the chemistry and technology of petroleum,4th edition

The Chemistry
and Technology
of Petroleum
FOURTH EDITION
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES
A Series of Reference Books and Textbooks
Founding Editor
HEINZ HEINEMANN
Berkeley, California
Consulting Editor
JAMES G. SPEIGHT
Laramie, Wyoming
1.
Fluid Catalytic Cracking with Zeolite Catalysts,
Paul B. Venuto
and E. Thomas Habib, Jr.
2.
Ethylene: Keystone to the Petrochemical Industry,
Ludwig Kniel, Olaf Winter, and Karl Stork
3.
The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum,
James G. Speight
4.
The Desulfurization of Heavy Oils and Residua,
James G. Speight
5.
Catalysis of Organic Reactions,
edited by William R. Moser
6.

Acetylene-Based Chemicals from Coal and Other Natural
Resources,
Robert J. Tedeschi
7.
Chemically Resistant Masonry,
Walter Lee Sheppard, Jr.
8.
Compressors and Expanders: Selection and Application
for the Process Industry,
Heinz P. Bloch, Joseph A. Cameron,
Frank M. Danowski, Jr., Ralph James, Jr.,
Judson S. Swearingen, and Marilyn E. Weightman
9.
Metering Pumps: Selection and Application,
James P. Poynton
10.
Hydrocarbons from Methanol,
Clarence D. Chang
11.
Form Flotation: Theory and Applications,
Ann N. Clarke
and David J. Wilson
12.
The Chemistry and Technology of Coal,
James G. Speight
13.
Pneumatic and Hydraulic Conveying of Solids,
O. A. Williams
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
14.

Catalyst Manufacture: Laboratory and Commercial
Preparations,
Alvin B. Stiles
15.
Characterization of Heterogeneous Catalysts,
edited by
Francis Delannay
16.
BASIC Programs for Chemical Engineering Design,
James H. Weber
17.
Catalyst Poisoning,
L. Louis Hegedus and Robert W. McCabe
18.
Catalysis of Organic Reactions,
edited by John R. Kosak
19.
Adsorption Technology: A Step-by-Step Approach to Process
Evaluation and Application,
edited by Frank L. Slejko
20.
Deactivation and Poisoning of Catalysts,
edited by
Jacques Oudar and Henry Wise
21.
Catalysis and Surface Science: Developments in Chemicals
from Methanol, Hydrotreating of Hydrocarbons, Catalyst
Preparation, Monomers and Polymers, Photocatalysis
and Photovoltaics,
edited by Heinz Heinemann

and Gabor A. Somorjai
22.
Catalysis of Organic Reactions,
edited by Robert L. Augustine
23.
Modern Control Techniques for the Processing Industries,
T. H. Tsai, J. W. Lane, and C. S. Lin
24.
Temperature-Programmed Reduction for Solid Materials
Characterization,
Alan Jones and Brian McNichol
25.
Catalytic Cracking: Catalysts, Chemistry, and Kinetics,
Bohdan W. Wojciechowski and Avelino Corma
26.
Chemical Reaction and Reactor Engineering,
edited by
J. J. Carberry and A. Varma
27.
Filtration: Principles and Practices: Second Edition,
edited by Michael J. Matteson and Clyde Orr
28.
Corrosion Mechanisms,
edited by Florian Mansfeld
29.
Catalysis and Surface Properties of Liquid Metals and Alloys,
Yoshisada Ogino
30.
Catalyst Deactivation,
edited by Eugene E. Petersen

and Alexis T. Bell
31.
Hydrogen Effects in Catalysis: Fundamentals and Practical
Applications,
edited by Zoltán Paál and P. G. Menon
32.
Flow Management for Engineers and Scientists,
Nicholas P. Cheremisinoff and Paul N. Cheremisinoff
33.
Catalysis of Organic Reactions,
edited by Paul N. Rylander,
Harold Greenfield, and Robert L. Augustine
34.
Powder and Bulk Solids Handling Processes: Instrumentation
and Control,
Koichi Iinoya, Hiroaki Masuda,
and Kinnosuke Watanabe
35.
Reverse Osmosis Technology: Applications for High-Purity-
Water Production,
edited by Bipin S. Parekh
36.
Shape Selective Catalysis in Industrial Applications,
N. Y. Chen, William E. Garwood, and Frank G. Dwyer
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
37.
Alpha Olefins Applications Handbook,
edited by
George R. Lappin and Joseph L. Sauer
38.

