participatory communication strategy design

A Handbook
SADC Centre of Communication
for Development
PARTICIPATORY
COMMUNICATION
STRATEGY
DESIGN
PARTICIPATORY
COMMUNICATION
STRATEGY
DESIGN
PARTICIPATORY
COMMUNICATION
STRATEGY DESIGN
A Handbook
Second Edition
Prepared by
Paolo Mefalopulos and Chris Kamlongera
for
the SADC Centre of Communication for Development
in collaboration with
the Communication for Development Group
Extension, Education and Communication Service
Sustainable Development Department
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS
Rome, 2004
The designations employed and the presentation of material
in this information product do not imply the expression of
any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations or of the
SADC Centre of Communication for Development concerning

the legal or development status of any country, territory,
city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation
of its frontiers or boundaries.
ISBN 92-5-105252-2
All rights reserved. Reproduction and dissemination of material in
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purposes are authorized without any prior written permission from
the copyright holders provided the source is fully acknowledged.
Reproduction of material in this information product for resale or
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addressed to the Chief, Publishing Management Service, Information
Division, FAO, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy or by
e-mail to copyright@ fao.org
Copyright 2004
© SADC Centre of Communication for Development, Harare and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
Second Edition, Rome, 2004
Compiled by: Paolo Mefalopulos and Chris Kamlongera
Editing: Chris Kamlongera, Jones Kaumba & Luca Toronga
Photographs: SADC Centre of Communication for Development
Available from:
FAO
Communication for Development Group
Extension, Education and Communication Service
Research, Extension and Training Division
Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy
E-mail:
www.fao.org
and
SADC Centre of Communication for Development

43 Robson Manyika Avenue
6th Floor, Merchant House
P.O. Box 4046
Harare, ZIMBABWE
Tel: (263 - 4) 722723, 722734, 726821/5/6, 726831, 726836
Fax: (263 - 4)722713
E-mail:
iii
chapter I The Foundations of Communication Strategy Design
table of contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vii
SUGGESTIONS FOR USING THIS HANDBOOK ix
INTRODUCTION 1
A About the Participatory Communication Strategy Design Handbook 1
B Objectives of the Handbook 2
B.1 The Need for Proper Problem Identification and Analysis: A Revisit 2
CHAPTER 1: THE FOUNDATION OF COMMUNICATION STRATEGY DESIGN 7
1.1 Communication Strategy Design: A Definition 8
1.1.1 Communication Strategy Design: Purpose and Rationale 8
1.1.2 A Map of the Process of Communication Strategy Design 11
1.2 Transforming Field Findings into Useful Accounts 12
1.2.1 Using Field Findings to Identify and Analyse Focal Problems 13
1.2.2 Focussing on Communication Related Problems 13
1.2.3 From Priority Problems to Creative Solutions 15
1.2.4 Expected Change and Criteria to Measure It 17
1.3 Putting Together the Communication Strategy 18
1.3.1 Using the Priority Interaction Groups Profiles 18
1.3.2 Setting SMART Communication Objectives 19
1.3.3 Identifying Rough Core Content and Themes to be Developed 21

1.4 Selecting Communication Modes and Approaches:
The Communication Intervention 21
1.4.1 Main Communication Modes 21
Participatory Discussion Themes/Message Design 22
Instructional Design 23
Group Mobilisation Activities Design 24
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PCSD Handbook
1.4.2 Frequently Used Communication Approaches 24
Message/Discussion Theme Design Mode 25
Instructional Design Mode 26
Group Mobilisation Activities Design Mode 26
CHAPTER 2: PARTICIPATORY DESIGN OF MESSAGESAND DISCUSSION THEMES 29
2.1 Creating Basic Messages and Discussion Themes: An Overview 30
2.2 Developing the Creative Strategy or Copy Platform 31
2.2.1 Specifications 31
2.2.2 Creating Basic Messages 33
2.2.3 Creating Discussion Themes 34
2.2.4 The Process of Creative Design: Appeals 34
What are Appeals? 34
The Most Common Appeals 35
Selection of Message Appeals 36
Selection of Appeals for Discussion Themes 36
The Process of Creative Design: Message Presentation Formats 36
2.2.5 Selecting the Leading Medium and Media Mix 38
Criteria for Media Selection 38
The Process of Creative Design: The Creative Element 41
The Concept of Creativity 41
The Big Idea 42
2.2.6 Developing the Basic Treatment 43

