanism Analysis: Simplified Graphical and Analytical Techniques
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Lyndon O. Barton
33.
CAD/CAM Systems: Justification, Implementation, Productivity
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34.
Steam Plant Calculations Manual
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35.
Design Assurance for Engineers and Managers
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36.
Heat Transfer Fluids and Systems for Process and Energy Applications
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37.
Potential Flows: Computer Graphic Solutions
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Computer-Aided Graphics and Design: Second Edition
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Electronically Controlled Proportional Valves: Selection
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Pressure Gauge Handbook
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Fabric Filtration for Combustion Sources: Fundamentals and Basic
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42.
Design of Mechanical Joints
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CAD/CAM Dictionary
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Machinery Adhesives for Locking, Retaining, and Sealing
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Couplings and Joints: Design, Selection, and Application
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46.
Shaft Alignment Handbook
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47.
BASIC Programs for Steam Plant Engineers: Boilers, Combustion,
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48.

Solving Mechanical Design Problems with Computer Graphics
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Plastics Gearing: Selection and Application
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Clutches and Brakes: Design and Selection
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Transducers in Mechanical and Electronic Design
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Metallurgical Applications of Shock-Wave and High-Strain-Rate
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Fundamentals of Robotics
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58.
Belt Selection and Application for Engineers
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59.
Developing Three-Dimensional CAD Software with the IBM PC
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Organizing Data for CIM Applications
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Computer-Aided Simulation in Railway Dynamics
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62.
Fiber-Reinforced Composites: Materials, Manufacturing, and Design
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63.
Photoelectric Sensors and Controls: Selection and Application
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Scott M. Juds

64.
Finite Element Analysis with Personal Computers
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Ultrasonics: Fundamentals, Technology, Applications: Second Edition,
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66.
Applied Finite Element Modeling: Practical Problem Solving for Engineers
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67.
Measurement and Instrumentation in Engineering: Principles and Basic
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68.
Centrifugal Pump Clinic: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded
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69.
Practical Stress Analysis in Engineering Design: Second Edition,
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70.
An Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Bolted Joints:
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71.
High Vacuum Technology: A Practical Guide

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72.
Pressure Sensors: Selection and Application
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73.
Zinc Handbook: Properties, Processing, and Use in Design
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Thermal Fatigue of Metals
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Classical and Modern Mechanisms for Engineers and Inventors
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76.
Handbook of Electronic Package Design
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Shock-Wave and High-Strain-Rate Phenomena in Materials
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Industrial Refrigeration: Principles, Design and Applications
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Applied Combustion
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80.
Engine Oils and Automotive Lubrication
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81.
Mechanism Analysis: Simplified and Graphical Techniques, Second
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82.
Fundamental Fluid Mechanics for the Practicing Engineer
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Fiber-Reinforced Composites: Materials, Manufacturing, and Design,
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Numerical Methods for Engineering Applications
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Turbomachinery: Basic Theory and Applications, Second Edition,
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Vibrations of Shells and Plates: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded
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87.
Steam Plant Calculations Manual: Second Edition, Revised
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88.

Industrial Noise Control: Fundamentals and Applications, Second Edition,
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Finite Elements: Their Design and Performance
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Mechanical Properties of Polymers and Composites:
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Mechanical Wear Prediction and Prevention
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92.
Mechanical Power Transmission Components
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93.
Handbook of Turbomachinery
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94.
Engineering Documentation Control Practices and Procedures
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95.
Refractory Linings Thermomechanical Design and Applications
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Charles A. Schacht
96.

Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing: Applications and Techniques
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and Inspection
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97.
An Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Bolted Joints: Third Edition,
Revised and Expanded
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98.
Shaft Alignment Handbook: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded
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99.
Computer-Aided Design of Polymer-Matrix Composite Structures
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100.
Friction Science and Technology
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101.
Introduction to Plastics and Composites: Mechanical Properties
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102.
Practical Fracture Mechanics in Design
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103.
Pump Characteristics and Applications
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104.