Process Modeling and Control in Chemical Industries,
edited by Kaddour Najim
39.
Clathrate Hydrates of Natural Gases,
E. Dendy Sloan, Jr.
40.
Catalysis of Organic Reactions,
edited by Dale W. Blackburn
41.
Fuel Science and Technology Handbook,
edited by
James G. Speight
42.
Octane-Enhancing Zeolitic FCC Catalysts,
Julius Scherzer
43. Oxygen in Catalysis, Adam Bielanski and Jerzy Haber
44.
The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded,
James G. Speight
45.
Industrial Drying Equipment: Selection and Application,
C. M. van’t Land
46.
Novel Production Methods for Ethylene, Light Hydrocarbons,
and Aromatics
, edited by Lyle F. Albright, Billy L. Crynes,
and Siegfried Nowak
47.
Catalysis of Organic Reactions

, edited by William E. Pascoe
48.
Synthetic Lubricants and High-Performance Functional Fluids
,
edited by Ronald L. Shubkin
49.
Acetic Acid and Its Derivatives
, edited by Victor H. Agreda
and Joseph R. Zoeller
50.
Properties and Applications of Perovskite-Type Oxides
,
edited by L. G. Tejuca and J. L. G. Fierro
51.
Computer-Aided Design of Catalysts
, edited by
E. Robert Becker and Carmo J. Pereira
52.
Models for Thermodynamic and Phase Equilibria Calculations
,
edited by Stanley I. Sandler
53.
Catalysis of Organic Reactions
, edited by John R. Kosak
and Thomas A. Johnson
54.
Composition and Analysis of Heavy Petroleum Fractions
,
Klaus H. Altgelt and Mieczyslaw M. Boduszynski
55.

NMR Techniques in Catalysis,
edited by Alexis T. Bell
and Alexander Pines
56.
Upgrading Petroleum Residues and Heavy Oils
,
Murray R. Gray
57.
Methanol Production and Use
, edited by Wu-Hsun Cheng
and Harold H. Kung
58.
Catalytic Hydroprocessing of Petroleum and Distillates
,
edited by Michael C. Oballah and Stuart S. Shih
59.
The Chemistry and Technology of Coal: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded,
James G. Speight
60.
Lubricant Base Oil and Wax Processing
, Avilino Sequeira, Jr.
61.
Catalytic Naphtha Reforming: Science and Technology
,
edited by George J. Antos, Abdullah M. Aitani,
and José M. Parera
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
62.
Catalysis of Organic Reactions

, edited by Mike G. Scaros
and Michael L. Prunier
63.
Catalyst Manufacture,
Alvin B. Stiles and Theodore A. Koch
64.
Handbook of Grignard Reagents,
edited by Gary S. Silverman
and Philip E. Rakita
65.
Shape Selective Catalysis in Industrial Applications:
Second Edition, Revised and Expanded
, N. Y. Chen,
William E. Garwood, and Francis G. Dwyer
66.
Hydrocracking Science and Technology
, Julius Scherzer
and A. J. Gruia
67.
Hydrotreating Technology for Pollution Control: Catalysts,
Catalysis, and Processes
, edited by Mario L. Occelli
and Russell Chianelli
68.
Catalysis of Organic Reactions
, edited by Russell E. Malz, Jr.
69.
Synthesis of Porous Materials: Zeolites, Clays,
and Nanostructures,
edited by Mario L. Occelli

and Henri Kessler
70.
Methane and Its Derivatives
, Sunggyu Lee
71.
Structured Catalysts and Reactors
, edited by Andrzej Cybulski
and Jacob A. Moulijn
72.
Industrial Gases in Petrochemical Processing
,
Harold Gunardson
73.
Clathrate Hydrates of Natural Gases: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded
, E. Dendy Sloan, Jr.
74.
Fluid Cracking Catalysts
, edited by Mario L. Occelli
and Paul O’Connor
75.
Catalysis of Organic Reactions
, edited by Frank E. Herkes
76.
The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum: Third Edition,
Revised and Expanded
, James G. Speight
77.
Synthetic Lubricants and High-Performance Functional Fluids:
Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,

Leslie R. Rudnick
and Ronald L. Shubkin
78.
The Desulfurization of Heavy Oils and Residua
,
Second Edition
,
Revised and Expanded,
James G. Speight
79.
Reaction Kinetics and Reactor Design: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded,
John B. Butt
80.
Regulatory Chemicals Handbook
, Jennifer M. Spero,
Bella Devito, and Louis Theodore
81.
Applied Parameter Estimation for Chemical Engineers
,
Peter Englezos and Nicolas Kalogerakis
82.
Catalysis of Organic Reactions,
edited by Michael E. Ford
83.
The Chemical Process Industries Infrastructure: Function
and Economics
, James R. Couper, O. Thomas Beasley,
and W. Roy Penney
84.