2.2.7 The Communication Brief (including outputs) 46
2.3 Preliminary Monitoring of Message and Discussion Themes’ Effectiveness 46
CHAPTER 3: COMMUNICATION MATERIALS AND MEDIA ISSUES 49
3.1 Using Radio in Communication for Development 50
3.1.1 Nature and Purpose of Radio for Development 50
3.1.2 Basic Radio Approaches 50
3.1.3 Common Radio Formats 52
3.1.4 Basic Elements of Radio Production 53
3.1.5 Basic Principles for Radio Scripting 55
3.1.6 How to Evaluate a Radio Programme 55
v
chapter I The Foundations of Communication Strategy Design
table of contents
3.2 Using Print Materials in Communication for Development 58
3.2.1 Uses and Rationale of Print Materials 58
3.2.2 Basic Elements of Print Materials Production 62
3.2.3 How to Draw for Rural People 63
3.2.4 Production Criteria in Print Materials 64
3.2.5 The Printing Production Process 65
3.2.6 Budgeting for the Production of Print Materials 66
3.2.7 Pre-Testing Print Materials: Field-testing to Ensure Effectiveness 69
3.3 Using Video in Communication for Development 72
3.3.1 Purpose and Rationale for Using Video 72
3.3.2 Main Uses of Video 73
3.3.3 Strengths and Limitations of Video 75
3.4 Using Popular Theatre in Communication for Development 76
3.4.1 Background and Rationale 76
3.4.2 The Nature of Theatre for Development 77
3.4.3 The Process of Theatre for Development 80
3.5 Communication and Creativity: Combining Contents, Media Characteristics

and Treatment 83
3.6 Field Staff Training on How to Effectively Use Communication Materials 83
3.6.1 How to Use Discussion Tools: Tips for Trainers 84
3.7 Summary of the Basic Steps in the Production Process 86
CHAPTER 4: MANAGING THE PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION OF THE
COMMUNICATION PROGRAMME 89
4.1 Using SAF to Organise your Data into an Effective Work Plan 90
4.1.1 Linking Objectives and Outputs 90
4.1.2 Organising Activities and Responsibilities 92
4.1.3 Accounting for Inputs and Estimated Budget 92
4.1.4 Organising all Elements into a Consistent Work Plan 92
4.2 Monitoring the Communication Process 93
4.2.1 Purpose and Rationale of Monitoring 94
4.2.2 Indicators and Levels of Measurement 94
4.2.3 Means of Verification 96
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PCSD Handbook
4.2.4 External Factors 96
4.2.5 Monitoring Crucial Steps of the Process 97
4.3 Summative Evaluation 98
4.3.1 Rationale and Purpose of Evaluation 98
4.3.2 Quantitative Evaluation: the Baseline Study 99
4.3.3 Qualitative Evaluation: the Participatory Impact Assessment 100
4.3.4 Finalising the Overall Evaluation of the Project’s Impact 100
4.4 Final Considerations 101
4.4.1 Organisation and Management of the Entire Planning
and Implementation Process 102
4.4.2 How to Report and Present the Communication Proposal 102
ANNEXES 105
BIBLIOGRAPHY 109

vii
acknowledgements
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge their immense gratitude to the people in the rural areas of
Ethiopia, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Sudan, Swaziland, United Republic of
Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe, who have participated in the field implementation of
the communication strategies described in this handbook. This publication would not have been
accomplished without their participation and encouragement. In addition, the authors would like
to thank all the rural development workers, extension staff, health educators, media producers and
trainers who have participated in the Action Programme for Communication Skills Development of
the Southern African Development Community (SADC) Centre of Communication for Development
which has inspired this work. Many people contributed to the course work on which this handbook
is based. The authors have drawn on their collective expertise but wish to particularly acknowledge
the significant role played by Chike Anyaegbunam in the preparation of this publication and wish
to thank, Gemma Luzuka, Jones Kaumba, Titus Moetsabi, Gary Coldevin, Peter D’Huys and Linda
Manasa. In the same vein, the handbook has drawn on many written sources both published and
unpublished. These are listed in the bibliography and the authors take this opportunity to thank the
writers.
The authors extend a special thank you to the following people who have greatly contributed to
specific sections of this Handbook; Joel Chikware and Simon Willby, who contributed in the writing
of the section on print material, Osvaldo Lingua, contributing in the planning sections, Eddington
Mhonda, for the section on radio and Jonathan Villet, for his contribution and in the refinement of
the communication strategy. Also thank you to Luca Toronga who contributed in the original design
and graphics of the handbook. In addition, the authors wish to thank all the staff members of the
SADC Centre of Communication for Development for their constant support during the whole
project, and they acknowledge the technical guidance provided by the Communication for
Development Group in FAO Extension, Education and Communication Service in the implementation
of the SADC Centre of Communication for Development and the preparation of this handbook. A
special thank you to Mario Acunzo, Communication for Development Officer at FAO who took
care of this second edition.