Optical Principles and Technology for Engineers
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105.
Optimizing the Shape of Mechanical Elements and Structures
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106.
Kinematics and Dynamics of Machinery
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107.
Shaft Seals for Dynamic Applications
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108.
Reliability-Based Mechanical Design
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109.
Mechanical Fastening, Joining, and Assembly
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110.
Turbomachinery Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer
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111.
High-Vacuum Technology: A Practical Guide, Second Edition,
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112.
Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing: Workbook and Answerbook
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113.
Handbook of Materials Selection for Engineering Applications,
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114.
Handbook of Thermoplastic Piping System Design
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115.
Practical Guide to Finite Elements: A Solid Mechanics
Approach,
Steven M. Lepi
116.
Applied Computational Fluid Dynamics
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117.
Fluid Sealing Technology
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118.
Friction and Lubrication in Mechanical Design
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119.
Influence Functions and Matrices
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120.
Mechanical Analysis of Electronic Packaging Systems
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Stephen A. McKeown
121.
Couplings and Joints: Design, Selection, and Application, Second Edition

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Revised and Expanded
, Jon R. Mancuso
122.
Thermodynamics: Processes and Applications
, Earl Logan, Jr.
123.
Gear Noise and Vibration
, J. Derek Smith
124.
Practical Fluid Mechanics for Engineering Applications
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125.
Handbook of Hydraulic Fluid Technology
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126.
Heat Exchanger Design Handbook
, T. Kuppan
127.
Designing for Product Sound Quality
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128.
Probability Applications in Mechanical Design
, Franklin E. Fisher
and Joy R. Fisher
129.
Nickel Alloys
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130.
Rotating Machinery Vibration: Problem Analysis and Troubleshooting

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Maurice L. Adams, Jr.
131.
Formulas for Dynamic Analysis
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132.
Handbook of Machinery Dynamics
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133.
Rapid Prototyping Technology: Selection and Application
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Kenneth G. Cooper
134.
Reciprocating Machinery Dynamics: Design and Analysis
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Abdulla S. Rangwala
135.
Maintenance Excellence: Optimizing Equipment Life-Cycle Decisions
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edited by John D. Campbell and Andrew K. S. Jardine
136.
Practical Guide to Industrial Boiler Systems
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137.
Lubrication Fundamentals: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded
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D. M. Pirro and A. A. Wessol
138.
Mechanical Life Cycle Handbook: Good Environmental Design
and Manufacturing

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139.
Micromachining of Engineering Materials
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140.
Control Strategies for Dynamic Systems: Design and Implementation
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John H. Lumkes, Jr.
141.
Practical Guide to Pressure Vessel Manufacturing
, Sunil Pullarcot
142.
Nondestructive Evaluation: Theory, Techniques, and Applications
,
edited by Peter J. Shull
143.
Diesel Engine Engineering: Thermodynamics, Dynamics, Design,
and Control
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144.
Handbook of Machine Tool Analysis
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and Dan Boboc
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145.
Implementing Concurrent Engineering in Small Companies
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Susan Carlson Skalak
146.
Practical Guide to the Packaging of Electronics: Thermal and Mechanical

Design and Analysis
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147.
Bearing Design in Machinery: Engineering Tribology and Lubrication
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Avraham Harnoy
148.
Mechanical Reliability Improvement: Probability and Statistics for
Experimental Testing
, R. E. Little
149.
Industrial Boilers and Heat Recovery Steam Generators: Design,
Applications, and Calculations
, V. Ganapathy
150.
The CAD Guidebook: A Basic Manual for Understanding
and Improving Computer-Aided Design
, Stephen J. Schoonmaker
151.
Industrial Noise Control and Acoustics
, Randall F. Barron
152.
Mechanical Properties of Engineered Materials
, Wolé Soboyejo
153.
Reliability Verification, Testing, and Analysis in Engineering Design
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Gary S. Wasserman
154.
Fundamental Mechanics of Fluids: Third Edition

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155.
Intermediate Heat Transfer
, Kau-Fui Vincent Wong
156.
HVAC Water Chillers and Cooling Towers: Fundamentals, Application,
and Operation
, Herbert W. Stanford III
157.
Gear Noise and Vibration: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded
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J. Derek Smith
158.
Handbook of Turbomachinery: Second Edition
,
Revised and Expanded,
edited by Earl Logan, Jr. and Ramendra Roy
159.
Piping and Pipeline Engineering: Design, Construction, Maintenance,
Integrity, and Repair
, George A. Antaki
160.
Turbomachinery: Design and Theory
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and Aijaz Ahmed Khan
161.
Target Costing: Market-Driven Product Design
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Henry M. B. Bird, Robert E. Albano, and Wesley P. Townsend
162.

