herbs. handbook of herbs and spices vol 2

Handbook of herbs and spices
© 2004, Woodhead Publishing Ltd
Related titles from Woodhead’s food science, technology and nutrition list:
Handbook of herbs and spices Volume 1 (ISBN 1 85573 562 8)
Herbs and spices are among the most versatile and widely used ingredients in food
processing. As well as their traditional role in flavouring and colouring foods, they have
been increasingly used as natural preservatives and for their potential health-promoting
properties, for example as antioxidants. Edited by a leading authority in the field, and with
a distinguished international team of contributors, the Handbook of herbs and spices
provides an essential reference for manufacturers wishing to make the most of these
important ingredients. A first group of chapters looks at general issues including quality
indices for conventional and organically produced herbs, spices and their essential oils. The
main body of the handbook consists of over twenty chapters covering key spices and herbs
from aniseed, bay leaves and black pepper to saffron, tamarind and turmeric. Chapters cover
key issues from definition and classification to chemical structure, cultivation and post-
harvest processing, uses in food processing, functional properties, regulatory issues, quality
indices and methods of analysis.
Antioxidants in food (ISBN 1 85573 463 X)
Antioxidants are an increasingly important ingredient in food processing, as they inhibit the
development of oxidative rancidity in fat-based foods, particularly meat, dairy products and
fried foods. Recent research suggests that they play a role in limiting cardiovascular disease
and cancers. This book provides a review of the functional role of antioxidants and discusses
how they can be effectively exploited by the food industry, focusing on naturally occurring
antioxidants in response to the increasing consumer scepticism over synthetic ingredients.
Natural antimicrobials for the minimal processing of foods (ISBN 1 85573 669 1)
Consumers demand food products with fewer synthetic additives but increased safety and
shelf-life. These demands have increased the importance of natural antimicrobials which
prevent the growth of pathogenic and spoilage micro-organisms. Edited by a leading expert
in the field, this important collection reviews the range of key antimicrobials together with

their applications in food processing. There are chapters on antimicrobials such as nisin and
chitosan, applications in such areas as postharvest storage of fruits and vegetables, and ways
of combining antimicrobials with other preservation techniques to enhance the safety and
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© 2004, Woodhead Publishing Ltd
Handbook of herbs and spices
Volume 2
Edited by
K. V. Peter
CRC Press
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© 2004, Woodhead Publishing Ltd
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Contents
List of contributors
1 Introduction
K. V. Peter, Kerala Agricultural University, India and K. Nirmal Babu,
Indian Institute of Spices Research, India
1.1 Introduction to herbs and spices
1.2 Uses of herbs and spices
1.3 Active plant constituents
1.4 The structure of this book
1.5 References
Part I General issues
2 The functional role of herbal spices
M. R. Shylaja and K. V. Peter, Kerala Agricultural University, India
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Classification
2.3 Production, consumption and processing
2.4 Functional properties
2.5 Sources of further information
3 Herbs and spices and antimicrobials
C. C. Tassou, National Agricultural Research Foundation, Greece, and G J.
E. Nychas and P. N. Skandamis, Agricultural University of Athens, Greece
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Barriers to the use of herb and spice essential oils as antimicrobials
in foods
3.3 Measuring antimicrobial activity
3.4 Studies in vitro
3.5 Applications in food systems
3.6 Mode of action and development of resistance
3.7 Legislation
© 2004, Woodhead Publishing Ltd

vi Contents
3.8 Future prospects and multifactorial preservation
3.9 References
4 Screening for health effects of herbs
R. Rodenburg, TNO Pharma, The Netherlands
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Types of assays
4.3 Throughput vs content assays
4.4 Assay quality
4.5 Screening bio-active compounds
4.6 Screening experiments for anti-inflammatory properties
4.7 Future trends
4.8 Sources of further information
4.9 References
5 Under-utilized herbs and spices
P. N. Ravindran and Geetha S. Pillai, Centre for Medicinal Plants Research,
India and K. Nirmal Babu, Indian Institute of Spices Research, India
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Sweet flag
5.3 Greater galangal
5.4 Angelica
5.5 Horseradish
5.6 Black caraway
5.7 Capers
5.8 Asafoetida
5.9 Hyssop
5.10 Galangal
5.11 Betel vine
5.12 Pomegranate
5.13 Summer savory