Finally, the SADC Centre of Communication for Development and FAO acknowledge the valuable
contribution provided by the Government of Italy (Directorate General for Development Cooperation),
their generous support is appreciated.
ix
suggestions
SUGGESTIONS FOR USING
THIS HANDBOOK
Participatory Communication Strategy Design (PCSD) is normally conducted by a team of facilitators
such as extension staff, field workers, communication and media experts in radio, video production
and graphic designers. Development workers and communication specialists can use the handbook
in two ways. First as a reference guide as they develop their Communication Strategy in the field
and second as training guide as they prepare others to develop Communication Strategies. For
those who have not been trained in PCSD, it is advisable to attend a training workshop in which
the principles and procedures of the activity can be learnt and practised before applying them to a
community group.
This handbook is very much a working document and feedback would not only be welcome but
is positively encouraged. Please send comments to:
The Communication for Development Group, Sustainable Development Department, FAO, Viale
delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy e-mail:
- www.fao.org
The Director, SADC Centre of Communication for Development, 6th Floor, Merchant House, 43
Robson Manyika Avenue. P.O. Box 4046, Harare, Zimbabwe. E-mail:
Phone: (263 - 4) 722723, 722734, 726821/5/6/
Fax: (263 - 4) 722713.
1
Introduction
A About the Participatory Communication Strategy Design Handbook
B Objectives of the Handbook
B.1 The Need for Proper Problem Identification and Analysis: A Revisit
This Handbook has been prepared as a training and field guide for designing, implementing and

managing communication strategies for development purposes based on the results of field
Participatory Rural Communication Appraisal (PRCA). The book is a follow up to
Participatory
Rural Communication Appraisal: Starting with the People. As a logical continuation of the
intervention initiated through PRCA, the methodology described in the present handbook outlines
ways of involving people in the decision-making processes that may lead to effective communication
planning and action to improve their livelihood. The handbook documents the process of planning
a communication strategy in a participatory manner, i.e., with the people, in order to address
practical problems and needs as identified and defined by them.
While the handbook has been prepared primarily as an instructional and reference material to be
used during Action Programme workshops for Communication Skills Development, it can still be
used as a guide for participatory communication strategy design work in general.
The handbook focuses on the process of communication strategy design. It also looks at message
and discussion theme creation as well as the principles of communication media, materials and
activity development and production. Although it does not dwell on the technical aspects of
production, the handbook specifies the requirements for effective use of communication approaches,
techniques, media, materials and methods among rural communities. It presents a step by step
approach to strategy design. In this way the reader is able to see how they can plan, implement,
supervise and monitor the whole process. This is done in order to ensure that the reader is capable
of defining specifications for communication materials as well as activity development and
production. A reader thus armed can work fruitfully with media production specialists for quality
control purposes.
The strategy design process described in the handbook has been tested in training workshops. It
has also been applied with great success to various development projects dealing with agriculture,
health, education, income generation, gender, water and sanitation, animal husbandry, and poverty
alleviation.
INTRODUCTION
A About the Participatory Communication Strategy Design Handbook
2
PCSD Handbook

Development workers who read this handbook will learn how to transform and use field PRCA
and AKAP baseline findings to design and implement communication strategies appropriate for
their project situation. They will learn how to design messages and discussion themes. They will
acquire skills for supervising the production and pre-testing of media materials. In addition, they
should be able to set up a management system for training field staff, monitoring and documenting
the implementation of the strategy. Finally, they will acquire skills for carrying out both qualitative
and quantitative communication programme impact assessment and evaluation during and
immediately following the termination of the implementation process.
Specifically, at the end of this handbook, the reader, with involvement of the community, will be
able to:
• transform field PRCA and AKAP baseline survey results into useful accounts for
communication strategy design;
• utilise research results to refine and prioritise identified issues, problems, needs,
opportunities and solutions in order to form clear and realistic communication
objectives;
• review the characteristics of selected priority Interaction Groups for the design of
messages, discussion themes, and communication media and activities;
• select and design effective and affordable communication approaches utilising
locally-available activities and influential sources of advice and information
appropriate in rural areas;
• create messages and discussion themes appropriate for the Interaction Groups;
• select media, and materials appropriate for the Interaction Groups;
• supervise the production and pre-testing of communication materials and activities;
• advise project field-staff who will assist in carrying out the implementation of the
communication strategy on the appropriate utilisation of selected activities,
media materials and channels; and
• supervise and monitor the implementation of the communication strategy, and
evaluate its impact after completion.
B.1 The Need for Proper Problem Identification and Analysis: A Revisit
The strategy design process presented in this Handbook is a problem-solving methodology that