Transport Phenomena Fundamentals
, Joel L. Plawsky
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
85.
Petroleum Refining Processes
, James G. Speight
and Baki Özüm
86.
Health, Safety, and Accident Management in the Chemical
Process Industries
, Ann Marie Flynn and Louis Theodore
87.
Plantwide Dynamic Simulators in Chemical Processing
and Control
, William L. Luyben
88.
Chemical Reactor Design
, Peter Harriott
89.
Catalysis of Organic Reactions
, edited by Dennis G. Morrell
90.
Lubricant Additives: Chemistry and Applications
, edited by
Leslie R. Rudnick
91.
Handbook of Fluidization and Fluid-Particle Systems
,
edited by Wen-Ching Yang
92.

Conservation Equations and Modeling of Chemical
and Biochemical Processes
, Said S. E. H. Elnashaie
and Parag Garhyan
93.
Batch Fermentation: Modeling
,
Monitoring, and Control
,
Ali Çinar, Gülnur Birol, Satish J. Parulekar, and Cenk Ündey
94.
Industrial Solvents Handbook
,
Second Edition
,
Nicholas P. Cheremisinoff
95.
Petroleum and Gas Field Processing
, H. K. Abdel-Aal,
Mohamed Aggour, and M. Fahim
96.
Chemical Process Engineering: Design and Economics
,
Harry Silla
97.
Process Engineering Economics
, James R. Couper
98.
Re-Engineering the Chemical Processing Plant: Process
Intensification

, edited by Andrzej Stankiewicz
and Jacob A. Moulijn
99.
Thermodynamic Cycles: Computer-Aided Design
and Optimization
, Chih Wu
100.
Catalytic Naphtha Reforming: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded
, edited by George T. Antos
and Abdullah M. Aitani
101.
Handbook of MTBE and Other Gasoline Oxygenates
,
edited by S. Halim Hamid and Mohammad Ashraf Ali
102.
Industrial Chemical Cresols and Downstream Derivatives
,
Asim Kumar Mukhopadhyay
103.
Polymer Processing Instabilities: Control and Understanding
,
edited by Savvas Hatzikiriakos and Kalman B . Migler
104.
Catalysis of Organic Reactions
, John Sowa
105.
Gasification Technologies: A Primer for Engineers
and Scientists
, edited by John Rezaiyan

and Nicholas P. Cheremisinoff
106.
Batch Processes
, edited by Ekaterini Korovessi
and Andreas A. Linninger
107.
Introduction to Process Control
, Jose A. Romagnoli
and Ahmet Palazoglu
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
108.
Metal Oxides: Chemistry and Applications
, edited by
J. L. G. Fierro
109.
Molecular Modeling in Heavy Hydrocarbon Conversions
,
Michael T. Klein, Ralph J. Bertolacini, Linda J. Broadbelt,
Ankush Kumar and Gang Hou
110.
Structured Catalysts and Reactors, Second Edition
, edited by
Andrzej Cybulski and Jacob A. Moulijn
111.
Synthetics, Mineral Oils, and Bio-Based Lubricants:
Chemistry and Technology
, edited by Leslie R. Rudnick
112.
Alcoholic Fuels
, edited by Shelley Minteer