Fluidized Bed Combustion
, Simeon N. Oka
163.
Theory of Dimensioning: An Introduction to Parameterizing Geometric
Models
, Vijay Srinivasan
164.
Handbook of Mechanical Alloy Design
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Lin Xie, and Kiyoshi Funatani
165.
Structural Analysis of Polymeric Composite Materials
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166.
Modeling and Simulation for Material Selection and Mechanical Design
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edited by George E. Totten, Lin Xie, and Kiyoshi Funatani
167.
Handbook of Pneumatic Conveying Engineering
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168.
Clutches and Brakes: Design and Selection, Second Edition
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William C. Orthwein
169.
Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication: Second Edition
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Bernard J. Hamrock, Steven R. Schmid, and Bo O. Jacobson
170.

Handbook of Lead-Free Solder Technology for Microelectronic
Assemblies
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171.
Vehicle Stability
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172.
Mechanical Wear Fundamentals and Testing: Second Edition,
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173.
Liquid Pipeline Hydraulics
, E. Shashi Menon
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174.
Solid Fuels Combustion and Gasification
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175.
Mechanical Tolerance Stackup and Analysis
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176.
Engineering Design for Wear,
Raymond G. Bayer
177.
Vibrations of Shells and Plates: Third Edition, Revised and Expanded
,
Werner Soedel
178.
Refractories Handbook
, edited by Charles A. Schacht

179.
Practical Engineering Failure Analysis
, Hani M. Tawancy, Anwar Ul-Hamid,
and Nureddin M. Abbas
180.
Mechanical Alloying and Milling
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181.
Mechanical Vibration: Analysis, Uncertainties, and Control,
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182.
Design of Automatic Machinery
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183.
Practical Fracture Mechanics in Design: Second Edition,
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184.
Practical Guide to Designed Experiments
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185.
Gigacycle Fatigue in Mechanical Practive
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and Paul C. Paris
186.
Selection of Engineering Materials and Adhesives
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187.
Boundary Methods: Elements, Contours, and Nodes

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and Yu Xie Mukherjee
188.
Rotordynamics
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189.
Pump Characteristics and Applications: Second Edition
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190.
Reliability Engineering: Probability Models and Maintenance Methods
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191.
Industrial Heating: Principles, Techniques, Materials, Applications,
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192.
Micro Electro Mechanical System Design
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Probability Models in Engineering and Science
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Damage Mechanics
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Standard Handbook of Chains: Chains for Power Transmission
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Maintenance, Replacement, and Reliability: Theory and Applications
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Finite Element Method: Applications in Solids, Structures, and Heat
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Microengineering, MEMS, and Interfacing: A Practical Guide
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200.
Fundamentals of Natural Gas Processing
, Arthur J. Kidnay
and William Parrish
© 2006 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
Fundamentals of
Natural Gas
Processing
Arthur J. Kidnay
William R. Parrish
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Fundamentals of natural gas processing / Arthur J. Kidnay and William Parrish.
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© 2006 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
Dedication
To our wives, Joan and Joan, for their enduring support
and patience throughout the preparation of this book.
© 2006 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
Preface
The natural gas industry began in the early 1900s in the United States and is still
evolving. This high-quality fuel and chemical feedstock plays an important role
in the industrial world and is becoming an important export for other countries.
Several high-quality books* provide guidance to those experienced in natural gas
processing. This book introduces the natural gas industry to a reader entering the
field. It also helps those providing a service to the industry in a narrow application
to better understand how their products and services fit into the overall process.

To help the reader understand the need of each processing step, the book
follows the gas stream from the wellhead to the market place. The book focuses
primarily on the gas plant processes. Wherever possible, the advantages, limita-
tions, and ranges of applicability of the processes are discussed so that their
selection and integration into the overall gas plant can be fully understood and
appreciated.
The book compiles information from other books, open literature, and meet-
ing proceedings** to hopefully give an accurate picture of where the gas pro-
cessing technology stands today, as well as indicate some relatively new tech-
nologies that could become important in the future. An invaluable contribution
to the book is the insight provided to the authors by experts in certain applications.
* For example, GPSA Engineering Data Book (Gas Processors Supply Association, Tulsa, OK, 12th
Edition, 2004), and the fifth edition of Kohl and Nielsen, Gas Purification (Gulf Publishing, Houston,
TX, 1997).
** The two most important meetings involving natural gas processing in the United States are the
annual meeting of the Gas Processors Association and the Laurance Reid Gas Conditioning
Conference.
© 2006 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
Acknowledgments
The authors communicated with numerous people in preparing this book. It could
not have been written without the aid of the Gas Processors Association (GPA).
Ron Brunner graciously supplied requested material from the vast literature on
gas processing available through the GPA. Dan McCartney provided valuable
insight and comments while he generously took time to review the manuscript.
In most cases, the private communications referenced in this book involved
numerous letters and conversations. Phil Richman and John Peranteaux willingly
provided both technical input and editorial comment. Others who provided valu-
able input include Joe Kuchinski, Charles Wallace, Ed Wichert, Dendy Sloan,
Veet Kruka, and Dale Embry. A number of companies graciously provided us
with drawings and photographs. One company generously supplied a modified