derives its effectiveness from the involvement of all stakeholders in the need and problem
identification during field PRCA and from the proper analysis and clear understanding of the
project rationale and purpose. To be relevant to the community and achieve the intended objectives,
the strategy is, to a large extent, shaped by information gathered during the field PRCA and data
provided by the project staff. The data collected in the field is analysed
B Objectives of the Handbook
Introduction
and transformed into usable accounts upon which the strategy is built. This process provides the
relevant information about community needs, opportunities, problems, solutions, and perceptions
and reveals the people’s communication networks and systems (i.e. modern and traditional sources
of information, preferred channels, influential sources, etc.).
As pointed out in the PRCA Handbook, remember that after the identification of the main problem,
a problem tree is used to identify its major causes and effects. This is followed by further analysis
of the major causes so as to select focal problems (i.e. priority problems to be addressed by
communication). The focal problems, also known as entry points for intervention, are then turned
into communication objectives, which are the beacons for the design of an appropriate strategy
(see figure on this page). Note that as soon as the strategy design starts, the process shifts from a
problem-analysis to a problem-solving mode.
The communication strategy is designed to achieve the set communication objectives. In order to
determine the relevance of these objectives, consider a number of factors such as information
from secondary sources, project objectives, community needs, opportunities, problems, possible
solutions (NOPS), the people’s culture and perceptions of the issues.
3
Figure 1
The outside border of the figure symbolises the project
boundaries within which the strategy has to be
designed.
4
PCSD Handbook
The profile or characteristics of the Interaction Groups, their preferred sources of information and

systems of communication should also be taken into consideration while defining the objectives to
guide the designing of the strategy.
To ensure that the strategy is relevant and effective, it should be designed with the community in
order to take into account their priorities and their aspirations. This approach reduces the possibility
of using inappropriate communication approaches, idioms, media, channels or materials. As the
strategy is being designed with the people, bear in mind that change is not necessarily synonymous
with improvement. For instance, the “successful” implementation of a communication strategy
that aims to change the state of awareness, the level of knowledge, attitudes, practices or even
the people’s perception of a situation, may initiate a chain reaction resulting in major undesired
changes in the overall way of life of a community. The story in Box 1 on the opposite page serves
as a good warning.
Box 1
How a strategy with good intentions ruined a community.
The main and only significant economic resource of a small rural village was the production
of hand-made carpets by the men of the community. The women performed the domestic
chores while the men earned income. As the distinctive features of these carpets were
relatively famous in the area, the villagers could afford a decent living according to the
rural standards of their country. Things started to change when an international non-
governmental organisation (NGO) identified this village as a possible target for their poverty
alleviation programme.
Since the programme of this international NGO was focussed on gender issues, income
generation for women was readily accepted as a project idea after a brief assessment.
After a feasibility study, the NGO identified mechanised carpet production by women as
the income-generating project. The NGO quickly provided the materials for a small
industrial production plant and trained the women of the village to produce the famous
hand-made carpets.
What happened next was inevitable. Women and men in the village began to compete
for the limited carpet market. Women, with their machinery and training, were able to
produce a higher number of carpets and therefore won the carpet war.
The results of this well-intentioned strategy are briefly outlined below:

• men stopped weaving carpets since they could not compete against the women and
their new technology. The men began to spend most of their time and the money
earned by their wives drinking;
• women, because they are now working in the new carpet factory, could not attend to
their domestic chores as they used to with the result that many aspects of the village life
started to deteriorate (e.g. availability of drinking water, traditionally fetched by women
began to decrease, cooking, minding of the babies, etc. began to suffer);
5
Introduction
• soon, as the quantity of manufactured carpets increased, the market became saturated
with them, prices of carpets started to go down and as a consequence income began
to decline rapidly in the village.
• on a social level, family bonds became weaker as men got drunk
more often, felt useless and frustrated and frequently turned violent on their wives.
Women, on the other hand, were working more and more to provide the basic
subsistence income without being able to perform their usual daily tasks. Children
were becoming increasingly neglected as carpet manufacturing took up most of the
women’s time and men refused to take up roles traditionally in the domain of women.
The story in Box 1 illustrates one of the many situations in which the noble intentions of a
development project have left the so-called beneficiaries worse-off than before. This is because
communities are complex social systems with numerous inter linked units, with the result that any
change in one unit could have unforeseen and undesirable consequences on other units. For this
reason, it is crucial that before any strategy is designed and implemented special effort should be
made, with the community, to forecast its possible positive and negative implications. Any strategy
intended to effect change in a community should be discussed with, understood and agreed upon
by the community, since the primary decision-makers about what and how to change are the very
people who are going to be affected by the change.
Catastrophes, such as the one in the example above, are not limited to strategies that are designed
on the basis of poorly analysed problems, needs and opportunities only. Similar calamities are also
frequently encountered when strategies for solving communication-related problems are designed