113.
Bubbles, Drops, and Particles in Non-Newtonian Fluids,
Second Edition
, R. P. Chhabra
114.
The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum, Fourth Edition
,
James G. Speight
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
The Chemistry
and Technology
of Petroleum
FOURTH EDITION
James G. Speight
CD&W Inc.
Laramie, Wyoming
CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
Boca Raton London New York
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2007 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Speight, J. G.
The chemistry and technology of petroleum / James G. Speight. 4th ed.
p. cm. (Chemical industries ; v 114)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-8493-9067-8 (alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-8493-9067-2 (alk. paper)
1. Petroleum. 2. Petroleum Refining. I. Title. II. Series.
TP690.S74 2006
665.5 dc22 2006014100
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

and the CRC Press Web site at

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Preface to the Fourth Edition
The success of the first, second, and third editions of this text has been the prim ary reason for
the decision to publish a fourth edition. In addition, the demand for petroleum products,
particularly liquid fuels (gasoline and diesel fuel) and petrochemical feedstocks (such as
aromatics and olefins), is increasing throughout the world. Traditional markets such as North
America and Europe are experiencing a steady increase in demand whereas emerging Asian
markets, such as India and China, are witnessing a rapid surge in demand for liquid fuels.
This has resulted in a tendency for existing refineries to seek fresh refining approaches to
optimize efficiency and throughput. In addition, the increasing use of heavier feedstock for
refineries is forcing technology suppliers and licensors to revamp their refining technologies in
an effort to cater to the growing customer base.
Further, the ev olution in product specifications caused by various environmental regula-
tions plays a major role in the development of petroleum refining technologies. In many
countries, especially in the United States and Europe, gasoline and diesel fuel specifications
have changed radically in the past half decade (since the publication of the third edition of this
book) and will continue to do so in the future. Currently, reducing the sulfur levels of liquid
fuels is the dominant objective of many refiners. This is pushing the technological limits of
refineries to the maximum and the continuing issue is the elimination of sulfur in liquid fuels,
as tighter product specifications emerge worldwide. These changing rules also have an impact
on the market for heavy products such as fuel oil.
Refineries must, and indeed are eager to, adapt to changing circumstances and are amen-
able to trying new technologies that are radically different in character. Currently, refinerie s
are also looking to exploit heavy (more viscous) crude oils and tar sand bitumen (sometimes
referred to as extra heavy crude oil), provided they have the refinery technology capable of
handling such feedstocks. Transforming the higher boiling constituents of these feedstock
components into liquid fuels is becoming a necessity. It is no longer a simple issue of mixing
the heavy feedstock with conventional petroleum to make up a blended refinery feedstock.
Incompatibility issues arise that can, if not anticipated, close down a refinery or, at best, a

major section of the refinery. Therefore, handling such feedstocks requires technological
change, includi ng more effective and innovative use of hydrogen within the refinery.
Heavier crude oil could also be contaminated with sulfur and metal containing molecules
that must be removed to meet quality standards. A better understanding of how catalysts
perform (both chemically and physically) with the feedstock is necessary to provide greater
scope for process and catalyst improvements.
However, even though the nature of crude oil is changing, refineries are here to stay in the
foreseeable future, since petroleum products satisfy wide-ranging energy requirements and
demands that are not fully covered by alternate fossil fuel sources such as natural gas and
coal. And the alternative (so-called renewable) energy technologies are not poised to supple-
ment the demand for energy.
Therefore, it is the purpose of this book to provide the reader with a detailed overview of
the chemistry and technology of petroleum as they evolve into the twenty-first century. With
this in mind, many of the chapters that appeared in the third edition have been rewritten to
include the latest developments in the refining industry. Upd ates on the evolving processes
and new processes as well as various environmental regulations are presented. As part of this
update, the chapters contain updates of the relevant processes that are used the industry
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
evolves. The text still maintains its initial premise, to introduce the reader to the science of
petroleum, beginning with its formation in the ground, eventually leading to the production
of a wide variety of products and petrochemical intermediates. The text will also prove useful
for those scientists and engineers already engaged in the petroleum industry as well as in the
catalyst manufacturing industry who wish to gain a general overview or update of the science
of petroleum.
Finally, as always, I am indebted to my colleagues in many different countries who have
continued to engage me in lively discussions and who have offered many thought-provoking
comments. Thanks are also due to those colleagues who have made constructive comments on
the previous editions, which were of great assistance in writing this edition. For such
discussions and commentary, I continue to be grateful.
Dr. James G. Speight