drawing that replaced their product names with generic names so that the figure
could be used. Finally, we appreciate the patience and assistance of the editorial
staff at Taylor and Francis.
Carter Tannehill kindly provided us with the cost data provided in Chapter 14.
© 2006 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
AUTHORS
Arthur Kidnay, Ph.D., P. E., is professor emeritus, Chemical Engineering
Department, Colorado School of Mines (CSM). He was a research engineer with
the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) for 9 years before
joining the faculty of CSM. He has taught and conducted extensive research in
the fields of vapor−liquid equilibria, physical adsorption, and heat transfer. Dr.
Kidnay is the author of 69 technical papers and has advised 42 M.S. and Ph.D.
students. He remains very active in professional activities at CSM and presently
teaches a senior course in natural gas processing. For 26 years, Dr. Kidnay and
four colleagues have taught a continuing education course in gas processing to
engineers and scientists from the natural gas industry.
In recognition of his services to the engineering profession, he was elected
a Fellow of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers, in 1987 and was
appointed by the governor of Colorado to two terms (1984−1992) on the Board
of Registration for Professional Engineers. He served on the Cryogenic Confer-
ence Executive Board from 1969 through 1972 and received the Russell B. Scott
Memorial Award for the outstanding technical paper presented at the 1966 Cryo-
genic Engineering Conference. Professor Kidnay was NATO Senior Science
Fellow at Oxford University in the summer of 1972.
William R Parrish, Ph.D., P.E., is a retired senior research associate. He spent
25 years in research and development at ConocoPhillips (formerly Phillips Petro-
leum Company) where he obtained physical properties data needed for new
processes and for resolving operation problems. He provided company-wide
technical expertise on matters involving physical properties and gas hydrates. He
also participated on six gas plant optimization teams. His work has appeared in

49 technical publications and he holds two patents. He presently teaches a con-
tinuing education course in gas processing for engineers and scientists from
industry.
Dr. Parrish represented his company on various committees including the Gas
Processors Association’s Enthalpy Committee of Section F. He also participated
on Department of Energy peer review committees. He is a Fellow of the American
Institute of Chemical Engineers and is actively involved in professional engineer
examination development.
© 2006 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Overview of Natural Gas Industry 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 The World Picture for Natural Gas 2
1.1.2 Natural Gas in United States 5
1.1.3 Nonconventional Gas Reserves in United States 7
1.2 Sources of Natural Gas 7
1.3 Natural Gas Compositions 9
1.3.1 Traditional Natural Gas 9
1.3.2 Important Impurities 10
1.3.3 Coal Bed Methane 10
1.3.4 Subquality Gas 11
1.4 Classification 11
1.4.1 Liquids Content 11
1.4.2 Sulfur Content 13
1.5 Processing and Principal Products 13
1.5.1 Methane 14
1.5.2 Ethane 14
1.5.3 Propane 14
1.5.4 Ethane–Propane Mix 14
1.5.5 Isobutane 15

1.5.6 n-Butane 15
1.5.7 Natural Gas Liquids 15
1.5.8 Natural Gasoline 15
1.5.9 Sulfur 15
1.6 Product Specifications 16
1.6.1 Natural Gas 16
1.6.2 Liquid Products 17
1.7 Combustion Characteristics 18
1.7.1 Heating Value 18
1.7.2 Wobbe Number 20
References 21
Chapter 2 Overview of Gas Plant Processing 25
2.1 Roles of Gas Plants 25
2.2 Plant Processes 26
2.2.1 Field Operations and Inlet Receiving 26
2.2.2 Inlet Compression 26
2.2.3 Gas Treating 26
© 2006 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
2.2.4 Dehydration 27
2.2.5 Hydrocarbon Recovery 28
2.2.6 Nitrogen Rejection 28
2.2.7 Helium Recovery 28
2.2.8 Outlet Compression 28
2.2.9 Liquids Processing 28
2.2.10 Sulfur Recovery 28
2.2.11 Storage and Transportation 29
2.2.12 Liquefaction 29
2.3 Important Support Components 29
2.3.1 Utilities 29
2.3.2 Process Control 30

