Handbook of food and beverage fermentation technology

Handbook
of
Food
and
Beverage
Fermentation
Technology
edited
by
Y.
H.
Hui
Science Technology System
West Sacramento, California, U.S.A.
Lis
bet
h
Meunier- Goddi
k
Oregon State University
Corvullis, Oregon, U.S.A.
Ase
Solvejg
Hansen
The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural Universi
ty
Frederiksberg, Denmark
Jytte
Josephsen
The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University
Frederiksberg, Denmark

Wai-
Kit
Nip
University
of
Hawaii at Manoa
Honolulu, Hawaii, U.S.A.
Peggy
S.
Stanfield
Dietetic Resources
Tw>in Falls, Idaho, U.S.A.
Fidel Told6
Instituto de Agroquimica y Tecnologia de Alimentos (CSIC)
Valencia, Spain
MARCEL
MARCEL DEKKER,
INC.
DEKKER
NEW
YORK
BASEL
Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Although great care has been taken to provide accurate and current information, neither the
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loss, damage, or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book. The
material contained herein is not intended to provide specific advice or recommendations for any
specific situation.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

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ISBN: 0-8247-4780-1
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Current printing (last digit):
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Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
FOOD
SCIENCE

AND
TECHNOLOGY
A
Series
of
Monographs,
Textbooks,
and
Reference
Books
EDITORIAL BOARD
Senior Editors
Owen
R.
Fennema
University of Wisconsin-Madison
Y.
H.
Hui
Science Technology System
Marcus Karel
Rutgers University (emeritus)
Pieter Walstra
Wageningen University
John
R.
Wh
ita
ker
University

of
Californ ia-Davis
Additives
P.
Michael Davidson University
of
Tennessee- Knoxville
Dairy science
James L. Steele University of Wisconsin-Madison
Flavor chemistry and sensory analysis
John
H.
Thorngate
111
University of
California-Davis
Food engineering
Daryl
B.
Lund University
of
Wisconsin-Madison
Food lipids and flavors
David B. Min
Ohio State University
Food
proteinflood
chemistry
Rickey
Y.

Yada
University
of
Guelph
Health and disease
Seppo Salminen University of Turku, Finland
Nutrition and nutraceuticals
Mark Dreher Mead Johnson Nutritionals
Phase transition/food microstructure
Richard
W.
Hartel University of Wisconsin-
Processing and preservation
Gustavo
V.
Barbosa-Cinovas Washington State
Safety and toxicology
Sanford Miller University
of
Texas-Austin
Madison
University- Pullman
1.
Flavor Research: Principles and Techniques,
R.
Teranishi,
I.
Hornstein,
P.
ls-

senberg, and
E.
L.
Wick
2.
Principles
of
Enzymology
for
the Food Sciences,
John
R.
Whitaker
3.
Low-Temperature Preservation
of
Foods and Living Matter,
Owen
R.
Fenne-
ma, William D. Powrie, and Elmer H. Marth
4.
Principles
of
Food Science
Part
I:
Food Chemistry,
edited by Owen R. Fennema
Part

II:
Physical Principles
of Food
Preservation,
Marcus Karel,
Owen
R.
Fennema, and Daryl
B.
Lund
5.
Food Emulsions,
edited by Stig
E.
Friberg
6.
Nutritional and Safety Aspects
of
Food Processing,
edited by Steven
R.
Tannenbaum
7.
Flavor Research: Recent Advances,
edited by
R.
Teranishi, Robert
A.
Flath,
and Hiroshi Sugisa wa

8.
Computer-Aided Techniques in Food Technology,
edited by Israel Saguy
9.
Handbook
of
Tropical Foods,
edited by Harvey
T.
Chan
10.
Antimicrobials
in
Foods,
edited by Alfred Larry Branen and
P.
Michael
Davidson
Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
11. Food Constituents and Food Residues: Their Chromatographic Determi-
nation,
edited by James F. Lawrence
12. Aspartame: Physiology and Biochemistry,
edited by Lewis D. Stegink and
L.
J.
Filer, Jr.
1
3.
Handbook of Vitamins: Nutritional, Biochemical, and Clinical Aspects,

edited by Lawrence
J.
Machlin
14. Starch Conversion Technology,
edited by
G.
M. A. van Beynum and
J.
A.
Roels
15. Food Chemistry: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
edited by Owen R.
Fennema
1 6. Sensory Evaluation of Food: Statistical Methods and Procedures,
Michael
0
'Mahony
17. Alternative Sweeteners,
edited by Lyn O'Brien Nabors and Robert
C.
Gelardi
18. Citrus Fruits and Their Products: Analysis and Technology,
S.
V. Ting and
Russell
L.
Rouseff
19. Engineering Properties of Foods,
edited by M. A. Rao and
S. S.

H.
Rizvi
20. Umami: A Basic Taste,
edited by Yojiro Kawamura and Morley R. Kare
21. Food Biotechnology,
edited by Dietrich Knorr
22. Food Texture: Instrumental and Sensory Measurement,
edited by Howard
R. Moskowitz
23. Seafoods and Fish
Oils
in
Human Health and Disease,
John
E.
Kinsella
24.
Postharvest Physiology of Vegetables,
edited by
J.
Weichmann
25. Handbook
of
Dietary Fiber: An Applied Approach,
Mark
L.
Dreher
26. Food Toxicology, Parts A and B,
Jose M. Concon
27. Modern Carbohydrate Chemistry,

Roger W. Binkley
28. Trace Minerals
in
Foods,
edited by Kenneth T. Smith
29. Protein Quality and the Effects of Processing,
edited by
R.
Dixon Phillips
and John W. Finley
30. Adulteration of Fruit Juice Beverages,
edited by Steven Nagy, John A.
Attaway, and Martha
E.
Rhodes
3 1 . Foodborne Bacterial Pathogens,
edited by Michael P. Doyle
32. Legumes: Chemistry, Technology, and Human Nutrition,
edited by Ruth
H.
Ma
t
th e ws
33. Industrialization of Indigenous Fermented Foods,
edited by Keith
H.
Steinkraus
34. International Food Regulation Handbook: Policy Science Law,
edited by
Roger D. Middlekauff and Philippe Shubik

35. Food Additives,
edited by A. Larry Branen,
P.
Michael Davidson, and Seppo
Salminen
36.
Safety
of Irradiated Foods,
J.
F. Diehl
37. Omega-3 Fatty Acids
in
Health and Disease,
edited by Robert
S.
Lees and
Marcus Karel
38. Food Emulsions: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
edited by K6re
Larsson and Stig
E.
Friberg
39. Seafood: Effects of Technology on Nutrition,
George M. Pigott and Barbee
W.
Tucker
40.
Handbook
of
Vitamins: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,

edited by
Lawrence
J.
Machlin
41.
Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology,
Klaus
J.
Lorenz and Karel
Kulp
42. Food Processing Operations and Scale-Up,
Kenneth
J.
Valentas, Leon
Levine, and
J.
Peter Clark
Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
43
44,
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.