5.14 Winter savory
5.15 Other
5.16 References
Part II Particular herbs and spices
6 Ajowan
S. K. Malhotra and O. P. Vijay, National Research Centre on Seed Spices,
India
6.1 Introduction and description
6.2 Production
6.3 Cultivation
6.4 Chemical structure
6.5 Main uses in food processing
6.6 Functional properties and toxicity
6.7 Quality issues
6.8 References
© 2004, Woodhead Publishing Ltd
Contents vii
7 Allspice
B. Krishnamoorthy and J. Rema, Indian Institute of Spices Research, India
7.1 Introduction and description
7.2 Production and trade
7.3 Chemical composition
7.4 Cultivation
7.5 Uses
7.6 Functional properties
7.7 Quality issues and adulteration
7.8 References
8 Chervil
A. A. Farooqi and K. N. Srinivasappa, University of Agricultural Sciences,
India

8.1 Introduction and description
8.2 Cultivation and production technology
8.3 Uses
8.4 Sources of further information
9 Coriander
M. M. Sharma and R.K. Sharma, Rajasthan Agricultural University, India
9.1 Introduction and description
9.2 Origin and distribution
9.3 Chemical composition
9.4 Cultivation and post-harvest practices
9.5 Uses
9.6 Diseases, pests and the use of pesticides
9.7 Quality issues
9.8 Value addition
9.9 Future research trends
9.10 References
Appendix I
Appendix II
10 Geranium
M. T. Lis-Balchin, South Bank University, UK
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Chemical composition
10.3 Production and cultivation
10.4 Main uses in food processing and perfumery
10.5 Functional properties
10.6 Quality issues and adulteration
10.7 References
11 Lavender
M. T. Lis-Balchin, South Bank University, UK
11.1 Introduction

11.2 Chemical composition
11.3 Production
© 2004, Woodhead Publishing Ltd
viii Contents
11.4 Uses in food processing, perfumery and paramedical spheres
11.5 Functional properties and toxicity
11.6 Quality issues and adulteration
11.7 References
12 Mustard
J. Thomas, K. M. Kuruvilla and T. K. Hrideek, ICRI Spices Board, India
12.1 Introduction and description
12.2 Chemical composition
12.3 Production and cultivation
12.4 Uses
12.5 Properties
12.6 Quality specifications
12.7 References
13 Nigella
S. K. Malhotra, National Research Centre on Seed Spices, India
13.1 Introduction and description
13.2 Chemical structure
13.3 Cultivation
13.4 Main uses in food processing
13.5 Functional properties and toxicity
13.6 Quality specifications and adulteration
13.7 References
14 Oregano
S. E. Kintzios, Agricultural University of Athens, Greece
14.1 Introduction and description
14.2 Chemical structure

14.3 Production and cultivation
14.4 Main uses in food processing and medicine
14.5 Functional properties
14.6 Quality specifications and commercial issues
14.7 References
15 Parsley
D. J. Charles, Frontier Natural Products, USA
15.1 Introduction and description
15.2 Chemical composition
15.3 Production and cultivation
15.4 Organic farming
15.5 General uses
15.6 Essential oils and their physicochemical properties
15.7 References
16 Rosemary
B. Sasikumar, Indian Institute of Spices Research, India
16.1 Introduction and description
16.2 Chemical composition
16.3 Production and cultivation
© 2004, Woodhead Publishing Ltd
Contents ix
16.4 Post-harvest technology
16.5 Uses
16.6 Toxicology and disease
16.7 Conclusion
16.8 References
17 Sesame
D. M. Hegde, Directorate of Oilseeds Research, India
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Chemical composition

17.3 Production
17.4 Processing
17.5 Uses
17.6 Future research needs
17.7 References
18 Star anise
C. K. George, Peermade Development Society, India
18.1 Introduction, morphology and related species
18.2 Histology
18.3 Production and cultivation
18.4 Main uses
18.5 References
19 Thyme
E. Stahl-Biskup, University of Hamburg, Germany and R. P. Venskutonis,
Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuania
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Chemical structure
19.3 Production
19.4 Main uses in food processing
19.5 Functional properties and toxicity
19.6 Quality specifications and issues
19.7 References
20 Vanilla
C. C. de Guzman, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Philippines
20.1 Introduction and description
20.2 Production and trade
20.3 Cultivation
20.4 Harvesting, yield and post-production activities
20.5 Uses
20.6 Vanilla products

20.7 Functional properties
20.8 Quality issues and adulteration
20.9 Improving production of natural vanillin
20.10 Future outlook
20.11 References
© 2004, Woodhead Publishing Ltd
Contributors
(* = main point of contact)
Chapter 1
Professor K. V. Peter*
Kerala Agricultural University
KAU – PO, Vellanikkara
Thrissur, Kerala State
India – 680656
Tel: 0487 2370034
Fax: 0487 2370019
E-mail:

Dr K. Nirmal Babu
Indian Institute of Spices Research
Calicut – 673 012
India
Tel: 0495 2731410
Fax: 0495 2730294
E-mail:
Chapter 2
M. R. Shylaja and Professor K. V. Peter*
Kerala Agricultural University
P O KAU 680656, Vellanikkara
Thrissur, Kerala State