Laramie, Wyoming
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Preface to the First Edition
For many years, petroleum has been regarded as the cheapest source of liquid fuels by many
countries, especially the United States and Canada. However, with the recent energy crises
and concern over future su pplies of gaseous and liquid fuels in many parts of the world,
particularly Western Europe and North America, we have seen a gradual acceptance by the
petroleum industry and the general public of the inevitability that petroleum and natural gas
will, at some time within the foreseeable future, be in very short supply.
As a result, petroleum technology is expanded to such an extent that wells that were
previously regarded as nonproductive because of their inability to produce oil without
considerable external stimulation are now reexamined with the object of, literally, recovering
every last possible drop of petroleum.
Serious attempts are also underway to produce liquid fuels from unconventional sources,
such as coal, oil shale, and oil sands (also variously referred to as tar sands or bituminous
sands). Oil sands, in fact, have already been developed to such an extent that commercial
production of a synthetic crude oil from the oils sands located in northeastern Alberta
(Canada) has been underway for some ten years, with a second plant on-stream since 1978
and serious negotiations underway for other oil sands plants.
This expansion of liquid fuels technology has resulted in a vacuum in the labor output
insofar as the uni versities have been unable to produce sufficient people with any form of
training in petroleum technology and petroleum chemistry. However, it now appears that
various universities, which have initiated research into the various aspects of petroleum
science, are considering some kind of formal training in this area.
Thus it happened that during the winter of 1976–1977, the author organized a course
entitled ‘‘An Introduction to the Chemistry of Petroleum’’ through the Faculty of Extension
at the University of Alberta. In the early stages of preparation, it became apparent that,
although several older books were available, there was no individual book that could serve as
a teaching text for teachers and engineers as well as chemists. Therefore, this book is the
outcome of the copious notes collected as a result of that course. The text introduces the

reader to the science of petroleum, beginning with its formation in the ground, and eventually
leads to analyses of the production of a wide variety of petrochemical intermediates as well as
the more conventional fuel products. This book has also been written for those people already
engaged in the petroleum industry (engineers and chemists) who wish to gain a general
overview of the science of petroleum.
Although any text on petroleum must of necessity include some chemistry, attempts have
been made, for the benefit of those readers without any formal college training in chemistry,
to keep the chemical sections as simple as possible. In fact, there are, within the text, several
pages of explanatory elementary organic chemistry for the benefit of such people.
At a time when the anglicized nations of the world are undergoing a transferal to the metric
system of measurement, there are still those disciplines that are based on such scales as the
Fahrenheit temperature scale as well as the foot measure instead of the meter. Accordingly,
the text contains both the metric and nonmetric measures, but it should be noted that exact
conversion is not often feasible, and thus conversion data are often taken to the nearest
whole number. Indeed, conversions involving the two temperature scales—Fahrenheit and
Celsius—are, at the high temperatures quoted in the text, often rounded off to the nearest 58,
especially when serious error would not arise from such a conversion.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
For the sake of simplicity, illustrations contained in the text, especially in the chapter
relating to petroleum refining, are line drawings, and no attempt has been made to draw to
scale the various reactors, distillation towers, or other equipment.
The majority of the work on this text was carried out while the author was a staff member
of the Alberta Research Council. Thus, the author wishes to acknowledge the assistance given
by the many members of the Alberta Research Council. The author is particularly indebted to
his colleagues J.F. Fr yer and Dr. S.E. Moschopedis for their comments on the manuscript, as
well as to P. Williams, M.A. Harris, and H. Radvanyi for typing the manuscript.
Dr. James G. Speight
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Author
Dr. James G. Speight has a BSc and a PhD from the University of Manchester, England.