55
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61
62
63
64
65
66
67.
68.
69.
70.
71
72.
73.
74.
Fish Quality Control by Computer Vision,
edited by
L.
F.
Pau and R.
Ola fsson
Volatile Compounds
in
Foods and Beverages,
edited by Henk Maarse

Instrumental Methods for Quality Assurance
in
Foods,
edited by Daniel
Y.
C. Fung and Richard
F.
Matthews
Listeria,
Listeriosis, and Food Safety,
Elliot
7.
Ryser and Elmer
H.
Marth
Acesulfame-K,
edited by
D.
G.
Mayer and
F.
H. Kernper
Alternative Sweeteners: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
edited by
Lyn O'Brien Nabors and Robert C. Gelardi
Food Extrusion Science and Technology,
edited by Jozef
L.
Kokini,
Chi-Tang Ho, and Mukund

V.
Karwe
Surimi Technology,
edited by Tyre C. Lanier and Chong M. Lee
Handbook of Food Engineering,
edited by Dennis R. Heldrnan and Daryl
B.
Lund
Food Analysis by HPLC,
edited by Leo
M.
L.
Nollet
Fatty Acids in Foods and Their Health Implications,
edited by Ching Kuang
Chow
Clostridium botulinum:
Ecology and Control in Foods,
edited by Andreas
H.
W.
Hauschild and Karen
L.
Dodds
Cereals
in
Breadmaking: A Molecular Colloidal Approach,
Ann-Charlotte
Eliasson and Ksre Larsson
Low-Calorie Foods Handbook,

edited by Aaron
M.
Altschul
Antimicrobials
in
Foods: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
edited by
P. Michael Davidson and Alfred Larry Branen
Lactic Acid Bacteria,
edited by Seppo Salrninen and Atte von Wright
Rice Science and Technology,
edited
by
Wayne
E.
Marshall and James
I.
Wads worth
Food Biosensor Analysis,
edited by Gabriele Wagner and George
G.
Guilba ult
Principles of Enzymology for the Food Sciences: Second Edition,
John
R.
Whita ker
Carbohydrate Polyesters as Fat Substitutes,
edited by Casimir C. Akoh and
Barry
G.

Swanson
Engineering Properties of Foods: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
edited by
M.
A.
Rao and
S.
S.
H.
Rizvi
Handbook of Brewing,
edited by William A. Hardwick
Analyzing Food for Nutrition Labeling and Hazardous Contaminants,
edited
by lke
J.
Jeon and William
G.
lkins
Ingredient Interactions: Effects on Food Quality,
edited by Anilkurnar
G.
Gaonkar
Food Polysaccharides and Their Applications,
edited by Alistair
M.
Stephen
Safety
of
Irradiated Foods: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,

J.
f.
Diehl
Nutrition Labeling Handbook,
edited by Ralph Shapiro
Hand book of Fruit Science and Technology: Production, Composition, Stor-
age, and Processing,
edited by D.
K.
Salunkhe and
S.
S.
Kadam
Food Antioxidants: Technological, Toxicological, and Health Perspectives,
edited by D.
L.
Madhavi,
S.
S.
Deshpande, and D.
K.
Salunkhe
Freezing Effects on Food Quality,
edited by Lester E. Jeremiah
Handbook of Indigenous Fermented Foods: Second Edition, Revised and Ex-
panded,
edited by Keith
H.
Steinkraus
Carbohydrates in Food,

edited by Ann-Charlotte Eliasson
Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
75. Baked Goods Freshness: Technology, Evaluation, and Inhibition of Staling,
edited by Ronald E. Hebeda and Henry F. Zobel
76. Food Chemistry: Third Edition,
edited by Owen
R.
Fennema
77. Handbook of Food Analysis: Volumes 1 and
2,
edited by Leo
M.
L. Nollet
78. Computerized Control Systems
in
the Food Industry,
edited by Gauri
S.
Mittal
79. Techniques for Analyzing Food Aroma,
edited by Ray Marsili
80. Food Proteins and Their Applications,
edited by Srinivasan Damodaran and
Alah Paraf
81. Food Emulsions: Third Edition, Revised and Expanded,
edited by Stig
E,
Fri-
berg and KZre Larsson
82.

Nonthermal Preservation of Foods,
Gustavo
V.
Barbosa-Canovas, Usha R.
Pothakamury, Enrique Palou, and Barry
G.
Swanson
83. Milk and Dairy Product Technology,
Edgar Spreer
84.
Applied Dairy Microbiology,
edited by Elmer H. Marth and James
L.
Steele
85. Lactic Acid Bacteria: Microbiology and Functional Aspects, Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded,
edited by Seppo Salminen and Atte von Wright
86. Handbook of Vegetable Science and Technology: Production, Composition,
Storage, and Processing,
edited by D. K. Salunkhe and
S.
S.
Kadam
87. Polysaccharide Association Structures
in
Food,
edited by Reginald H.
Walter
88. Food Lipids: Chemistry, Nutrition, and Biotechnology,
edited by Casimir

C.
Akoh and David B. Min
89. Spice Science and Technology,
Kenji Hirasa and Mitsuo Takemasa
90. Dairy Technology: Principles of Milk Properties and Processes,
P. Walstra,
T.
J.
Geurts, A. Noomen, A. Jellema, and
M.
A.
J.
S.
van Boekel
91. Coloring of Food, Drugs, and Cosmetics,
Gisbert Otterststter
92.
Listeria,
Listeriosis, and Food Safety: Second Edition, Revised and Ex-
panded,
edited by Elliot T. Ryser and Elmer H. Marth
93.
Complex Carbohydrates in Foods,
edited by Susan Sungsoo Cho, Leon
Prosk
y,
and Mark Dreher
94. Handbook of Food Preservation,
edited by
M.