2.3.3 Safety Systems 30
2.4 Contractual Agreements and Economics 30
2.4.1 Fee-Based Contracts 31
2.4.2 Percentage of Proceeds Contracts 31
2.4.3 Wellhead Purchase Contracts 31
2.4.4 Fixed Efficiency Contracts 31
2.4.5 Keep Whole Contracts 31
References 32
Chapter 3 Field Operations and Inlet Receiving 33
3.1 Introduction 33
3.2 Field Operations 34
3.2.1 Wellhead Operations 34
3.2.2 Piping 35
3.2.3 Compression Stations 36
3.2.4 Pigging 38
3.3 Gas Hydrates 40
3.3.1 Properties 40
3.3.2 Hydrate Formation Prediction 42
3.3.3 Hydrate Inhibition 44
3.4 Inlet Receiving 49
3.4.1 Separator Principles 49
3.4.2 Slug Catcher Configurations 56
3.5 Safety and Environmental Considerations 60
References 61
Chapter 4 Compression 63
4.1 Introduction 63
4.2 Fundamentals 65
4.2.1 Thermodynamics of Compression 65
4.2.2 Multistaging 68
4.2.3 Compressor Efficiencies 69

© 2006 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
4.3 Compressor Types 71
4.3.1 Positive Displacement Compressors 72
4.3.2 Dynamic Compressors 76
4.4 Capacity and Power Calculations 81
4.4.1 Capacity 82
4.4.2 Power Requirements 85
4.5 Comparison of Reciprocating and Centrifugal
Compressors 87
4.6 Safety and Environmental Considerations 88
References 89
Chapter 5 Gas Treating 91
5.1 Introduction 91
5.1.1 The Problem 92
5.1.2 Acid Gas Concentrations in Natural Gas 92
5.1.3 Purification Levels 93
5.1.4 Acid Gas Disposal 93
5.1.5 Purification Processes 94
5.2 Solvent Absorption Processes 99
5.2.1 Amines 100
5.2.2 Alkali Salts 109
5.3 Physical Absorption 110
5.3.1 Solvent Properties 110
5.3.2 Representative Process Conditions 112
5.3.3 Hybrid Processes 114
5.4 Adsorption 115
5.5 Cryogenic Fractionation 117
5.6 Membranes 119
5.6.1 Membrane Fundamentals 119
5.6.2 Carbon Dioxide Removal from Natural Gas 121

5.6.3 Operating Considerations 123
5.6.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Membrane Systems 126
5.7 Nonregenerable Hydrogen Sulfide Scavengers 127
5.8 Biological Processes 128
5.9 Safety and Environmental Considerations 129
5.9.1 Amines 129
5.9.2 Physical Absorption 129
5.9.3 Adsorption 129
5.9.4 Membranes 129
References 130
Chapter 6 Gas Dehydration 133
6.1 Introduction 133
6.2 Water Content of Hydrocarbons 134
© 2006 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
6.3 Gas Dehydration Processes 138
6.3.1 Absorption Processes 139
6.3.2 Adsorption Processes 146
6.3.3 Desiccant Processes 160
6.3.4 Membrane Processes 160
6.3.5 Other Processes 161
6.3.6 Comparison of Dehydration Processes 161
6.4 Safety and Environmental Considerations 162
References 162
Chapter 7 Hydrocarbon Recovery 165
7.1 Introduction 165
7.1.1 Retrograde Condensation 166
7.2 Process Components 167
7.2.1 External Refrigeration 168
7.2.2 Turboexpansion 174
7.2.3 Heat Exchange 179

7.2.4 Fractionation 181
7.3 Recovery Processes 183
7.3.1 Dew Point Control and Fuel Conditioning 184
7.3.2 Lower Ethane Recovery 188
7.3.3 High Ethane Recovery 193
7.4 Safety and Environmental Considerations 196
References 197
Chapter 8 Nitrogen Rejection 199
8.1 Introduction 199
8.2 Nitrogen Rejection for Gas Upgrading 200
8.2.1 Cryogenic Distillation 201
8.2.2 Pressure Swing Adsorption 202
8.2.3 Membranes 204
8.3 Nitrogen Rejection for Enhanced Oil Recovery 204
8.4 Safety and Environmental Considerations 206
References 206
Chapter 9 Trace-Component Recovery or Removal 209
9.1 Introduction 209
9.1.1 Hydrogen 210
9.1.2 Oxygen 210
9.1.3 Radon (NORM) 211
9.1.4 Arsenic 211
© 2006 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
9.2 Helium 211
9.2.1 Introduction 211
9.2.2 Recovery Methods 212
9.3 Mercury 215
9.3.1 Environmental Considerations 216
9.3.2 Amalgam Formation 217
9.3.3 Removal Processes 217