India – 680656
Tel: 0487 2370034
Fax: 0487 2370019
E-mail:


Chapter 3
Dr C. C. Tassou
National Agricultural Research Foundation
Institute of Technology of Agricultural
Products
S Venizelou 1
Lycovrisi 14123
Greece
Tel: +30 210 2845940
Fax: +30 210 2840740
E-mail:
Professor G J. E. Nychas* and
Dr P. N. Skandamis
Agricultural University of Athens
Department of Food Science and
Technology
Iera Odos 75
Athens 11855
Greece
Tel/Fax: +30 10 529 4693
E-mail:
Chapter 4
Dr R. Rodenburg
TNO Pharma

Utrechtseweg 48
3704HE Zeist
The Netherlands
© 2004, Woodhead Publishing Ltd
Contributors xi
Tel: +31 30 6944844
Fax: +31 30 6944845
E-mail:
Chapter 5
P. N. Ravindran* and G. S. Pillai
Centre for Medicinal Plants Research
Arya Vaidya Sala
Kottakkal – 676 503
Kerala
India
Tel: 0483 2743430
Fax: 0483 2742572/2742210
E-mail:

Dr K. Nirmal Babu
Indian Institute of Spices Research
Calicut – 676 012
India
Tel: 0495 2731410
Fax: 0495 2730294
E-mail:
Chapter 6
Dr S. K. Malhotra* and Dr O. P. Vijay
National Research Centre on Seed Spices
Ajmer – 305 206

Rajasthan
India
Tel: +91 145 2680955
Fax: +91 145 2443238
E-mail:
Chapter 7
Mr B. Krishnamoorthy* and Dr J. Rema
Indian Institute of Spices Research
Calicut 673 012
Kerala
India
E-mail:

Chapter 8
Dr A. A. Farooqi* and K. N. Srinivasappa
Division of Horticulture
University of Agricultural Sciences
GKVK
Bangalore
India
E-mail:
Chapter 9
Dr M. M. Sharma* and Dr R. K. Sharma
Rajasthan Agricultural University
Bikaner
India
E-mail:
Chapter 10
Dr M. T. Lis-Balchin
School of Applied Science

South Bank University
103 Borough Road
London SE1 0AA
E-mail:
Chapter 11
Dr M. T. Lis-Balchin
School of Applied Science
South Bank University
103 Borough Road
London SE1 0AA
E-mail:
Chapter 12
Dr J. Thomas*, K. M. Kuruvilla and
T. K. Hrideek
ICRI Spices Board
Kailasanadu PO
Kerala, India – 685 553
E-mail:
© 2004, Woodhead Publishing Ltd
xii Contributors
Chapter 13
Dr S. K. Malhotra
National Research Centre on Seed Spices
Ajmer – 305 206
Rajasthan
India
Tel: +91 145 2680955
Fax: +91 145 2443238
E-mail:
Chapter 14

Professor S. Kintzios
Laboratory of Plant Physiology
Agricultural University of Athens
Iera Odos 75
11855 Athens
Greece
Tel: +3210 5294292
Fax: +3210 5294286
E-mail:
Chapter 15
Dr D. J. Charles
Frontier Natural Products Co-op
3021 78th Street
Norway, IA
52318
USA
E-mail:
Chapter 16
Dr B. Sasikumar
Indian Institute of Spices Research
Marikunnu (PO)
Calicut – 673 012
Kerala
India
Tel: 91 495 2731410
Fax: 91 495 2730294
Email:
Chapter 17
Dr D. M. Hegde
Directorate of Oilseeds Research

Rajendranagar
Hyderabad – 500 030
Andhra Pradesh
India
Tel: +91 040 24015222
Fax: +91 040 24017969
E-mail:
Chapter 18
C.K. George
Peermade Development Society
Post Box 11
Peermade – 685531
Idukki Dist.
Kerala
India
E-mail:
Chapter 19
Professor E. Stahl-Biskup*
University of Hamburg
Institute of Pharmacy
Department of Pharmaceutical Biology and
Microbiology
Bundesstrasse 45
D-20146 Hamburg
Germany
Tel: +49 (0)40 42838 3896
Fax: +49 (0)40 42838 3895
E-mail: elisabeth.stahl-biskup
@uni-hamburg.de
Professor R. P. Venskutonis