Shafiur Rahman
95. International Food Safety Handbook: Science, International Regulation, and
Control,
edited by Kees van der Heyden, Maged Younes, Lawrence
Fishbein, and Sanford Miller
96. Fatty Acids
in
Foods and Their Health Implications: Second Edition, Revised
and Expanded,
edited by Ching Kuang Chow
97. Seafood Enzymes: Utilization and Influence on Postharvest Seafood
Quality,
edited by Norman F. Haard and Benjamin K. Simpson
98. Safe Handling of Foods,
edited by Jeffrey
M.
Farber and €wen C. D. Todd
99. Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology: Second Edition, Revised and
Expanded,
edited by Karel Kulp and Joseph G. Ponte, Jr.
100.
Food Analysis by HPLC: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
edited by
Leo
M.
L.
Nollet
101.
Surimi and Surimi Seafood,
edited by Jae

W.
Park
102. Drug Residues
in
Foods: Pharmacology, Food Safety, and Analysis,
Nickos
A. Botsoglou and Dimitrios
J.
Fletouris
1 03.
Seafood and Freshwater Toxins: Pharmacology, Physiology, and Detection,
edited by Luis
M.
Botana
104.
Handbook of Nutrition and Diet,
Babasaheb B. Desai
1
05.
Nondestructive Food Evaluation: Techniques to Analyze Properties and
Quality,
edited by Sundaram Gunasekaran
106. Green Tea: Health Benefits and Applications,
Yukihiko Hara
Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
107. Food Processing Operations Modeling: Design and Analysis,
edited by
Joseph lruda yaraj
108. Wine Microbiology: Science and Technology,
Claudio Delfini and Joseph V.

Formica
109. Handbook of Microwave Technology for Food Applications,
edited by
Ashim
K.
Datta and Ramaswamy C. Anantheswaran
1
10.
Applied Dairy Microbiology: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
edited
by Elmer H. Marth and James
L.
Steele
11
1.
Transport Properties
of
Foods,
George
0.
Saravacos and Zacharias
B.
Maroulis
1 12. Alternative Sweeteners: Third Edition, Revised and Expanded,
edited by
Lyn O'Brien Nabors
11 3. Handbook of Dietary Fiber,
edited by Susan Sungsoo Cho and Mark
L.
Dreher

114. Control
of
Foodborne Microorganisms,
edited by Vuay K. Juneja and John
N. Sofos
1 15. Flavor, Fragrance, and Odor Analysis,
edited by Ray Marsili
1 16. Food Additives: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
edited by A. Larry
Branen, P. Michael Davidson, Seppo Salminen, and John H. Thorngate,
Ill
1 1 7. Food Lipids: Chemistry, Nutrition, and Biotechnology: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded,
edited by Casimir C. Akoh and David
B.
Min
1 18. Food Protein Analysis: Quantitative Effects on Processing,
R. K.
Owusu-
A
pen ten
1 19. Handbook of Food Toxicology,
S.
S.
Deshpande
120. Food Plant Sanitation,
edited by
Y,
H. Hui, Bernard
L.

Bruinsma,
J.
Richard
Gorham, Wai-Kit Nip, Phillip
S.
Tong, and Phil Ventresca
121. Physical Chemistry
of
Foods,
Pieter Walstra
122. Handbook
of
Food Enzymology,
edited by John
R.
Whitaker, Alphons G.
J,
Voragen, and Dominic W.
S.
Wong
1 23. Postharvest Physiology and Pathology
of
Vegetables: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded,
edited by Jerry A. Bartz and Jeffrey K. Brecht
1 24. Characterization of Cereals and Flours: Properties, Analysis, and Ap-
plications,
edited by Goniil Kaletune and Kenneth
J.
Breslauer

125. International Handbook of Foodborne Pathogens,
edited by Marianne D.
Miliotis and Jeffrey
W.
Bier
126. Food Process Design,
Zacharias B. Marwlis and George
0.
Saravacos
127. Handbook of Dough Fermentations,
edited by Karel Kulp and Klaus Lorenz
1
28.
Extraction Optimization
in
Food Engineering,
edited by Constantina Tzia
and George Liadakis
129. Physical Principles
of
Food Preservation: Second Edition, Revised and
Expanded,
Marcus Karel and Daryl
B.
Lund
130. Handbook
of
Vegetable Preservation and Processing,
edited by
Y.

H. Hui,
Sue Ghazala, Dee M. Graham,
K.
D. Murrell, and Wai-Kit Nip
1 31. Handbook
of
Flavor Characterization: Sensory Analysis, Chemistry, and
Physiology,
edited by Kathryn
0.
Deibler and Jeannine Delwiche
132. Food Emulsions: Fourth Edition, Revised and Expanded,
edited by Stig
E.
Friberg, Kire Larsson, and Johan Sjoblom
133. Handbook of Frozen Foods,
edited by
Y.
H. Hui, Paul Cornillon, Isabel
Guerrero Legarreta, Miang H. Lim, K.
0.
Murrell, and Wai-Kit Nip
134. Handbook of Food and Beverage Fermentation Technology,
edited by
Y.
H.
Hui, Lisbeth Meunier- Goddik, he Solvejg Hansen, Jytte Josephsen, Wai- Kit
Nip, Peggy
S.
Stanfield, and Fidel Toldra

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
135.
Genetic Variation
in
Taste Sensitivity, edited by John Prescott and Beverly
J. Tepper
1
36. Industrialization
of
Indigenous Fermented Foods: Second Edition, Revised
and Expanded, edited by Keith
H.
Steinkraus
Additional Volumes
in
Preparation
Handbook
of
Food Analysis: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded:
Volumes
1
,
2,
and
3,
edited by Leo
M.
L.
Nollet
Vitamin