9.4 (BTEX) Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene, and Xylene 218
References 220
Chapter 10 Liquids Processing 223
10.1 Introduction 223
10.2 Condensate Processing 224
10.2.1 Sweetening 225
10.2.2 Dehydration 225
10.3 NGL Processing 225
10.3.1 Sweetening 226
10.3.2 Dehydration 230
10.3.3 Fractionation 233
10.4 Safety and Environmental Considerations 234
References 235
Chapter 11 Sulfur Recovery 237
11.1 Introduction 237
11.2 Properties of Sulfur 238
11.3 Sulfur Recovery Processes 239
11.3.1 Claus Process 239
11.3.2 Claus Tail Gas Cleanup 242
11.4 Sulfur Storage 246
11.5 Safety and Environmental Considerations 246
References 248
Chapter 12 Transportation and Storage 251
12.1 Introduction 251
12.2 Gas 252
12.2.1 Transportation 252
12.2.2 Market Centers 254
12.2.3 Storage 254
12.3 Liquids 259
12.3.1 Transportation 259

12.3.2 Storage 262
References 263
© 2006 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

Chapter 13

Liquefied Natural Gas 265
13.1 Introduction 265
13.1.1 Peak Shaving Plants and Satellite Facilities 266
13.1.2 Baseload Plants and Stranded Reserves 267
13.2 Gas Treating before Liquefaction 270
13.3 Liquefaction Cycles 272
13.3.1 Joule-Thomson Cycles 272
13.3.2 Expander Cycles 280
13.3.3 Cascade Cycles 285
13.4 Storage of LNG 292
13.4.1 Cryogenic Aboveground Storage 293
13.4.2 Cryogenic In Ground Storage 296
13.4.3 Rollover 298
13.5 Transportation 300
13.5.1 Truck Transport 301
13.5.2 Pipelines 301
13.5.3 Marine Transport 301
13.6 Regasification and Cold Utilization of LNG 305
13.6.1 Regasification 305
13.6.2 Cold Utilization 305
13.7 Economics 306
13.7.1 Liquefaction Costs 306
13.7.2 Shipping Costs 307
13.7.3 Regasification Terminal Costs 308

13.8 Plant Efficiency 308
13.9 Safety and Environmental Considerations 309
References 310

Chapter 14

Capital Costs of Gas Processing Facilities 315
14.1 Introduction 315
14.2 Basic Premises for Cost Data 315
14.3 Amine Treating 315
14.4 Glycol Dehydration 317
14.5 NGL Recovery with Straight Refrigeration
(Low Ethane Recovery) 317
14.6 NGL Recovery with Cryogenic Processing
(High Ethane Recovery) 318
14.7 Sulfur Recovery and Tail Gas Cleanup 318
14.7.1 High Sulfur Recovery Rates 318
14.7.2 Low Sulfur Recovery Rates 319
14.8 NGL Extraction Plant Costs for Larger Facilities 321
14.9 Corrections to Cost Data 323
References 323

DK063X_C000.fm Page xxiv Thursday, May 18, 2006 3:05 PM
© 2006 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
Chapter 15 Natural Gas Processing Plants 325
15.1 Introduction 325
15.2 Plant with Sweet Gas Feed and 98% Ethane Recovery 325
15.2.1 Overview of Plant Feed and Product Slate 325
15.2.2 Compression 326
15.2.3 Heat Exchange 326

15.2.4 Dehydration 326
15.2.5 Propane Refrigeration 327
14.2.6 Hydrocarbon Recovery 328
15.2.7 Amine Treating 328
15.2.8 Deethanizer 328
15.2.9 Residue Compression 328
15.3 Plant with Sour Gas Feed, NGL,
and Sulfur Recovery 329
15.3.1 Overview of Plant Feed and Product Slate 329
15.3.2 Inlet Receiving 329
15.3.3 Inlet Compression 330
15.3.4 Gas Treating 330
15.3.5 Sulfur Recovery 330
15.3.6 Dehydration 331
15.3.7 Hydrocarbon Recovery 331
15.3.8 Liquids Processing 331
15.4 Plant with Sour Gas Feed, NGL Recovery,
and Nitrogen Rejection 332
14.4.1 Overview of Plant Feed and Product Slate 332
14.4.2 Inlet Receiving 332
14.2.3 Gas Treating 333
14.2.4 Sulfur Recovery 333
14.2.5 Dehydration 333
14.2.6 NRU and Cold Box 334
14.2.7 Liquids Processing 334
References 334
Chapter 16 Notation 335
Appendix A Glossary of Gas Process Terminology 339
Appendix B Physical Constants and Physical Properties 351
B.1 Unit Conversion Factors 354