Head of Department of Food Technology
Radvilenu pl. 19
Kaunas
LT – 3028
Lithuania
Tel: +370 37 456426
Fax: +370 37 456647
E-mail:
© 2004, Woodhead Publishing Ltd
Contributors xiii
Chapter 20
Dr C. C. de Guzman
Department of Horticulture
College of Agriculture
University of the Philippines Los Baños
Los Baños
Laguna 4031
Philippines
Tel: (63-49) 536 2448
Fax: (63-49) 536 2478
E-mail:
© 2004, Woodhead Publishing Ltd
1
Introduction
K. V. Peter, Kerala Agricultural University, India and K. Nirmal Babu,
Indian Institute of Spices Research, India
1.1 Introduction to herbs and spices
The history of herbs and spices is as long as the history of mankind. People have used these
plants since earliest times. No other commodity has played a more pivotal role in the
development of modern civilization as spices. The lives of people and plants are more

entwined than is often realized. Some herbs have the power to change our physiological
functioning, they have revolutionized medicine, created fortunes for those who grow,
process and treat them, and in many cases have assumed social and religious significance.
Herbs have changed the course of history and in economic terms have greater importance as
ingredients in food and medicine, perfumery, cosmetics and garden plants. The knowledge
of herbs has been handed down from generation to generation for thousands of years
(Brown, 1995). Wars have been fought and lands conquered for the sake of these plants.
Even today we continue to depend on herbs and spices for many of our newest medicines,
chemicals and flavours and they are used in culinary preparations, perfumery and cosmetics.
Many medicinal herbs are also food, oil and fibre plants and have always been grown for a
range of purposes (Parry, 1969; Rosengarten, 1973; Andi et al., 1997).
The term ‘herb’ has more than one definition. In the most generally accepted sense,
herbs are plants valued for their medicinal and aromatic properties and are often grown
and harvested for these unique properties. Some of the earliest of herb gardens were
planted about 4000 years ago in Egypt. Herb growing was often associated with temples,
which required herbs and sacred flowers for daily worship and rituals. Both horticulture
and botany began with the study of herbs. The earliest gardens were herb gardens. The
present-day concept of a herb garden has developed largely from ancient Egyptian,
Christian and Islamic traditions. In most parts of the world, herbs are grown mainly as
field crops or on a small scale as a catch-crop among vegetables and ornamentals as they
were thousands of years ago. The cultivation requirements of some of the most important
herbs are given in Table 1.1.
© 2004, Woodhead Publishing Ltd
2 Handbook of herbs and s
Table 1.1 Cultivating requirements and uses
Plant Propagation Common uses
Anise Annual. Seeds are sown in a dry, light The aromatic seeds are used in
soil in early summer. Seedlings should cooking, in pot-pourris and in some
be thinned to inches apart. Anise needs simple home remedies.
120 frost-free days to produce fully

ripened seed heads.
Basil Perennial. Grows easily from seed. It is The leaves are a classic complement to
frost sensitive. Basil needs medium-rich, tomatoes; they are also used to flavour
well-drained soil and full sun. Pinch off salads, sauces and vegetables.
tips and flower buds to promote bushiness.
Chervil Annual and resembles parsley. Seeds are The leaves, with their delicate anise-
(Anthriscus sown in spring. Thin to 15 cm (6 inches) like flavour, are often used in soups
cerefolium) apart. Likes moist, well-drained soil and and salads.
partial shade. Will self-sow.
Lavender Perennial, with many varieties. English Grown for its fragrance in the garden
lavender is the hardiest. Mulch it over and to be used in pot-pourris and
the winter. Propagation is easiest by root sachets.
division. Likes full sun and alkaline,
gravelly soil.
Oregano Perennial. Prefers well-drained, slightly The leaves are a favorite seasoning for
alkaline soil and full sun. Propagate by pizza and other Italian dishes.
seed, root division or cuttings.
Parsley Biennial, usually grown as an annual. Curly leaved parsley is popular as
(Petro- Both types like a rich, well-drained soil garnish, but flat leaved (Italian) parsley
selinum and full sun or partial shade. Parsley seeds is more flavourful and is used as
crispum) seeds germinate slowly. Be patient; keep addition to salads and sauces. Parsley
the soil moist. Thin to (20 cm) 8 inches tea makes a healthful tonic.
apart.
Rosemary Perennial, grown indoors in cold climates. Propagate by layering or cuttings. This
Rosemary needs full sun, and a sandy is an aromatic flavouring for meat and
well-limed soil. Cut it back after flower- poultry dishes. Also used for making
ing to prevent it from becoming leggy. wreaths.
Savory Winter savory, a perennial, has a peppery, Savory is used to flavour sausages and
pungent flavour. Summer savory, an other meats and is sometimes included
annual, is similar but more delicate. Plant in a bouquet garni.