E:
Food Chemistry, Composition, and Analysis, Ronald Eitenmiller
and Junsoo Lee
Lactic Acid Bacteria: Microbiological and Functional Aspects, Third Edition,
Revised and Expanded, edited by Seppo Salminen, Atte von Wright, and
Arthur
Ou wehand
Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Preface
Fermented food is a very interesting category of food products. In every ethnic group in the
world, there are fermented foods produced from recipes handed down from generation to
generation. Such food products play an important role in cultural identity, local economy,
and gastronomical delight. The manufacture of some of the more popular fermented food
products has been industrialized, while others are still produced at home using traditional
methods with little scientific input.
Fermentation changes the initial characteristics of a food into a product that is sig-
nificantly different but highly acceptable by consumers. Of course, consumer preference for
fermented food varies within and between cultures. For example, within the United States,
many consumers like pickles although some do not. The trend in North America is toward
acceptance and preference of foreign fermented food products. You can find fermented
black beans and black bean sauce (Chinese), kimchi (Korean), and jalapen
˜
opeppers
(Mexican) in almost every major grocery chain in North America.
Although reference books on fermented foods have been in existence for at least 50
years, those with details on the science, technology, and engineering of food fermentation
began to appear after 1980. Scientific literature in the past decade has been flooded with new
applications of genetic engineering in the fermentation of food products, especially in the
dairy field.
This book provides an up-to-date reference for fermented foods and beverages.

Almost every book on food fermentation has something not found in others. The Hand-
book of Food and Beverage Fermentation Technology provides a detailed background of
history, microorganisms, quality assurance, and the manufacture of general fermented
food products, and discusses the production of seven categories of fermented foods and
beverages:
Semisolid dairy products, e.g., sour cream
Solid dairy products, e.g., cheese
Meat products, e.g., sausages
Soy products, e.g., soy sauce
Vegetables, e.g., Korean kimchi
Cereal foods, e.g., sourdoughs
Beverages, e.g., fermented milks
Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Traditional fermented products are discussed, including yogurt, cheese, sausages, tofu,
sauerkraut, sourdoughs, and whiskey. We also present details of the manufacture and
quality characteristics of some fermented foods that may not be included in other books in
the English language. These include fromage frais, Scandinavian cheeses, fungal sausages,
miso, Chinese pickles, African kenkey, and semifermented tea. Although this book has
several unique characteristics, many topics are omitted for a variety of reasons, including
space limitation, product selection, and the contributors’ areas of expertise.
This book is unique in several aspects: it is an updated and comprehensive reference
source, it contains topics not covered in similar books, and its contrib utors include experts
from government, industry, and academia worldwide. The book has 47 chapters and is
divided into eight parts. It is the cooperative effort of 59 international contributors from 17
countries with expertise in one or more fermented products, led by an editorial team of seven
members from three countries. In sum, the approach for this book makes it an essential
reference on food fermentation.
The editorial team thanks all the contributors for sharing their experience in their fields
of expertise. They are the people who made this book possible. We hope you enjoy and
benefit from the fruits of their labor.

We know how hard it is to dev elop the content of a book. However, we believe that
the production of a professional book of this nature is even more difficult. We thank the
production team at Marcel Dekker, Inc., and express our appreciation to Ms. Theresa
Stockton, coordinator of the entire project.
You are the best judge of the quality of this book.
Y. H. Hui
Lisbeth Meunier-Goddik
A
˚
se Solvejg Hansen
Jytte Josephsen
Wai-Kit Nip
Peggy S. Stanfield
Fidel Toldra
´
Prefaceiv
Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Contents
Preface
Contributors
PART I. CULTURED PRODUCTS: HISTORY, PRINCIPLES,
AND APPLICATIO NS
1.OriginandHistoryofFoodFermentations
Keith H. Steinkraus
2.Microorganisms
Egon Bech Hansen
3.StarterCulturesandFermentedProducts
Jytte Josephsen and Lene Jespersen
4.ManufactureofFermentedProducts
Wai-Kit Nip

5.QualityandFlavorofFermentedProducts
Gerrit Smit, Jan T. M. Wouters, and Wilco C. Meijer
PART II. SEMISOLID CULTURED DAIRY PRODUCTS
6.SemisolidCulturedDairyProducts:PrinciplesandApplications
Dilip Patel and Marcia Walker
7.Yogurt
K. R. Nauth
8.SourCreamandCre
`
meFraıˆ che
Lisbeth Meunier-Goddik
Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
9. Yogurt and Sour Cream: Operational Procedures and Pr ocessing
Equipment
Stephanie Clark and Virgin ia Cristina Plotka
10.FromageFrais
Lisbeth Meunier-Goddik
11. Semisolid Cultured Dairy Pr oducts: Packaging, Quality Assurance,
andSanitation
Yanyun Zhao
PART III. SOLID CULTU RED DAIRY PRODUCTS
12.PrinciplesofCheeseProduction
E. Waagner Nielsen
13.TraditionalGreekFeta
Anna Polychroniadou-Alichanidou
14.CheddarCheese
Jean M. Banks and Alan G. Williams
15.SemihardScandinavianCheesesMadewithMesophilicDL-Starter
Ylva Ardo
¨

16.CheesesMadewithThermophilicLacticStarters
Sylvie Lortal
17. Manufacture of Cheese: Operational Procedures and Processing
Equipment
J. M. Buch Kristensen, E. Waagner Nielsen, and Jytte Josephsen
18.PackagingofCheeses
Grith Mortensen, Grete Bertelsen, and Per V. Nielsen
19.CheeseProduction:QualityControlandSanitation
Søren Lillevang
PART IV. FERMENTED MEATS
20.MeatFermentation:PrinciplesandApplications
Daniel Demeyer
21.Dry-CuredHam
Fidel Toldra
´
Contentsvi
Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
22.SemidryFermentedSausages
Joseph G. Sebranek
23.Dry-FermentedSausages
Re
´
gine Talon, Sabine Leroy-Se
´
trin, and Silvina Fadda
24.Mold-RipenedSausages
K. Incze
25. Meat Products Processing: Operational Procedures and
ProcessingEquipment
P. Baldini