without the full involvement of the people. Remember the story of the malaria prevention campaign
where villagers would not follow the actions suggested in one of the posters. Villagers thought
they had nothing to be worried about because according to them, in their village there were no
animals (i.e. mosquitoes) as huge as the one shown in the poster.
chapter I The Foundations of Communication Strategy Design
7
To illustrate the basis and the process upon which a communication strategy is developed.
At the end of the chapter you should be able to:
1. Understand the basic concept of communication strategy design;
2. Transform field findings into useful accounts in order to design a
communication strategy; and
3. Plan the communication intervention of your strategy.
THE FOUNDATION OF COMMUNICATION
STRATEGY DESIGN
Objective
1.1 Communication Strategy Design: A Definition
1.1.1 Communication Strategy Design: Purpose and Rationale
1.1.2 A Map of the Process of Communication Strategy Design
1.2 Transforming Field Findings into Useful Accounts
1.2.1 Using Field Findings to Identify and Analyse Focal Problems
1.2.2 Focussing on Communication Related Problems
1.2.3 From Priority Problems to Creative Solutions
1.2.4 Expected Change and Criteria to Measure It
1.3 Putting Together the Communication Strategy
1.3.1 Using the Priority Interaction Groups Profiles
1.3.2 Setting SMART Communication Objectives
1.3.3 Identifying Rough Core Content and Themes to be Developed
1.4 Selecting Communication Modes and Approaches: The Communication
Intervention
1.4.1 Main Communication Modes

1.4.2 Frequently Used Communication Approaches
PCSD Handbook
8
1.1 Communication Strategy Design: A Definition
A strategy can be defined as:
A systematic, well-planned series of actions, combining different methods, techniques and tools,
to achieve an intended change or objective utilising the available resources within a specific time
frame.
Similarly a communication strategy is a well-planned series of actions aimed at achieving
certain objectives through the use of communication methods, techniques and
approaches. From this definition it can be inferred that before you even start thinking about the
communication strategy you need to have in mind clear objectives. These objectives will assist
you to determine how to go about solving the problem. Objectives are the basis of your strategy.
Once the objectives are set, you need to assess the available resources to you in order to refine
your communication strategy. This is a strategy that should be:
• consistent with the field findings and the project framework;
• feasible (in relation to the resources available and the timeframe);
• effective (makes the best use of the available resources in order to achieve the
set objectives).
The figure on the next page illustrates in brief the basic steps in the process of communication
strategy design. In unit 3 of this section you will be presented with a more detailed Map of the
various steps of the sequence of the communication strategy design. Remember that each step
of the process needs to be done with the full involvement of the community.
1.1.1 Communication Strategy Design: Purpose and Rationale
The purpose of designing a communication strategy is to address and solve problems at the
grassroots level utilising PRCA findings, communication methods, techniques and media. This
should be done with the people, not just for the people.
After field work you review your findings. You compare your project perceptions and assessment
with the community perceptions and assessment. This should lead to a new view, or at least a
different view, of the main problems and their causes, which should always be within the

boundaries of your project scope and objectives. At times this can be a sensitive issue, either
because the community has a different perception which is imposing solutions on the community.
Whatever the case, you might find yourself in the difficult position of having to choose between
the views of the people (who should always be your priority concern), and those of management
(who are the ones affecting your professional life). Depending on the situation you are in and
your past experience, use your best judgement to reconcile the two positions.
chapter I The Foundations of Communication Strategy Design
9
Figure 2
A brief illustration of the basic steps in the process of
communication strategy design.
10
The critical factor that is going to shape your strategy, is the analysis of the new view of the
problem. You should draw a new problem tree. Discuss it. Preferably, do this while still in the
field. The identification of the most relevant factors, causing the main problem, become of vital
importance for the development of an effective strategy. These factors are referred to as “focal
problems”. The identified focal problems should then be subjected to a specific cause-effect
analysis in order to identify and assess areas of possible communication intervention. The sequence
above illustrates the basis of, and the rationale for, the communication strategy design. It also
highlights the importance of the linkage between the field research and the subsequent strategic
planning.
Before going into the actual design of the communication strategy you should review the rationale
guiding this process. By now you are familiar with most of the Communication for Development
terminology used in these training packages. You know that when going to the field, the first
thing you should learn and investigate are people’s NOPS (Needs, Opportunities, Problems and
Solutions). Even if you may have to restrict your field of action only to aspects related to the on-
going project framework, it is very important that you have a comprehensive picture of the
overall situation from the community’s point of view. Community NOPS, baseline results and the
problem analysis will assist you in determining the root-problems, better known as focal problems,
causing the negative situation. From there the communication strategy will take shape.