B.2 Gas Constants and Standard Gas Conditions 355
B.3 Thermodynamic and Physical Property Data 355
B.4 Hydrocarbon Compressibility Factors 416
References 418
© 2006 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
1
1
Overview of the
Natural Gas Industry
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The Chinese are reputed to have been the first to use natural gas commercially,
some 2,400 years ago. The gas was obtained from shallow wells, transported in
bamboo pipes, and used to produce salt from brine in gas-fired evaporators.
Manufactured, or town, gas (gas manufactured from coal) was used in both Britain
and the United States in the late 17
th
and early 18
th
centuries for streetlights and
house lighting The next recorded commercial use of natural gas occurred in 1821.
William Hart drilled a shallow 30-foot (9-meter) well in Fredonia, New York, and,
by use of wooden pipes, transported the gas to local houses and stores (Natural
Gas Suppliers Association, 2004).
During the following years, a number of small, local programs involved natural
gas, but large-scale activity began in the early years of the 20
th
century. The major
boom in gas usage occurred after World War II, when engineering advances allowed
the construction of safe, reliable, long-distance pipelines for gas transportation. At
the end of 2004, the United States had more than 297,000 miles (479,000 kilome-

ters) of gas pipelines, both interstate and intrastate. In 2004 the U.S. was the world’s
second largest producer of natural gas (19.2 trillion cubic feet [Tcf]*, 543 BSm
3
)
and the leading world consumer (22.9 Tcf, 647 BSm
3
). (Energy Information Admin-
istration, 2005h and BP Statistical Review of World Energy, 2005)
Although the primary use of natural gas is as a fuel, it is also a source of
hydrocarbons for petrochemical feedstocks and a major source of elemental sulfur,
an important industrial chemical. Its popularity as an energy source is expected to
grow substantially in the future because natural gas presents many environmental
greenhouse gas linked to global warming, is produced from oil and coal at a rate
approximately 1.4 to 1.75 times higher than production from natural gas.
Both atmospheric nitrogen and nitrogen in fuel are sources of nitrogen oxides
(NO
X
), which are greenhouse gases and a source of acid rain. Because both oil
and coal contain nitrogen compounds not present in natural gas, the nitrogen
oxides formed from burning natural gas are approximately 20% of those produced
* Gas volumes are normally reported in terms of standard cubic feet (scf) at standard conditions of
60°F and 14.7 psia. In metric units, the volumes are given in either normal cubic meters, Nm
3
, where
standard conditions are 0°C, 1 bar, or standard cubic meters, Sm
3
, where the standard conditions are
15°C, 1 bar. In the U.S. gas industry, prefix M represents 10
3
, and MM, B, and T represent 10

6
, 10
9
,
and 10
12
, respectively. We use this convention for both engineering and SI units.
advantages over petroleum and coal, as shown in Table 1.1. Carbon dioxide, a
© 2006 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
2 Fundamentals of Natural Gas Processing
when oil or coal is burned. Particulate formation is significantly less in gas
compared with coal and oil, an important environmental consideration because
in addition to degrading air quality, high levels of particulates may pose significant
health problems.
The values reported in Table 1.1 for sulfur dioxide can be misleading. Many
natural gases contain considerable quantities of sulfur at the wellhead, but specifi-
cations for pipeline-quality gas require almost total sulfur removal before pipelining
and sale. Consequently, the tabular values for natural gas represent combustion after
removal of sulfur compounds, whereas the tabular values for oil and coal are
reported for fuels with no sulfur recovery either before or after combustion. Nev-
ertheless, gas produces far fewer pollutants than its competitors, and demand for
gas, the clean fuel, is expected to rise significantly in the near future.
1.1.1 W
ORLD
P
ICTURE

FOR
N
ATURAL

G
AS
dry natural gas (natural gas with natural gas liquids [NGLs] removed) is on a par
with coal in importance.
almost half of the reserves located in Iran and Russia. The total reported natural
gas reserves (~6,040 Tcf [171 TSm
3
] at the beginning of 2005 [Energy Informa-
tion Administration, 2005c]) do not include discovered reserves that are not
economically feasible to bring to market. This “stranded gas” resides in remote
regions, where the reserve size does not justify the cost of the infrastructure
required to bring it to market. Note that proven reserve estimates are truly
TABLE 1.1
Pounds of Air Pollutants Produced per Billion Btu of Energy
Pollutant Natural Gas
a
Oil
b
Coal
c
Carbon dioxide 117,000 164,000 208,000
Carbon monoxide 40 33 208
Nitrogen oxides 92 448 457
Sulfur dioxide 0.6 1,122 2,591
Particulates 7.0 84 2,744
Formaldehyde 0.750 0.220 0.221
Mercury 0.000 0.007 0.016
a
Natural gas burned in uncontrolled residential gas burners.
b