26.FermentedandDry-CuredMeat:PackagingandQualityControl
Fidel Toldra
´
, Rafael Gavara, and Jose
´
M. Lagaro
´
n
27.MeatProcessingPlantSanitation
Norman G. Marriott
PART V. FERMENTED SOY PRODUCTS
28.FermentedSoyFoods:AnOverview
Keshun Liu
29.SoySauce:ManufacturingandBiochemicalChanges
Tzou-Chi Huang and Der-Feng Teng
30.FermentedWholeSoybeansandSoybeanPaste
Der-Feng Teng, Chyi -Shen Lin, and Pao-Chuan Hsieh
31.FermentedTofu:SufuandStinkyTofu
Der-Feng Teng, Chyi -Shen Lin, and Pao-Chuan Hsieh
32.Tempeh:The‘‘Other’’WhiteBeancake
Seth Tibbott
PART VI. FERMENTED VEGETABLES
33.Fermentation:PrinciplesandMicroorganisms
Ken-Yuon Li
34.ChinesePickles:LeafMustardandDerivedProducts
Robin Y Y. Chiou
35.Kimchi
Kun-Young Park and Hong-Sik Cheigh
Contents vii
Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

36.Jalapen
˜
oPepperPreservationbyFermentationorPickling
Rosa Marı
´
a Galicia Cabrera
37.Sauerkraut
Yong D. Hang
38. Pickle Manufacturing in the United States: Quality Assurance
andEstablishmentInspection
Y. H. Hui
PART VII. FERMENTED CEREAL FOODS
39.Baker’sYeast
Bernard Poitrenaud
40.FermentedCereal-BasedFunctionalFoods
Hannu Salovaara and Lauri Simonson
41.SourdoughBread
A
˚
se Solvejg Hansen
42.FermentedDoughsinBreadProduction
Friedrich Meuser and Margi t Valentin
43.Packaging,QualityControl,andSanitationofBakeryProducts
Per V. Nielsen
44.Kenkey:AnAfricanFermentedMaizeProduct
Mary Halm, Wisdom Kofi Amoa-Awua, and Mogens Jakobsen
PART VIII. BEVERAGES
45.FermentedLiquidMilkProducts
Vikram V. Mistry
46.PartiallyFermentedTea

Tze-neng Kan, Yung-sheng Tsai, Ru-hwa Chang, and Wai-Kit Nip
47.Whiskey
Michael Henderson
Contentsviii
Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Contributors
Wisdom Kofi Amoa-Awua Food Research Institute of the Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research, Accra, Ghana
Ylva Ardo
¨
The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Frederiksberg, Denmark
P. Baldini Stazione Sperimentale per l’Industria delle Conserve Alimentari, Parma, Italy
Jean M. Banks Hannah Research Institute, Ayr, Scotland
Grete Bertelsen The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Frederiksberg, Den-
mark
Ru-hwa Chang Taiwan Tea Experiment Station, Council of Agriculture, Yangmei,
Taoyuan, Taiwan
Hong-Sik Cheigh Pusan National University, Busan, Korea
Robin Y Y. Chiou National Chiayi University, Chiayi, Taiwan
Stephanie Clark Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, U.S.A.
Daniel Demeyer Ghent University, Melle, Belgium
Silvina Fadda Institut National de la Recherch e Agronomique, Saint-Gene
`
s Champanelle,
France
Rosa Marı
´
a Galicia Cabrera Universidad Auto
´
noma Metropolitana, Mexico City, Mexico

Rafael Gavara Instituto de Agroquı
´
mica y Tecnologı
´
a de Alimentos (CSIC), Valencia,
Spain
Mary Halm Food Research Institute of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research,
Accra, Ghana
Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Yong D. Hang Cornell University, Geneva, New York, U.S.A.
Egon Bech Hansen Danisco A/S, Copenhagen, Denmark
A
˚
se Solvejg Hansen The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Frederiksberg,
Denmark
Michael Henderson Consultant, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada
Pao-Chuan Hsieh National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung,
Taiwan
Tzou-Chi Huang National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung,
Taiwan
Y. H. Hui Science Technology System, West Sacramento, California, U.S.A.
K. Incze Hungarian Meat Research Institute, Budapest, Hungary
Mogens Jakobsen The Royal Veterinary and Agri cultural University, Copenhagen, Den-
mark
Lene Jespersen The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Frederiksberg, Den-
mark
Jytte Josephsen The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Frederiksberg, Den-
mark
Tze-neng Kan Council of Agriculture, Taipei, Taiwan
J. M. Buch Kristensen Dalum Technical College, The Dairy Training Centre of Denmark,

Odense, Denmark
Jose
´
M. Lagaro
´
n Instituto de Agroquı
´
mica y Technologı
´
a de Alimentos (CSIC), Valencia,
Spain
Sabine Leroy-Se
´
trin Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Saint-Gene
`
s Cham-
panelle, France
Ken-Yuon Li Tung-Hai University, Taichung, Taiwan
Søren Lillevang Arla Foods, Brabrand, Denmark
Chyi-Shen Lin National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung,
Taiwan
Keshun Liu University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, U.S.A.
Contributorsx
Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Sylvie Lortal INRA Technologie Laitie
`
re, Rennes, France
Norman G. Marriott Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg,
Virginia, U.S.A.
Wilco C. Meijer NIZO Food Research, Ede, The Netherlands

Lisbeth Meunier-Goddik Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, U.S.A.
Friedrich Meuser Technical University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany
Vikram V. Mistry South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota, U.S.A.
Grith Mortensen Arla Foods, Viby, Denmark
K. R. Nauth Nauth Consulting Inc., Wheeling, Illinois, U.S.A.
Per V. Nielsen Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
E. Waagner Nielsen The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Fr ederiksberg,
Denmark
Wai-Kit Nip University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii, U.S.A.
Kun-Young Park Pusan National University, Busan, Korea
Dilip Patel Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, U.S.A.
Virginia Cristina Plotka Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, U.S.A.
Anna Polychroniadou-Alichanidou Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki,
Greece
Bernard Poitrenaud Lesaffre International, Marcq-en-Barœul, France
Hannu Salovaara University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
Joseph G. Sebranek Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, U.S.A.
Lauri Simonson Cargill Foods, High River, Alberta, Canada
Gerrit Smit NIZO Food Research, Ede, The Netherlands
Keith H. Steinkraus Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, U.S.A.
Re
´
gine Talon Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Saint-Gene
`
s Champanelle,
France
Contributors xi
Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Der-Feng Teng National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung,
Taiwan