He was employed by the Alberta Research Council (Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, 1967–
1980), Exxon Research and Engineering Company (Linden and Annandale, New Jersey ,
1980–1984), and by the Western Research Institute (Laramie, Wyoming) where he was
chief scient ific officer and executive vice president (1984–1990) and chief executive officer
(1990–1998). He is currently a consultant–author–lecturer on energy and environmental
issues with CD&W Inc. (Laramie, Wyoming, 1998–present).
Dr. Speight has more than 38 years of experience in areas associated with the properties
and recovery of reservoir fluids as well as refining conventional petroleum, heavy oil, and
tar sand bitumen. He has taught more than 60 courses and contributed to more than 400
publications, reports, and presentations.
Dr. Speight is the editor and founding editor of Petroleum Science and Technology
(Taylor & Francis Publishers); the editor of Energy Sources. Part A: Recovery, Utilization,
and Environmental Effects (Taylor & Francis Publishers); and the editor and founding editor
of Energy Sources. Part B: Economics, Planning, and Policy (Taylor & Francis Publishers). He
is also an adjunct professor of chemical and fuels engineering, University of Utah, an adjunct
professor of chemistry and visiting professor, University of Trinidad and Tobago, and a
visiting professor at the Technical University of Denmark (Lyngby, Denmark). Dr. Speight is
the author–editor–compiler of more than 30 books and bibliographies related to fossil fuel
processing and environmental issues.
Dr. Speight has received (1) a diploma of honor, National Petroleum Engineering Society
for Outstanding Contributions to the Petroleum Indust ry, (2) a gold medal, Russian Academy
of Sciences for Out standing Work in the Area of Petroleum Science in 1996, (3) the Specialist
Invitation Program Speakers Award, NEDO (New Energy Development Organization,
Government of Japan) for Contributions to Coal Research, (4) Doctor of Sciences, Scientific
Research Geological Exploration Institute (VNIGRI), St. Petersburg, Russia for Exceptional
Work in Petroleum Science, (5) the Einstein Medal, Russian Academy of Sciences in recog-
nition of Outstanding Contributions and Service in the Field of Geologic Sciences, and (6) a
gold medal—Scientists without Frontiers, Russian Academy of Sciences in recognition of
Continuous Encouragement of Scientists to Work Together across International Borders.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Table of Contents
Part I
History, Occurrence, and Recovery
Chapter 1
History and Terminology
1.1 Historical Per spectives
1.2 Modern Perspectives
1.3 Definitions and Terminology
1.4 Native Materials
1.4.1 Petroleum
1.4.2 Heavy Oil
1.4.3 Bitumen
1.4.4 Wax
1.4.5 Asphaltite
1.4.6 Asphaltoid
1.4.7 Bituminous Rock and Bituminous Sand
1.4.8 Kerogen
1.4.9 Natural Gas
1.5 Manufactured Materials
1.5.1 Wax
1.5.2 Residuum (Residua)
1.5.3 Asphalt
1.5.4 Tar and Pitch
1.5.5 Coke
1.5.6 Synthetic Crude Oil
1.6 Derived Materials
1.6.1 Asphaltenes, Carbenes, and Carboids
1.6.2 Resins and Oils
1.7 Oil Prices

1.7.1 Pricing Strategies
1.7.2 Oil Price History
1.7.3 Future of Oil
1.7.4 Epilog
References
Chapter 2
Classification
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Classification Systems
2.2.1 Classification as a Hydrocarbon Resource
2.2.2 Classification by Chemical Composition
2.2.3 Correlation Index
2.2.4 Density
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
2.2.5 API Gravity
2.2.6 Viscosity
2.2.7 Carbon Distribution
2.2.8 Viscosity–Gravity Constant
2.2.9 UOP Characterization Factor
2.2.10 Recovery Method
2.2.11 Pour Point
2.3 Miscellaneous Systems
2.4 Reservoir Classification
2.4.1 Identification and Quantification
2.4.2 Future
References
Chapter 3
Origin and Occurrence
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Origin

3.2.1 Abiogenic Origin
3.2.2 Biogenic Origin
3.2.2.1 Deposition of Organic Matter
3.2.2.2 Establishment of Source Beds
3.2.2.3 Nature of the Source Material
3.2.2.4 Transformation of Organic Matter into Petroleum
3.2.2.5 Accumulation in Reservoir Sediments
3.2.2.6 In Situ Transformation of Petroleum
3.2.3 Differences between the Abiogenic Theory and the Biogenic Theory
3.2.4 Relationship of Petroleum Composition and Properties
3.3 Occurrence
3.3.1 Reserves
3.3.2 Conventional Petroleum
3.3.3 Natural Gas
3.3.4 Heavy Oil
3.3.5 Bitumen (Extra Heavy Oil)
References
Chapter 4
Kerogen
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Properties
4.3 Composition
4.4 Classification
4.5 Isolation
4.6 Methods for Probing Kerogen Structure
4.6.1 Ultimate (Elemental) Analysis
4.6.2 Functional Group Analysis
4.6.3 Oxidation
4.6.4 Thermal Methods
4.6.5 Acid-Catalyzed Hydrogenolysis