seeds of summer savory in a rich, light,
moist soil; thin to 20 cm (8 inches) apart.
Winter savory thrives in poorer soil and
with less water. It can be propagated by
seed, division or cuttings.
Thyme Perennial. There are many species and The leaves add pungent taste to meats
varieties including lemon, English, golden and vegetables; thyme sprigs are a
and garden. The garden variety is the most main ingredient in bouquet garnishing
popular for cooking. Thyme grows well in for soups and stews.
dry sloping sides; pruning after flowering
will keep it from getting woody.
Propagated by cuttings.
Source: Reader’s Digest (1990).
© 2004, Woodhead Publishing Ltd
Introduction 3
1.2 Uses of herbs and spices
Herbs and spices have tremendous importance in the way we live, as ingredients in food,
alcoholic beverages, medicine, perfumery, cosmetics, colouring and also as garden plants.
Spices and herbs are used in foods to impart flavour, pungency and colour. They also have
antioxidant, antimicrobial, pharmaceutical and nutritional properties. In addition to the
known direct effects, the use of these plants can also lead to complex secondary effects such
as salt and sugar reduction, improvement of texture and prevention of food spoilage. The
basic effects of spices when used in cooking and confectionery can be for flavouring,
deodorizing/masking, pungency and colouring (Table 1.2). They are also used to make food
and confectionery more appetizing and palatable. Some spices, such as turmeric and
paprika, are used more for imparting an attractive colour than for enhancing taste. The
major colour components of spices are given in Table 1.3. Because of their antioxidant and
Table 1.2 Basic uses of herbs and spices
Basic function Major function Subfunction
Flavouring Parsley, cinnamon, allspice, dill, mint, Garlic, onion, bay leaves, clove,

tarragon, cumin, marjoram, star anise, thyme, rosemary, caraway, sage,
basil, anise, mace, nutmeg, fennel, savory, coriander, pepper, oregano,
sesame, vanilla, fenugreek, cardamom, horseradish, Japanese pepper, saffron,
celery ginger, leek, mustard
Deodorizing/ Garlic, savory, bay leaves, clove, leek,
masking thyme, rosemary, caraway, sage,
oregano, onion, coriander
Pungency Garlic, savory, bay leaves, clove, leek, Parsley, pepper, allspice, mint,
thyme, rosemary, caraway, sage, tarragon, cumin, star anise, mace,
oregano, onion, coriander, Japanese fennel, sesame, cardamom, mustard,
pepper, mustard, ginger, horseradish, cinnamon, vanilla, horseradish,
red pepper, pepper Japanese pepper, nutmeg, ginger
Colouring Paprika, turmeric, saffron
Source: Ravindran et al. (2002).
Table 1.3 Colour components in spices
Colour component Tint Spice
Carotenoid
β-carotene Reddish orange Red pepper, mustard, paprika, saffron
Cryptoxanthin Red Paprika, red pepper
Lutin Dark red Paprika, parsley
Zeaxanthin Yellow Paprika
Capsanthin Dark Red Paprika, red pepper
Capsorbin Purple red Paprika, red pepper
Crocetin Dark red Saffron
Neoxanthin Orange yellow Parsley
Violaxanthin Orange Parsley, sweet pepper
Crocin Yellowish orange Saffron
Flavonoids Yellow Ginger
Curcumin Orange yellow Turmeric
Chlorophylls Green Herbs

Source: Ravindran et al. (2002).
© 2004, Woodhead Publishing Ltd
4 Handbook of herbs and ss
Table 1.4 Spices and herbs used in alcoholic beverages
Alcoholic beverages Spices and herbs used
Vermouth Marjoram, sage, coriander, ginger, cardamom, clove, mace, peppermint,
thyme, anise, juniper berry
Gin Coriander, juniper berry
Aquavit Anise, fennel, dill, caraway
Curaçao Cinnamon, clove, nutmeg, coriander
Kummel Caraway, fennel, coriander
Anisette Anise, fennel, nutmeg
Ganica Cinnamon, cardamom, coriander, mint, fennel, clove, pepper
Geme de cumin Cumin
Geme de cacao Clove, mace, vanilla
Geme de menthe Peppermint
Peppermint schnapps Peppermint
Source: Ravindran et al. (2002).
antimicrobial properties, spices have dual function – in addition to imparting flavour and
taste, they play a major role in food preservation by delaying the spoilage of food. Many
herbs and spices have been used in cosmetics, perfumery and beauty and body care since
ancient times. The toiletries and allied industries use spices and herbs and their fragrant oils
for the manufacture of soaps, toothpastes, face packs, lotions, freshness sachets, toilet
waters and hair oils. They are essential ingredients in beauty care as cleansing agents,
infusions, skin toners, moisturizers, eye lotions, bathing oils, shampoos and hair condition-
ers, cosmetic creams, antiseptic and antitanning lotions and creams, improvement of
complexion and purifying blood (Pamela, 1987; Ravindran et al., 2002). Spices form an
important component in quite a few alcoholic beverages and beers (Table 1.4).
1.2.1 Medicinal uses
Herbs and spices have been an essential factor in health care through the ages in all cultures.