PCSD Handbook
Figure 3
A group of women investigating NOPS.
chapter I The Foundations of Communication Strategy Design
11
Once the focal problems have been identified and analysed, the next step is to address the issue
of possible solutions. In order to do this you should determine objectives that are related to
solving the problem on hand. Such objectives must be SPECIFIC, MEASURABLE, ATTAINABLE,
REALISTIC and TIME BOUND (SMART).
The next step is to combine and review all of the available information and field findings to
decide which approaches, messages, media methods and techniques should be used to achieve
the objectives. A Situation Analysis Framework (SAF) (see Figure 2 on page 9 and Box 2 on this
page) will assist you in organising all these factors into a workable plan that entails outputs,
activities and inputs and all of these within a specific time frame.
1.1.2 A Map of the Process of Communication Strategy Design
The three different communication modes briefly presented above are by no means mutually
exclusive. You can have, for instance, an educational approach for a campaign aimed at reducing
the incidence of AIDS. You may decide to use a combination of posters to raise awareness
(hence message design mode), train nurses to provide advice to the youth coming to the clinic
(hence instructional design mode) and encourage community mobilisation to give more visibility
to this issue (hence group promotion mode). This brief introduction to the process of communication
strategy design serves to give you a preview of what this handbook will concentrate on. It is
supposed to focus your expectations while at the same time provide you with a sketch map of
where you are going. All the work done during participatory rural communication appraisal
(PRCA) and the baseline survey is now used to design the strategy. If the findings and analysis of
the field research are not sound and relevant it is impossible to draw up an effective strategy.
That is why the correct identification, formulation and assessment of focal problems are vital for
the success of the overall strategy.
To summarise, the box below reflects the basic sequence of the main steps you will go through in
the process of developing a communication strategy. As the message design is by far the most

common mode to be used in communication campaigns, this sequence has been developed
considering message design as the main approach. If other approaches/modes will be used, they
will be added following a similar sequence.
Box 2
Basic Sequence of Communication Strategy Design (in Discussion Themes/Message Design Mode).
1. Review the Project Framework (secondary data review, on-going project
rationale and purpose, main problem/s to be addressed);
2. Carry out the Participatory Research in the Field (PRCA + Baseline);
3. Analyse the Field Research Findings and Identify the Focal Problems;
4. Identify and Draw the Profiles of Priority Interaction Groups;
5. Define SMART Communication Objectives and Solutions (how to);
6. State the Rough Content of the Issues Related to the Focal Problems
and SMART Objectives;
PCSD Handbook
12
7. Select the Design Mode (for the purpose of this handbook Discussion
Themes/Message Design);
8. Define the Communication Approaches and Methods;
9. Preliminary Identification of the Required Outputs, Activities and Inputs;
10. Develop the Creative Design of Discussion Themes and Messages;
11.Select the Media and Finalise the Message Design;
12.Revise and Define the Overall Communication Approaches, Outputs
(Instructional Design, Discussion Themes/Message Design, Group
Mobilisation Activities Design);
13.Revise and Finalise the Activities Needed to Achieve the Intended
Outputs;
14.Revise and Finalise the Inputs Required to Carry out the Planned
Activities;
15.Assemble and Review the Wok plan for the Implementation Phase;
16.Develop the Communication Materials;

17.Carry out the Pre-testing and Subsequent Review of the Materials;
18.Supervise the Mass Production;
19.Training of Trainers on Relevant Issues and Materials;
20.Supervise the Implementation of Activities; and
21.Supervise the Monitoring and Evaluation.
1.2 Transforming Field Findings into Useful Accounts
At the end of the PRCA in the field you will be facing a large, at times extra large, amount of
data. Your challenge is to organise and transform the data into something that can be used to
design an effective communication strategy.
The process of communication strategy design starts in the field with collecting data, knowing
the community and exchanging information. An effective strategy originates from these field
findings. That is why it is important that during the field exercise you discuss and reflect upon the
daily findings with the community. Analysing the data is an on-going process. Nevertheless,
once you are back from the field you should go through all the data in an exhaustive manner, so
as to review in depth the validity of your findings. Ideally this should be done within the community
with the community. It is important to collect all information on the community from the community
itself in order to have their opinions and their perceptions clearly and properly represented.
Comparing the qualitative data from the PRCA to that from the baseline survey assists in validating
the findings. You should also compare the original problem tree of the project with the new one
derived from the field, reflecting the community point of view. The two perceptions should be
compared and analysed in order to confirm or redefine the main problems. For each main problem
chapter I The Foundations of Communication Strategy Design
13
being defined you should closely assess and investigate the cause-effect implications, thus
reviewing the problem tree or drawing a new one if needed. The purpose of doing this is to
identify and analyse the focal causes (remember the 80/20 law in chapter 2 of the PRCA
Handbook), which are at the root of the main problem.
After assessing the situation with the community, use the field findings, and the related analysis,
to define what you want to achieve. As you do this also begin to clearly define; the interaction
groups you are going to address, the type of change that is expected and how you expect to