Seth Tibbott Turtle Island Foods, Inc., Hood River, Oregon, U.S.A.
Fidel Toldra
´
Instituto de Agroquı
´
mica y Tec nologı
´
a de Alimentos (CSIC), Valencia, Spain
Yung-sheng Tsai Taiwan Tea Experiment Station, Council of Agriculture, Yangmei,
Taoyuan, Taiwan
Margit Valentin Technical University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany
Marcia Walker Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, U.S.A.
Alan G. Williams Hannah Research Institute, Ayr, Scotland
Jan T. M. Wouters NIZO Food Research, Ede, The Netherlands
Yanyun Zhao Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, U.S.A.
Contributorsxii
Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
1
Origin and History of Food Fermentations
Keith H. Steinkraus
Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, U.S.A.
If you know the history of man’s food, you know the history of man.
KHS
I. INTRODUCTION
According to current scientific thought, the universe is approximately 15 billion years old
and the Earth is approximately 4.5 billion years old. Fossil microorganisms have been found
in rocks 3.3 to 3.5 billion years old (1). They were the first forms of life to appear on Earth.
They were likely the blue-green algae, which contain a pigment enabling them to use the
sun’s radiation to synthesize carbohydrates. They contain deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
and ribonucleic acid (RNA) similar to all other forms of life today. They also contain the

enzymes, proteases, amylases, lipases, and other enzymes required to hydrolyze proteins,
starches, and lipids necessary for recycling. This was very fortunate because microorganisms
have been required ever since as recyclers of organic matter. Without them, the Earth would
be a giant dumping ground containing all forms of organic matter and dead bodies. Initially,
microorganisms consumed organic matter, including dead organisms, as food for their own
energy requirements. Later, after plants and animals evolved, microorganisms consumed
dead plants and animals and became able to invade plants and animals, causing disease—in
some ways the first stage in recycling.
The next forms of life, evolving about a billion years later, were plants, also based upon
DNA/RNA and having the ability to convert carbon dioxide and water to carbohydrates
using the sun’s radiation for energy. The plants became the food supply for future evolution
of animals, including humans. Microorganisms recycled the plants, consuming them as
food/energy as they died, returning them to soil for future plant growth. Plant life evolved in
a sea of microorganisms and thus had to have means of resisting invasion (plant disease)
even when alive. They did this by developing a ligno-cellulose structure that resists microbial
invasion. A seed germinating in the soil has to survive the onslaught of billions of
microorganisms that, given the opportunity, would destroy the seed and/or recycle the
developing plant. Plants, their leaves and roots—cassava, sweet potatoes, yams—berries,
Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
fruits, nuts and cereal grains—particularly wheat, rice, maize, barley, rye, oats, millet, and
sorghum—and legumes, beans, and peas are major staples of our food supply today.
Millions of years before humans appeared on earth, all the chemical and enzyme
reactions needed for food fermentations were present as part of the recycling reactions used
by microorganisms to digest and recycle plant components; for example, fermentation of
fruits and fruit juices to wine and vinegar, germination of grains as the first step in brewing
alcoholic beverages, and souring of milk. When humans and other animals evolved on
Earth, they had to consume the food supply either before it was invaded by microorganisms
and recycled or while in various stages of recycling—the fermented foods. When microbes
produced unpleasant aromas or flavors in the food or produced toxins that cau sed illness or
death, the food was spoiled and humans learned to avoid it. If the invasion of the food

components by microorganisms yielde d attractive aromas, flavors, and textures, humans
learned to appreciate and desire such foods. These were the beginning of fermented foods,
including sour milk, cheeses, wines and beers, vinegar, lactic acid products such as sauer-
kraut, and hundreds of other fermented foods consumed today.
There is another factor related to fermented foods and lost in antiquity, and that is salt:
common salt, sodium chloride, or sea salt—a mixture of sodium, potassium, magnesium,
and calcium salts found in seawater. Salt has been highly prized for thou sands of years. In
ancient times, soldiers received part of their pay in the form of salt (or salary) and, even
today salt is vital to producing savory foods, based primarily on its condiment value, but it
was also valued throughout history as a preservative. Salt in suitable concentrations, pre-
vents putrefaction and leads to a controlled protein hydrolysis.
When ponds of seawater dry up under the influence of temperature and wind-flow
(actually a method of producing sea salt even today), the seawater may contain fish and
other sea animals that isolated in the seawater die their bodies are self-autolyzed by their
enzymes, leading to amino acid/peptide concentrations. It is likely that humans discovered
that such animal residues in high salt brines were savory condiments.
Humans also discovered very early that salt could preserve fish or other animal tissues,
especially when they were sun-dried, and such salted, sun-dried fish are staple foods in many
marine areas of the world today.
Seawater also may have played a role in primitive lactic acid fermentation/preserva-
tion of plant materials because such materials stored in seawater would likely undergo lactic
acid fermentation as well.
It has been hypothesized by anthropologists (2) that it was alcoholic fermentation and
the desire for alcohol that motivated humans to settle down and become agriculturists.
Humans could not have survived over the millenni a without fermented foods. Fermenta-
tions preserve foods, improve digestibility and enrich substrates with essential vitamins,
amino acids, and fatty acids. They also convert vegetable proteins to savory meat-like
flavors and textures and yield the diverse flavors and aromas that enriched the human diet in
the past, enrich our diets today, and will continue to do so in the future.
II. HISTORY OF SELECTED FERMENTED FOODS