They are prepared in number of ways to extract their active ingredients for internal and
external use. There are a number of different systems of herbal medicine, the most important
of which are Chinese and Indian (Ayurvedic) systems of medicine. All spices are medicinal
and are used extensively in indigenous systems of medicine. Some of the important uses of
major medicinal spices in Ayurveda, according to Mahindru (1982), are given in Table 1.5.
Extracts from herbs and spices are used as infusions, decoctions, macerations, tinctures,
fluid extracts, teas, juices, syrups, poultices, compresses, oils, ointments and powders.
Many medicinal herbs used in Ayurveda have multiple bioactive principles. It is not
always easy to isolate compounds and demonstrate that the efficacy can be attributed to any
one of the active principles. However, the active principles and their molecular mechanism
of action of some of the medicinal plants are being studied (Tables 1.6 and 1.7).
1.3 Active plant constituents
Herbs and spices are rich in volatile oils, which give pleasurable aromas. In addition, herbs
may contain alkaloids and glycosides, which are of greater interest to pharmacologists.
Some of the main active constituents in herbs are as follows (Brown, 1995; De Guzman and
Sienonsma, 1999):
© 2004, Woodhead Publishing Ltd
Introduction 5
• Acids – these are sour, often antiseptic and cleansing.
• Alkaloids – these are bitter, often based on alkaline nitrogenous compounds. They affect
the central nervous system and many are very toxic and addictive.
• Anthraquinones – these are bitter, irritant and laxative, acting also as dyes.
• Bitters – various compounds, mainly iridoides and sesquiterpenes with a bitter taste that
increases and improves digestion.
• Coumarines – are antibacterial, anticoagulant, with a smell of new-mown hay.
• Flavones – these are bitter or sweet, often diuretic, antiseptic, antispasmodic and anti-
inflammatory. Typically yellow, and present in most plants.
• Glycosides – there are four main kinds of glycosides.
cardiac: affecting heart contractions;
synogenic: bitter, antispasmodic sedative, affecting heart rate and respiration;

mustard oil: acrid, extremely irritant;
sulphur: acrid, stimulant, antibiotic.
• Gums and mucilages – these are bland, sticky or slimy, soothing and softening.
• Resins – often found as oleo-resins or oleo-gum resins – they are acrid, astringent,
antiseptic, healing.
• Saponins – are sweet, stimulant hormonal, often anti-inflammatory, or diuretic, soapy in
water.
• Tannins – are astringent, often antiseptic, checking bleeding and discharges.
• Volatile oils – are aromatic, antiseptic, fungicidal, irritant and stimulant.
1.3.1 Genetic erosion in herbs and spices
People all over the world have picked and uprooted herbs from the wild since ancient times.
Medicinal herbs in particular have always been mainly collected from the wild and the
knowledge of where they grow and the best time to gather them has formed an important oral
tradition among healers of many different countries in many different cultures. These
ancient traditions successfully balance supply and demand, allowing plant stock to regener-
ate seasonally. Owing to the strong commercial pressures of food and pharmaceutical
industries of today, the balance now has been disrupted by unregulated gathering, leading to
severe genetic erosion. Some of the most commonly used culinary herbs such as chilli
peppers (Capsicum annuum var. annuum) and basil (Ocimum basilicum) have such a long
history of use and cultivation that truly wild plants have never been recorded. They
presumably became extinct because of over-collection.
1.4 The structure of this book
This book is the second volume for the series on Herbs and Spices and has two parts. The
first part deals with health benefits of herbs and spices and the use of herbs and spices as
antimicrobials and antioxidants. The second part deals with detailed information on indi-
vidual spices. This covers a brief description, classification, production, cultivation,
post-harvest handling, uses in food processing, chemical structure and functional properties
of important compounds extracted and quality specifications. The crops covered are tree
spices such as allspice and star anise, and important herbs such as chervil, coriander,
oregano, parsley, rosemary and thyme. A few other spices such as vanilla and sesame are