measure that change. Although these are still at an initial stage, you are advised to start dealing
with them at this point. They will be refined more precisely later on. Please bear in mind that the
communication strategy design sequence presented in this handbook is only a guideline to assist
you in solving problems in a systematic manner. You should see it as an outline that can be
changed around to fit individual thinking patterns and experiences. What is important is to arrive
at a strategy that is consistent with the field findings and, effective in relation to the defined
problems. To achieve this you need to transform the data from the field into usable information.
1.2.1 Using Field Findings to Identify and Analyse Focal Problems
Identifying and prioritising root-problems, causing the main problem, is not always easy. Chapter
2 of the PRCA Handbook provides a detailed explanation on how to carry out an effective cause-
effect analysis. It is however important to note that once the focal problems (which as you
remember are the major causes of the main problem) have been identified you should consider
their nature and prioritise them. Before deciding which ones you will be focussing upon in designing
your strategy, you should consider how relevant they are and how communication can assist in
achieving the solution.
You should use all of the data collected during the PRCA to assess the situation and then use the
baseline findings to verify, validate and further focus the PRCA findings. Furthermore you should
compare PRCA findings with the data and perceptions of the project as reviewed before going to
the field. Sometimes problems affecting the success of a project are a result of differences of
perceptions between project staff and the community. (See the example in Figure 9/10, Chapter
3, of the PRCA Handbook). It is therefore important at this stage to identify and define precisely
the causes underlying the main problem. These causes will then be considered as problems.
After their selection (based on their importance and, if they can be tackled by communication)
they will be the starting point upon which the strategy will be based.
1.2.2 Focussing on Communication Related Problems
When assessing the situation in the field and investigating the factors responsible for the problem
you wish to solve, you may end up with a long list. The first thing to do in such a situation, even
before you start to prioritise the problems, is to separate problems, is to separate problems that
can be addressed by communication from those that cannot i.e.,
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asking yourself which problems are communication-related or which ones are structural. The
latter can not be directly addressed through communication approaches. This categorisation is
done to simplify the task of selecting appropriate issues that can be effectively addressed by
communication. Structural problems are those that can be addressed only by the availability of
finance or materials e.g., funds for buying a vaccine, construction of roads, a certain number of
water pumps, etc. Communication cannot have a direct impact on these types of problems, as
they require materials or finances (even though communication approaches can assist in lobbying
for funding). Communication related problems are those that deal with issues regarding people’s
participation, perceptions, adoption of innovation and change of behaviour. These kinds of
problems are generally concerned with change in awareness, knowledge, attitudes and practices
(AKAP levels) or with factors concerning participation.l
Of course structural problems, such as those regarding availability of funds can sometimes be
addressed by communication. For instance, if a nutrition project finds out that there are no
schools in an area, it could hypothetically involve the people in an advocacy approach to lobby for
the schools with the government, thus indirectly assisting in the search for funding, or directly
contacting potential donors. This however may go outside the project boundaries of the nutrition
project, which could nevertheless report the problem to the relevant authorities or advise the
community on how to go about making a proposal for that issue.
When looking at the whole cause-effect analysis of the main problem you should concentrate on
identifying communication entry points. These are the root-causes responsible for the persistence
of the problem and they can be effectively addressed by communication. One of the most
common and crucial communication entry points is the Windows of Perception, presented in the
PRCA Handbook. These represent the full perception of the project and the community with
respect to the main problem. It is surprising how often these two perceptions cannot be just
different but even opposite to each other. Johari’s widow below explains this.
If the project perceived the irrigation scheme as a means to improve food security, thus life
standards, while the community feels they have been forced into something complex and difficult
to deal with, the result is that the irrigation scheme increases their insecurity and fears for making
a living. Just the opposite of the original project perception! This is just one of the many examples

where difference of perceptions account for most of the problems. Sometimes the difference
Table 1
Johari’s Window.
Open knowledge Their hidden knowledge
What we know and what What they know and what we
they know do not know
Our hidden knowledge Blindness
What we know and they do What we do not know and they
not know do not know
chapter I The Foundations of Communication Strategy Design
15
can be due o a simple misunderstanding, as in the case of a health project that was trying to
promote the drinking of safe water
. In local language their slogan read something like “Drink
Only Clean Water”. Unfortunately by “clean” people in the community meant water taken from
wells and drunk as it was. It was opaque thus clean. By ‘clean’, the project meant water that
was made safe through boiling. However, since ordinarily ‘boiled’ water looks dirty, the community
thought it was not drinkable. And with their campaign the project was actually reinforcing this
practice! Looking at Windows of Perception you will have to see if any of these differences
apply to your case and if so how to unify the two perceptions. Remember in communication,
perceptions can be as important, if not more, than reality. What counts is not what it is, but what
people perceive it to be.
Selecting and investigating focal problems can be a difficult and challenging task. To increase
the chances of success for your communication strategy you should make sure that the root-
problems identified and selected can be effectively addressed through a communication
intervention and that they are the most significant ones. Appropriate selection and prioritisation
of the focal problems can ensure the success and sustainability of the communication component
and consequently of the project as a whole. The next step is to assess and transform the secondary
data available and the data collected in the field into information useful for designing the
communication strategy