A. Alcoholic Fermentations
Mead/Honeywine. Honeybees have been producing honey from flowering plants and
probably also from honeydew for 10 to 20 million years before humans appeared on earth
(3). Honey was the world’s first concen trated sweet. Its sugar concentration (about 80%) is
too high for honey to undergo fermentation or even spoilage without dilution. It was the
reserve food for the honeybees themselves but also sought after by humans and animals such
Steinkraus2
Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
as bears. Diluted with water such as rain, however, it will undergo fermentation by yeasts
that live in the surrounding environment. So it is likely that honey/mead fermentation was
occurring long before humans arrived and continues as a fermentation today.
Primitive wines and beers are vastly different from our modern wines and beers. The
former are generally cloudy, effervescent beverages containing not only liquid but particles
of the fermenting substrate, yeast cells along with the alcohol, and B vitamins. They are very
nutritious and energy-rich.
An example is African kafir/sorghum beer. The art of kafir beer production goes back
to prehistoric times. In the villages, kafir beer is made by women: girls learn how to make
kafir beer for their husbands before they marry (4). Sorghum grains or millet are germinated,
sundried, ground, and mixed with sorghum, millet, or maize flours and water, and then
cooked, cooled, and fermented by the residual yeasts and the dregs in the containers.
Fermentation is carried out in large crocks or drums (5).
Fermentations involving production of ethanol are among the most ancient fermen-
tations known. The most primitive methodology utilizes chewing the grains to introduce
saliva (ptyalin) as a source of amylase to hydrolyze the starch to sugar and has been used for
centuries. An example is chicha, produced in the Andes region of South America (6). Even
today, women and children sit in a circle chewing maize kernels. The gobs are then removed
from the mouth and sundried. Later they are placed in crocks covered with water and al-
lowed to ferment with yeasts in the environment. The yellow colored cloudy liquid contains
as much as 6% ethanol and a wide variety of B vitamins. In ancient Incan times, the emperor
himself could hold office only as long as he delivered sufficient chicha to the citizens. In

ancient Japan, rice wine/sake was also produced using chewing of grains as a source of
amylase to convert the starch to sugar (7). Later it was discovered that rice overgrown with
Aspergillus, Rhizopus,orMucor molds also became sweet and could be fermented to rice
wine. Among the more complex sweet/sour alcoholic foods are tapay, tapai, tape’ and
Chinese Lao-chao. These generally rely on two or more fungi for their produ ction. These can
include Amylomyces rouxii, a yeast-like mold, and Endomycopsis fibuliger, a mold-like yeast
(8).
Thousands of years ago in Egypt, wheat grains/flour were made into lightly baked
bread that was then moistened with water and fermented to a primitive beer—bouza.
Still earlier in human history, at the dawn of agricultur e, when grains were collected in
crocks, it is highly likely that such grains, on occasion, became moistened with rain, ger-
minated, and fermented to primitive beers.
The most ancient Mexican alcoholic beverage is pulque, made by fermenting pulp
juices from the Agave plant. Leuconostoc mesenteroides produces dextrans that add texture
to the beverage. The alcohol is produced by Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a yeast, or by
Zymomonas mobilis, an alcohol-producing bacterium. Pulque is very rich in B vitamins
and plays a vital role in the nutrition of, in particular, the economica lly disadvantaged in
Mexico (4).
B. Vinegar—the Acetic Acid Fermentation
Primitive alcoholic beverages generally contain some acetic acid, but the amount is limited
as long as the fermentation remains anaerobic. The rapid production of carbon dioxide
helps maintain anaerobiosis by providing a layer of CO
2
on the surface of the fermenting
materials. However, when the alcoholic fermentation stops, Acetobacter sp. become active
as soon as oxygen becomes available, and a portion of the ethanol is converted to acetic
acid—vinegar. Vinegar is an ancient condiment and extremely useful as a pickling agent or
even as a medicinal because it is germicidal.
History of Food Fermentations 3
Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Savory/Meat Flavored Sauces and Pastes. It is not known who discovered how to
transform bland vegetable protein into meat-flavored sauces and pastes. It may have been an
accident; nevertheless, it was one of the great discoveries in food science. When seeds fall
upon the ground, they either germinate, forming new plants, or they become overgrown with
microorganisms as the first step in recycling. The seed coat is rather resi stant to microbial
growth, so the first organisms to penetrate into the cotyledons are often molds that produce
proteases, lipases, and amylases that hydrolyze the various components in the seed. Thus,
the mold–overgrown seeds become a source of enzymes. Of scientific importance, such
moldy seeds are described as a ‘‘koji’’ and can be used to hydrolyze the proteins, lipids, and
starches in other vegetable or animal products. The first koji in recorded literature was a
millet kogi. Millet koji was mixed with meat, fish, or fowl and salt and stored in a bottle for
100 days. The first reference to meat-flavored pastes was made about 3000 years ago during
the Chou dynasty in China (9). The first reference to soybeans as a substitute for meat was in
the world’s oldest encyclopedia of agriculture, published in
A.D. 535 in China.
Soybeans, rich in protein, are an excellent source of nutrition. In order to be palatable,
they must be hydrated/soaked and cooked. As long as soybeans remain dry they are not
susceptible to microbial spoilage. After being hydrated, however, they become susceptible to
overgrowth by bacteria and molds, as is true of most seeds. The first savo ry products were all
mashes or pastes. It was not until about
A.D. 25–220. that liquid sauces appeared in the
literature in the Han dynasty (9).
In a simple primitive process of producing savory soybean paste, soybeans are soaked
and cooked and made into a ball covered with rice straw and placed under the ceiling of the
house where it is warm. Aspergillus molds present in the straw overgrow the soybeans in
approximately 30 days. The mold-covered soybeans are then mixed with sea salt brine and
allowed to digest for a year or longer. Enzymes from the mold digest the proteins, lipids, and
carbohydrates, yielding savory amino acid/peptide–flavored soybean paste. Liquid released
from the soybean paste is a tamari-type soy sauce very rich in savory amino acid/peptide
flavors (10).

We can only guess what effect soybean paste and soy sauce had on consumers used to
eating pred ominately bland rice. It was one of the great discoveries of food science, and
along with soy sauce and miso we have Nestle
`
‘‘Maggi’’-type meat flavors and bouillon
cubes in today’s markets.
C. Fermentations Yielding Meat-like Textures
Indonesian tempeh fermentation is closely related to soy sauce fermentation as the first stage
is an overgrowth of soybeans with a mold, Rhizopus oligosporous or related strains (4,11,12).
The fungal mycelium knits the soybean cotyledons into a compact cake that can be sliced
thin and deep-fat fried or cut into cubes for use in soups. This fermentation has been carried
out in Indonesia for hundreds of years by people untrained in micro biology or chemistry—
yet they have the ability to produce high-quality tempeh.
The most surprising thing about tempeh fermentation is that in recent years a new
high-technology industry has developed with the objective of producing meat substitutes
(4,13–15). There are two major methods. The first is to extract soybean protein and spin it
into fibers by passing the protein strands through a chemical bath. The resulting fibers are
oriented to a meat-like texture and meat flavors are added. The dehydrated chunks are
used in soups and other food products as vegetarian meat substitutes. It is a very
sophisticated and relatively expensive food pr ocessing technique. Indonesian tempeh
achieves much the same objective by fermentation in which mold mycelium provides the
Steinkraus4
Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
meat-like texture and the resulting products are within the financial means of the average
Indonesian.
A second method of producing meat substitutes is even more closely related to the
tempeh process in that it involves growing edible strains of Fusarium graminearum mold
mycelium, harvesting the mycelium by centrifugation/filtration and adding meat flavors,
and then dehydration. This process was developed by Rank, Hovis, MacDoughall (RHM)
in England (16,17). The nuggets are based on mold mycelium for texture plus added flavors.