4.7 Structural Models
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
4.8 Kerogen Matura tion
References
Chapter 5
Exploration, Recovery, and Transportation
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Exploration
5.2.1 Gravity Methods
5.2.2 Magnetic Methods
5.2.3 Seismic Methods
5.2.4 Electrical Methods
5.2.5 Electromagnetic Methods
5.2.6 Radioactive Methods
5.2.7 Borehole Logging
5.3 Drilling Opera tions
5.3.1 Preparing to Drill
5.3.2 Drilling Rig
5.3.3 Drilling Rig Components
5.3.4 Drilling
5.4 Well Completion
5.5 Recovery
5.5.1 Primary Recovery (Natural Methods)
5.5.2 Secondary Recovery
5.5.3 Enhanced Oil Recovery
5.6 Products and Product Quality
5.7 Transportation
References
Chapter 6
Recovery of Heavy Oil and Tar Sand Bitumen

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Oil Mining
6.2.1 Tar Sand Mining
6.2.2 Hot-Water Process
6.2.3 Other Processes
6.3 Nonmining Methods
6.3.1 Steam-Based Processes
6.3.2 Combustion Processes
6.3.3 Other Processes
References
Part II
Composition and Properties
Chapter 7
Chemical Composition
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Ultimate (Elemental) Composition
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
7.3 Chemical Components
7.3.1 Hydrocarbon Constituents
7.3.1.1 Paraffin Hydrocarbons
7.3.1.2 Cycloparaffin Hydrocarbons (Naphthenes)
7.3.1.3 Aromatic Hydrocarbons
7.3.1.4 Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
7.3.2 Nonhydrocarbon Constituents
7.3.2.1 Sulfur Compounds
7.3.2.2 Oxygen Compounds
7.3.2.3 Nitrogen Compounds
7.3.2.4 Metallic Constituents
7.3.2.5 Porphyrins
7.4 Chemical Composition by Distillation

7.4.1 Gases and Naphtha
7.4.2 Middle Distillates
7.4.3 Vacuum Residua (10508F
þ
)
References
Chapter 8
Fractional Composition
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Distillation
8.2.1 Atmospheric Pressure
8.2.2 Reduced Pressures
8.2.3 Azeotropic and Extractive Distillation
8.3 Solvent Treatment
8.3.1 Asphaltene Separation
8.3.1.1 Influence of Solvent Type
8.3.1.2 Influence of the Degree of Dilution
8.3.1.3 Influence of Temperature
8.3.1.4 Influence of Contact Time
8.3.2 Fractionation
8.4 Adsorption
8.4.1 Chemical Factors
8.4.2 Fractionation Methods
8.4.2.1 General Methods
8.4.2.2 ASTM Methods
8.5 Chemical Methods
8.5.1 Acid Treatm ent
8.5.2 Molecular Complex Formation
8.5.2.1 Urea Adduction
8.5.2.2 Thiourea Adduction

8.5.2.3 Adduct Composition
8.5.2.4 Adduct Structure
8.5.2.5 Adduct Properties
8.6 Use of the Data
References
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Chapter 9
Petroleum Analysis
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Petroleum Assay
9.3 Physical Properties
9.3.1 Elemental (Ultimate) Analysis
9.3.2 Density and Specific Gravity
9.3.3 Viscosity
9.3.4 Surface and Interfacial Tension
9.3.5 Metals Content
9.4 Thermal Properties
9.4.1 Volatility
9.4.2 Liquefaction and Solidification
9.4.3 Carbon Residue
9.4.4 Aniline Point
9.4.5 Specific Heat
9.4.6 Latent Heat
9.4.7 Enthalpy or Heat Content
9.4.8 Thermal Conductivity
9.4.9 Pressure–Volume–Temperature Relationships
9.4.10 Heat of Combustion
9.4.11 Critical Pro perties
9.5 Electrical Properties
9.5.1 Conductivity

9.5.2 Dielectric Constant
9.5.3 Dielectric Strength
9.5.4 Dielectric Los s and Power Factor
9.5.5 Static Electrification
9.6 Optical Properties
9.6.1 Refractive Index
9.6.2 Optical Activity
9.7 Spectroscopic Methods
9.7.1 Infrared Spectroscopy
9.7.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
9.7.3 Mass Spectrometry
9.8 Chromatographic Methods
9.8.1 Gas Chromatography
9.8.2 Simulated Distillation
9.8.3 Adsorption Chromatography
9.8.4 Gel Permeation Chromatography
9.8.5 Ion-Exchange Chromatography
9.8.6 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography
9.8.7 Supercritical Fluid Chromatography
9.9 Molecular Weight
9.10 Use of the Data
References
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Chapter 10
Structural Group Analysis
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Methods for Structural Group Analysis
10.2.1 Physical Property Methods
10.2.1.1 Direct Method
10.2.1.2 Waterman Ring Analysis