1.2.3 From Priority Problems to Creative Solutions
The assessment of the situation in the field and the cause-effect analysis of specific problems
have been discussed in the previous section. At this point you should have already identified and
clearly defined the relevant focal problems. Now you should start thinking about possible solutions
for addressing each focal problem. This should not be very difficult as everybody is used to face
situations, small or big, requiring a problem solving attitude and thinking daily. All that is needed
here is a fair dose of common sense.
Every day you deal with decisions requiring some sort of analysis. For instance, you have to
figure out what to give first priority in your daily tasks or to decide which approach to follow in
searching for the car keys that always go missing when you are in a hurry. The same process is
applied when looking for solutions to the focal problems identified. For instance, if a focal problem
leading to children’s malnutrition has been defined as inadequate knowledge of feeding practices
by the mothers, the solution must aim at increasing that knowledge. How? This is part of the
problem-solving approach you must adopt. Once you have defined the focal problems and possible
solutions you can consider how to turn the problems into solutions, thus defining the communication
objectives. These objectives should provide direct solutions to the focal problems, which in turn,
should assist in solving the main problem. Even if it may sound naïve, remember to ask yourself
not only what the problem is, but also whose problem it is. You would be surprised to find how
many problems addressed by development projects are not perceived as such by the community
or the interested interaction groups.
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A practical ingenious solution.
Figure 4
A typical storage hut.
This storage hut was elevated from the ground through rocks in order to minimise crop damages due to
natural pests (e.g. mice) and early morning moisture.
chapter I The Foundations of Communication Strategy Design
17
Sometimes a solution can be reached as a result of some logical conclusions. At other times to

arrive at a solution requires some innovative thinking (see figure 4 on the previous page). In
Chapter 2 you will discuss the importance of creativity in many of the phases of the communication
strategy design process. Remember that every person has creative potential, which is often used
in daily situations. Thinking patterns of course, do not happen in a clear-cut sequential way.
Every person has a different way of thinking. Some people are more analytical, while others are
more intuitive. Still others are more visual, etc. The problem tree is actually a cause-effect
analysis adopting a sort of “clustering pattern” approach. A central thought/problem is linked to
its causes and effects at various levels and in different directions. This is one of the ways in which
the human mind operates. The problem tree represents on paper what happens in a person’s
mind, thus helping us to visualise the process.
Visualisation is another very effective way of dealing with situations and solving problems.
Whenever you have a problem that does not seem to be solved by means of logical thought try
to visualise it with your mind’s eye. Try to see it. Do not to think about it. Sometimes this method
gives surprising results. With time and practice you will see how many problems and difficult
situations approached in this way can be solved. While creativity maybe innate in human beings,
it can still be improved by experience. Being creative will definitely enhance the effectiveness of
your communication strategy. Remember that creativity can come from you as well as from the
community, so learn to listen actively, i.e. be ready to use people’s local wisdom.
1.2.4 Expected Change and Criteria to Measure It
At this point, after you have analysed the focal problems, defined the communication objectives
and drawn the profiles of the Interaction Groups, you should start thinking about the type of
change you expect to see, based on the focal problems, and to be achieved through the
communication intervention. What impact do you hope to have in order to get the intended
change? You should specify how you expect the situation to be improved by achieving the
communication objectives. Next, you should indicate how you are going to measure the degree
of success, or failure, of the communication intervention. Which criteria will you take into account
in order to define the impact of your intervention and the degree of change? Once you know
what you want to change you should define how you intend to measure the impact of your
activities.
The reason for doing this is that you should be able to assess and evaluate the impact of the

objectives of, that is, the degree of change caused by the communication intervention.
For instance, one of the communication objectives of a Nutrition Project may be to increase
knowledge regarding proper feeding practices by 25%, among mothers of under five children,
by the end of the year. One criterion that you could use to assess the degree of success could
then be the level of knowledge reached by the mothers of under five children. Another criteria,
which can be used to measure the end impact of the communication activities, will be the number
of malnourished children under 5 years. Even if the ‘malnutrition’ problem cannot be solved
solely by increasing the level of knowledge of the mothers, this can assist in reducing the problem.
It is therefore important to start thinking of what you want to change and how you want to
measure what has been achieved. A more detailed account of indicators for monitoring and
evaluation is provided in the chapter on Situation Analysis Framework in the PRCA Handbook.