also included.
Though individual chapters vary in structure and emphasis, depending on the importance
© 2004, Woodhead Publishing Ltd
es
Table 1.5 Use of major medicinal spices in Ayurveda
Standard medicine Turmeric Ginger Pepper Cardamom Cinnamon/cassia Nutmeg Others
1. Murchchha-paka of ghee, ✔ – – – Tej patra – Coriander
sesame, mustard, castor oil (Cinna-tamla)
2. Gandha-paka ––– ✔✔✔Clove, saffron
3. Anupan ✔✔✔ –––Ocimum sanctum
4. Chaturbhadraka – ✔ –– – ––
5. Panchkala – ✔ –– – ––
6. Valli Panchamula ✔ –– – – ––
7. Trikatu – ✔✔ – – – Long pepper
8. Lekniya Varga ✔ –– – – ––
9. Dipaniya Varga – ✔✔ ––––
10. Triptaighna Varga – ✔ –– – ––
11. Kushthaghma Varga ✔ –– – – ––
12. Vishaghan Varga ✔ –– – – ––
13. Stunyasodhanna Varga – ✔ –– – ––
14. Sirouirechanopaga ––✔ ––––
15. Trishna nigraha Varga – ✔ –– – ––
16. Sitaprasemana Varga – ✔ –– – ––
17. Sulaprasemena Varga ✔✔✔ ––––
18. Haridradigana ✔ –– – – ––
19. Mustadigana ✔ –– ✔ –––
20. Lakshadigana ✔ –– - – ––
21. Rasnadi group – ✔ –– – ––
22. Pippalyadi group – ✔✔ ––––
23. Guruchayadi group – ✔ – – – – Coriander

24. Sunthayadi group – ✔ –– – ––
25. Duralabhadi group – ✔ –– – ––
26. Vishwadi group – ✔ –– – ––
27. Kanadi group – ✔ –– – ––
28. Granthyadi group – ✔ –– – ––
29. Kakolyadi group – ✔ –– – ––
30. Sriphaladi group – ✔ –– – ––
31. Bhunimvadi group – ✔ –– – ––
32. Marichadi group – ✔✔ ––––
33. Katurikadya group ✔ –– – – ––
34. Nimbadi group – ✔ –– – ––
35. Katurikadya group ✔✔–– – ––
36. Trikodi group – ✔✔ ––––
37. Nidigdhikadi group – ✔ –– – ––
38. Katphaladi group – ✔✔ ––––
39. Navanga group – ✔ –– – ––
© 2004, Woodhead Publishing Ltd
Introduction 7
40. Pancha bhadra group – ✔ –– – ––
41. Kiratatiktadi group ✔ –– – – ––
42. Kiratadi group – ✔ –– – ––
43. Aragbadhadi group ✔ –– – – ––
44. Mustadi group – ✔ –– – ––
45. Pathasaptaka group – – – – – – –
46. Amritashtaka group – ✔ –– – ––
47. Kantakaryadi group – ✔ –– – ––
48. Swachchlanda Bhairirava – ✔ –– – ––
49. Agnikumara Rasa – ✔ –– – ––
50. Sri-Mrityunjaya Rasa – ✔✔ –––
51. Sarvajwarankusa Vatika – ✔ –– – ––

52. Chanderswara – ✔ –– – ––
53. Chadrasekhara Rasa – ✔✔ ––––
54. Nanajwarchha-Sinha – ✔✔ ––––
55. Mritunjaya Rasa – ✔ –– – ––
56. Prachamdeswara Rasa – ✔ –– – ––
57. Tripurabhahairava Rasa – ✔✔ ––––
58. Kaphaketu – ✔✔ ––––
59. Jwara kesari – ✔✔ ––––
60. Jwara murari – ✔✔ ––––
61. Situ bhanjdrosa – ✔ –– – ––
62. Nawa-Jwarari Rasa – ✔ –– – ––
63. Sarwanga Sundara – ✔✔ ––––
64. Jayabati ✔✔✔ ––––
65. Srirama rasa ––✔ ––––
66. Udakamanjiri ––✔ ––––
67. Kshudradi – ✔✔ ––––
68. Nagaradi group – ✔ – – – – Coriander
69. Chaturdasanga – ✔ –– – ––
70. Ashtadasanga – ✔ –– – ––
71. Bhargyadi group – ✔ –– – ––
72. Sathyadi group – ✔ –– – ––
73. Mustadya group – ✔ –– – ––
74. Vyashadi group – ✔✔ ––––
75. Watringa Sanga group ✔✔✔ ––––
76. Kankakaryadi group ✔✔– – – – Coriander
77. Vrihatkatphatedi group – ✔ –– – ––
78. Unmatha Rasa – ✔✔ ––––
79. Vnihat Kasturi Bhairava ✔ –––––
80. Sleshma-kalanala – 4 4– – ––
Source: Mahindru (1982).