This technology is advanced and sophisticated and relatively expensive compared to the
tempeh process.
Indonesian tempeh achieves a similar degree of texture as a meat substitute by
overgrowing soak ed, dehulled, cooked soybean cotyledons with Rhizopus oligosporous
mycelium.
D. Lactic Acid Fermentations
Lactic acid fermentations are among the most ancient and important fermentations in the
world: they enabled the human race to survive and thrive and they remain very important in
the diets of humans today (4).
Lactic acid fermentations became know n to humans as soon as they started domes-
ticating and milking cows, sheep, and goats. People had to store the milk in a container, and
one of the earliest containers was the stomachs of slaughtered animals. Milk sours very
rapidly because of its natural content of lactic acid bacteria. Sour milk became one of the
first fermented foods after humans settled down and became agriculturists, and it lives on in
the form of yogurts today. Stored in animal stomachs, the sour milk curdled, lost its whey,
and became primitive cheeses through the activities of other lactic microorganisms in the
environment. For millennia, cheeses have been an important part of the diet of humans and
they remain so today.
Lactic acid fermentations are very energy efficient, generally requiring no heating
or cooking either before or after fermentation. A prime example of lactic acid vegetable
fermentations is the sauerkraut fermentation. Fresh cabbage is shredded and mixed with
2.25% w/w salt (sodium chloride). The salted cabbage is placed in a crock and covered with a
lid or a plastic cover that allows no penetration of air. The natural fermentation (no
inoculum required) begins with the development of Leuconostoc mesenteroides. L. mesen-
teroides produces both lactic acid and carbon dioxide, which flush es out any residual
oxygen, helping to maintain anaerobic conditions. The second organism that develops is
Lactobacillus brevis, which produces additional lactic acid and carbon dioxide. This is
followed by Lactobacillus plantarum, which produces additional acid. The last organ ism to
develop is Pediococcus cerevisiae, which produces additional acid. The final product has an
acidity of about 1.7% to 2.3% acid (as lactic) and has excellent keeping quality as long as the

product is kept anaerobic. The sauerkraut can be eaten fresh without cooking as a salad or
cooked as a hot food.
Another lactic acid fermentation is that of Korean kimchi, which is a staple in the
diet of the average Korean, who may eat 100 g a day in summer and 150 g a day in the
winter. In Korean kimchi, Chinese cabbage is a prime substrate but radishes, red peppers,
and other vegetables may be included. The vegeta bles are shredded and immersed in a
strong salt brine (5–7% salt for 12 hours or 15% salt for 3–7 hours) followed by draining
and rinsing. The subsequent fermentation time depends on the tempe rature of fermenta-
tion (one day at 30jC or 3–60 days at 5jC). Kimchi is less acidic than sauerkraut and the
product is carbonated.
History of Food Fermentations 5
Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Lactic acid fermentation has been applied to most vegetables such as cucumbers and
carrots, and some green fruits, such as limes and olives. It has been utilized by Indian farmers
to preserve excess vegetables during the growing season. Lactic acid fermentation is utilized
throughout the world as a prime method of preserving fresh vegetables.
It is likely that bread fermentations began as soon as humans started to use fire/
cooking and grinding starchy grains such as barley, wheat, millet, rye, and sorghum to
make them more easily consumed. Such flours slurried with water, immediately begin to
ferment by lactic acid organisms and yeasts in the environment. These microorganisms
struggle for survival in the increasingly acidic mixture. The outcome generally includes one
or more lactic acid species and one or more yeasts. If the flour-water slurry is dense enough
to form a dough or pancake-like structure and it is baked, it will yield, depending on the
conditions, leavened or sourdough-like breads. Since at least 5000
B.C., breads have played
a significant role in human diets. Wheat flours contain gluten, which retains the carbon
dioxide produced by heterofermentative lactic acid bacteria and yeasts fermenting
symbiotically.
Rice does not contain gluten, so it cannot yield leavened bread, but people from the
region known today as India discovered a way of producing bread-like foods from rice by

combining fermentation of rice with that of legumes such as black gram. Both ingredients
are soaked in water and then ground in a mortar to make a stiff ba tter that when incubated
overnight is leavened (rises) so that it can be steamed (Indian idli) or cooked as a pancake
(Indian dosa) adding leavened bread–like products to the Indian diet (4).
III. SUMMARY
Fermented foods go back to the origins of microorganisms, the first forms of life on Earth
followed by the evolution of plants—the basis of human foods—and the subsequent
interrelationships between microorganisms that have the task of recycling organic matter
and the plants upon which humans and all animals depend for food and energy. Plants and
plant materials (foods) are subject to recycling by microorganisms as soon as grown. If they
are harvested and consumed immediately (e.g., fresh fruits and berries), there has been little,
if any, fermentation or recycling. Recycling and fermentation are acceptable as long as the
products are attractive in flavor and aroma and do not contain any toxic products. If the
flavors and aromas are unacceptable to the consumer or the plant materials contain toxic
material, the potential foods are described as ‘‘spoiled. ’’ Fermented foo ds are consumed in
various stages of recycling. The human race has been dependent on acceptable degrees of
recycling and foo d fermentation from the beginning of history and remains dependent still
today, although modern technology—canning, freezing, and dehydration—enables humans
to postpone recycling and preserve foods for extended periods of time.
The human race has depended upon fermented foods as major sources of food and
energy over millennia, continues to do so today, and wi ll do so for the future.
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Steinkraus6
Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
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History of Food Fermentations 7

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