Oil is # 6 fuel oil at 6.287 million Btu per barrel and 1.03% sulfur with no
postcombustion removal of pollutants.
c
Bituminous coal at 12,027 Btu per pound and 1.64% sulfur with no postcombustion
removal of pollutants.
Source: Energy Information Administration (1998).
The current status of primary energy sources is summarized in Figure 1.1. Basically,
Six countries possess two thirds of the world’s gas reserves (Figure 1.2), with
© 2006 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
Overview of the Natural Gas Industry 3
FIGURE 1.1 Primary sources of energy in the world in 2003. Total energy used was 405
quadrillion Btu (Energy Information Administration, 2005b).
FIGURE 1.2 Major proven natural gas reserves by country. Total proven reserves esti-
mated to be 6,040 Tcf (Energy Information Administration, 2005c).
Coal, 24.1%
Natural gas,
23.5%
Crude oil,
35.3%
NGL, 2.6%
Nuclear, 6.6%
Hydroelectric, 6.6%
All other, 1.4%
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200

1,400
1,600
1,800
Russia
Iran
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
United Arab
Emirates
United
States
Nigeria
Algeria
Venezuela
Iraq
Proven reserves, Tcf
© 2006 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
4 Fundamentals of Natural Gas Processing
estimates and vary among sources. Also, proven reserves depend on gas prices;
increased gas price causes reserve estimates to rise.
The world production of natural gas is summarized in Table 1.2. Noteworthy are
the relationships between production and reserves in North America and Eastern
Europe and the high percentage of gas flared or vented in Africa. North America
(principally the United States) has the world’s second largest production of dry gas
and accounts for 29% of world production but possesses only 5% of the reserves.
Eastern Europe slightly leads North America in dry gas production but has 36% of
TABLE 1.2
World Natural Gas Production and Estimated Proven
Reserves at End of 2002
Region

Gross
Production
a
Vented
or
Flared
a
Reinjected
a

Marketed
Production
a
Dry
Gas
Production
a
Proven
Reserves
b
North
America
33,060
(936)
29.5%
176
(4.98)
6.3%
3.895
(110)

31.0%
28,487
(807)
29.5%
26,893
(762)
29.2%
255,800
(7,243)
4.6%
Central and
South
America
5,983
(169)
5.3%
350
(9.91)
12.5%
1,404
(39.76)
11.2%
4,229
(120)
4.4%
3,722
(105)
4.0%
250,100
(7,082)

4.5%
Western Europe 12,333
(349)
11.0%
135
(3.82)
4.8%
1,236
(35.0)
9.8%
10,963
(310)
11.4%
10,548
(299)
11.4%
191,600
(5,426)
3.5%
Eastern Europe
and former
U.S.S.R.
27,047
(766)
24.1%
253
c
(7.16)
9.1%
1

(0.03)
0.0%
27,046
(766)
28.0%
27,046
(766)
29.3%
1,964,200
(55,620)
35.7%
Middle East 12,667
(359)
11.3%
413
(11.69)
14.8%
2,696
(76.34)
21.4%
9,558
(271)
9.9%
8,674
(246)
9.4%
1,579,700
(44,732)
28.7%
Africa 9,450

(268)
8.4%
1,241
(35.14)
44.5%
3,007
(85.15)
23.9%
5,202
(147)
5.4%
4,741
(134)
5.1%
418,200
(11,842)
7.6%
Asia and
Oceania
11,637
(330)
10.4%
224
(6.34)
8.0%
331
(9.37)
2.6%
11,083
(314)

11.5%
10,528
(298)
11.4%
445,400
(12,612)
8.1%
World total 112,178
(3,177)
2,792
(79.06)
12,570
(355.94)
96,568
(2,735)
92,152
(2,609)
5,504,900
(155,881)
a
Data from Energy Information Administration (2005d).
b
Data from Energy Information Administration (2004a).
c
Value given is for 1998 as an estimate because value for 2002 was unreported.
Values are in Bcf (BSm
3
) and percentage values are percent of world total.