10.2.1.3 Density Method
10.2.1.4 n.d.M. Method
10.2.1.5 Dispersion–Refraction Method
10.2.1.6 Density–Temperature Coefficient Method
10.2.1.7 Molecular Weight–Refractive Index Method
10.2.1.8 Miscellaneous Methods
10.2.2 Spectroscopic Methods
10.2.2.1 Infrared Spectroscopy
10.2.2.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
10.2.2.3 Mass Spectrometry
10.2.2.4 Electron Spin Resonance
10.2.2.5 Ultraviolet Spectroscopy
10.2.2.6 X-Ray Diffraction
10.2.3 Heteroatom Systems
10.2.3.1 Nitrogen
10.2.3.2 Oxygen
10.2.3.3 Sulfur
10.2.3.4 Metals
10.3 Miscellaneous Methods
References
Chapter 11
Asphaltene Constituents
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Separation
11.3 Composition
11.4 Molecular Weight
11.5 Reactions
11.6 Solubility Parameter
11.7 Structural Aspects
References

Chapter 12
Structure of Petroleum
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Molecular Species in Petroleum
12.2.1 Volatile Fractions
12.2.2 Resin Constituents
12.2.2.1 Composition
12.2.2.2 Resins (Structure)
12.2.2.3 Molecular Weight
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
12.2.3 Nonvolatile Oils
12.2.3.1 Composition
12.2.3.2 Structure
12.2.3.3 Molecular Weight
12.3 Chemical and Physical Structure of Petroleum
12.4 Stability or Instability of the Crude Oil System
12.5 Effects on Recovery and Refining
12.5.1 Effects on Recovery Operations
12.5.2 Effects on Refining Operations
References
Chapter 13
Instability and Incompatibility
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Instability and Incompatibility in Petroleum
13.3 Factors Influencing Instability and Incompatibility
13.3.1 Elemental Analysis
13.3.2 Density and Specific Gravity
13.3.3 Volatility
13.3.4 Viscosity
13.3.5 Asphaltene Content

13.3.6 Pour Point
13.3.7 Acidity
13.3.8 Metals (Ash) Content
13.3.9 Water Content, Salt Content, and Bottom Sediment
and Water (BS&W)
13.4 Methods for Determining Instability and Incompatibility
13.5 Effect of Asphaltene Constituents
References
Part III
Refining
Chapter 14
Introduction to Refining Processes
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Dewatering and Desalting
14.3 Early Processes
14.4 Distillation
14.4.1 Historical Development
14.4.2 Modern Processes
14.4.2.1 Atmospheric Distillation
14.4.2.2 Vacuum Distillation
14.4.2.3 Azeotropic and Extractive Distillation
14.5 Thermal Methods
14.5.1 Historical Development
14.5.2 Modern Processes
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
14.5.2.1 Thermal Cracking
14.5.2.2 Visbreaking
14.5.2.3 Coking
14.6 Catalytic Methods
14.6.1 Historical Development

14.6.2 Modern Processes
14.6.3 Catalysts
14.7 Hydroprocesses
14.7.1 Historical Development
14.7.2 Modern Processes
14.7.2.1 Hydrofining
14.8 Reforming
14.8.1 Historical Development
14.8.2 Modern Processes
14.8.2.1 Thermal Reforming
14.8.2.2 Catalytic Reforming
14.8.2.3 Catalysts
14.9 Isomerization
14.9.1 Historical Development
14.9.2 Modern Processes
14.9.3 Catalysts
14.10 Alkylation Processes
14.10.1 Historical Development
14.10.2 Modern Processes
14.10.3 Catalysts
14.11 Polymerization Processes
14.11.1 Historical Development
14.11.2 Modern Processes
14.11.3 Catalysts
14.12 Solvent Process
14.12.1 Deasphalting
14.12.2 Dewaxing
14.13 Refining Heavy Feedstocks
14.14 Petroleum Products
14.15 Petrochemicals

References
Chapter 15
Refining Chemistry
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Cracking
15.2.1 Thermal Cracking
15.2.2 Catalytic Cracking
15.2.3 Dehydrogenation
15.2.4 Dehydrocyclization
15.3 Hydrogenation
15.3.1 Hydrocracking
15.3.2 Hydrotreating
15.4 Isomerization
15.5 Alkylation
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.