© 2004, Woodhead Publishing Ltd
8 Handbook of herbs and s
Table 1.6 Ayurvedic modes of administration
Modality Mode/vehicle Effects Potential
Cinnamon oil Volatiles Antimicrobial Infections
Curcuma longa ‘Band-aid’ Wound healing Global scope
Asafoetida Umbilicus Antiflatulent Post-operative
Asparagus racemosus With milk/boiled Phagocytosis Rasayana
Centella asiatica Brahmighrita Nootropic Alzheimer’s disease
Source: Vaidya (2002).
Table 1.7 Molecular phytopharmacology of a few herbs and spices
Plant Active principle Molecular action Uses
Piper longum Piperine RNA synthesis Antiviral
Curcuma longa Curcumin Protein synthesis Against Alzheimer’s
Mangifera indica Mangiferin Macrophage activation Immunostimulant
Coleus forskohlii Forshlin cAMP increase Against glaucoma
Source: Vaidya (2002).
of the spice and the body of research surrounding it, the matter is organized in the same
format as in the first volume. It is hoped that this book will form a good reference book for
all those who are involved in the study, cultivation, trade and use of spices and herbs.
1.5 References
ANDI C., KATHERINE R., SALLIE M. and LESLEY M. (1997), The Encyclopedia of Herbs and Spices.
Hermes House, London.
BROWN D. (1995), The Royal Horticultural Society – Encyclopedia of Herbs and Their Uses. Dorling
Kindersley Limited, London.
DE GUZMAN C.C. and SIENONSMA J.S. (1999), Plant Resources of South East Asia. No. 13. Spices.
Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, The Netherlands.
MAHINDRU S.N. (1982), Spices in Indian Life. Sultanchand and Sons, New Delhi.
PAMELA W. (1987), The Encyclopedia of Herbs and Spices. Marshall Cavendish Books Ltd, London.
PARRY J.W. (1969), Spices Volumes I & II. Chemical Publishing Co., New York.

RAVINDRAN P.N, JOHNY A.K and NIRMAL BABU K. (2002), Spices in our daily life. Satabdi Smaranika
2002 Vol. 2. Arya Vaidya Sala, Kottakkal.
READER’S DIGEST (1990), Magic and Medicine of Plants. Readers Digest Association, Inc., USA.
ROSENGARTEN F. (1973), The Book of Spices, Revised Edition. Pyramid, New York.
VAIDYA A.D.B. (2002), Recent trends in research on Ayurveda. Satabdi Smaranika 2002 Vol. 1. Arya
Vaidya Sala, Kottakkal.
© 2004, Woodhead Publishing Ltd
Part I
General issues
© 2004, Woodhead Publishing Ltd
2
The functional role of herbal spices
M. R. Shylaja and K. V. Peter, Kerala Agricultural University, India
2.1 Introduction
Herbal spices or leafy spices are annual/biennial/perennial plants, the leaves of which (fresh
or dry) are primarily used for flavouring foods and beverages. Apart from being used as
flavouring agents, herbal spices are also known to possess nutritional, antioxidant, antimi-
crobial and medicinal properties. Because of the attractive foliage, a few herbs are also used
as garnishing spices in many food preparations. The essential oils extracted from tender
stems, leaves and flowering tops are used in cosmetics, perfumeries and toiletries and for
flavouring liquors, soft drinks, beverages and pharmaceutical preparations. ISO document
676 lists 38 leafy spices ( Table 2.1).
Table 2.1 Leafy spices in ISO document 676
SI No. Botanical name Family Common name Plant part used as spice
1. Allium tuberosum Liliaceae Indian leek, Chinese chive Bulb, leaf
2. Allium fistulosum Liliaceae Stony leek, Welsh onion, Leaf and bulb
Japanese bunching onion
3. Allium porrum Liliaceae Leek, winter leek Leaf and bulb
4. Allium schoenoprasum Liliaceae Chive Leaf
5. Anethum graveolens Apiaceae Dill Fruit, leaf, top

6. Anthriscus cereifolium Apiaceae Chevril Leaf
7. Apium graveolens Apiaceae Celery, garden celery Fruit, root, leaf
8. Apium graveolens var. Apiaceae Celeriac Fruit, root, leaf
rapaceum
9. Artemisia dracunculus Asteraceae Tarragon, estragon Leaf
10. Cinnamomum Lauraceae Cassia, Chinese Cassia Bark, leaf
aromaticum
11. Cinnamomum tamala Lauraceae Tejpat, Indian Cassia Leaf, bark
12. Cinnamomum Lauraceae Srilankan cinnamon, Bark, leaf
zeylanicum Indian cinnamon
13. Coriandrum sativum Apiaceae Coriander Leaf, fruit
14. Foeniculum vulgare Apiaceae Bitter fennel Leaf, twig, fruit
15. Foeniculum vulgare Apiaceae Sweet fennel Leaf, twig, fruit
16. Hyssopus officinalis Lamiaceae Hyssop Leaf
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