Enhancing learners communicative competence through task based language teaching a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of master of arts (tes

VIET NAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – HCM CITY
UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES


MASTER THESIS

ENHANCING LEARNERS’ COMMUNICATIVE
COMPETENCE THROUGH TASK – BASED
LANGUAGE TEACHING

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Arts (TESOL)

Supervisor: Nguyễn Hoàng Tuấn - Ph. D.
Candidate: Nguyễn Thị Mai Hương

- 2010 -


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STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP
I certify that this thesis entitled “Enhancing learners’ communicative
competence” is my own work.
This thesis has not been submitted for any award of any degree or
diploma in any other institution

Ho Chi Minh City, May 30, 2010

Nguyen Thi Mai Huong

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Dr.
Nguyen Hoang Tuan, for his explicit guidance and valuable support to the
completion of my thesis. Without his whole-hearted guidance, I could not have
finished the thesis.
I am also grateful to all of my teachers for valuable and helpful
instructions during the three-year Tesol course (2005-2008)
I also would like to express my special thanks to the library staff of the
University of Social Sciences and Humanities who help me with my research
for reference materials.
Thanks also sent to my colleagues and my students for their cooperation
in giving truly responses to the questionnaire.
Finally, my special thanks to my husband and my family for their
unfailing support.


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ABSTRACT
The purpose of the study was to investigate the factors that hinder the
effective implementation of TBLT in teaching Business English at VHU
context. Due to the limited scope of this paper, the study only focuses on
investigating some factors related to three key elements of TBLT
implementational process, namely students’ learning needs, learning motivation
and attitude toward TBLT, teachers’ perception and attitude toward TBLT and
the tasks themselves.
To this end, two questionnaires were developed for VHU Business

English teachers and students. Also through observation, the researcher tried to
describe the features of the communicative tasks in VHU class. The results of
the study revealed a number of problems affecting TBTL practice at VHU.
Relating to students’ learning needs, the preferences in learning activities,
learning style and strategies, roles in class and the pattern of learners’
interaction of a big number of the respondents have been proven to impact task
based instruction in VHU class. Besides, the current teaching practice did not
satisfy the learning purpose of a group of the learners that lead to their low
motivation. This was further added by their problems with task performance
which resulted in negative attitude to TBLT in a number of them. As for the
teachers, the study has found out that a considerable number of teachers still did
not have sufficient understanding of it and were skeptical to its merits in
enhancing their students’ communicative ability. Finally, certain features of the
tasks in VHU class such as: uneven frequency of task types, degree of
difficulty, type of input, lack of skill integration also affect students’ task
performance significantly. These factors, undeniably, have hindered the
effective implementation of TBLT. A number of recommendations were made
with the hope to improve the effectiveness of TBLT which, in turn, would
enhance VHU learners’ communicative competence.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 1
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ........................................................ 1
1.2 THE AIMS OF THE STUDY ................................................................. 3
1.3 LIMITATIONS ....................................................................................... 3
1.4 DELIMITATIONS .................................................................................. 4
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ......................................................... 4

1.6 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS ...................................................... 5

Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................. 6
2.1. TASK BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING ............................................ 6
2.1.1 Theoretical background of TBLT ....................................................... 6
2.1.1.1 The cognitive theory ............................................................. 7
2.1.1.2 Input and Interactionist hypothesis ....................................... 8
2.1.1.3 Communicative Language Teaching ..................................... 9
2.1.2. Task definition ................................................................................ 10
2.1.3. Task components ............................................................................ 14
2.1.4 Task based lesson procedures........................................................... 17
2.1.4.1 Pre-task .............................................................................. 17
2.1.4.2 The task cycle ..................................................................... 17
2.1.4.3. Language focus ................................................................. 17
2.1.5 Task types ........................................................................................ 18
2.2. COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE ................................................. 19
2.2.1 Definition of communicative competence ........................................ 19
2.2.2 Components of Communicative Competence ................................... 21
2.2.2.1 Linguistic competence ........................................................ 21
2.2.2.2 Discourse Competence ....................................................... 22
2.2.2.3 Strategic Competence ......................................................... 22


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2.2.2.4 Sociolinguistic competence ................................................. 22
2.3. THE ROLE OF TBLT IN IMPROVING COMMUNICATIVE
COMPETENCE .................................................................. 23
2.4. SOME FACTORS AFFECT THE IMPLEMENTATION OF TBLT .... 28
2.4.1 Student factors ................................................................................. 28

2.4.1. 1 Students’ learning needs .................................................... 28
2.4.1.2 Students’ learning motivation and attitude toward TBLT ... 29
2.4.2 Teacher factors................................................................................. 30
2.4.2.1 Teachers’ perception of TBLT............................................ 30
2.4.2.2 Teachers’ attitude ............................................................... 31
2.4.3 Task factor ....................................................................................... 32
2.5. SOME PREVIOUS STUDIES IN TBLT IMPLEMENTATION .......... 33

Chapter 3 METHODOLOGY .......................................................................... 37
3.1 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ................................................................... 37
3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN .......................................................................... 37
3.2.1 The setting ....................................................................................... 39
3.2.2 Characteristics of the subjects ......................................................... 40
3.2.2.1 The student subjects ........................................................... 41
3.2.2.2 The teacher subjects ........................................................... 41
3.2.3 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS ........................................................ 42
3.2.3.1. Students’ questionnaire...................................................... 42
3.2.3.2 Teachers’ questionnaire ...................................................... 43
3.2.3.3 Class observation................................................................ 44

Chapter 4 DATA ANALYSES AND FINDINGS ............................................. 46
4.1. RESPONSES TO STUDENTS’ SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE........... 46
4.1.1. Students’ reasons for learning Business English .............................. 46


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4.1.2. Students’ perception of the role of English in their future
profession ................................................................................................. 47
4.1.3 Students’ learning preference in language area ................................. 48

4.1.4 Students’ priority in learning language skills .................................... 49
4.1.5 Students’ role preferences in the class .............................................. 50
4.1.6. Students’ preference of teaching and learning activities .................. 52
4.1.7. Students’ preference of learner interaction pattern........................... 53
4.1.8. Students’ preferred learning styles & strategies ............................... 54
4.1.9. Students’ perception of the usefulness of tasks in improving their
communicative ability............................................................................... 57
4.1.10. Students’ perception of the tasks in their class............................... 57
4.1.11. Students’ problems with task performance .................................... 59
4.2. RESPONSES TO TEACHERS’ SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE .......... 60
4.2.1. VHU teachers’ perception of TBLT ................................................ 60
4.2.2. VHU teachers’ belief of Business English teaching practice............ 62
4.2.3. VHU teachers’ view of the value of TBLT in Business English
classroom ................................................................................... 65
4.2.4. Current implementation of TBLT at VHU....................................... 66
4.2.5. VHU teachers’ problems with the implementation of TBTL in
their Business English class. ....................................................... 69
4.3 THE OBSERVATION RESULTS ........................................................ 70
4.4. FINDINGS ........................................................................................... 72
4.4.1. Students’ learning needs.................................................................. 72
4.4.2. Students’ motivation and attitude .................................................... 73
4.4.3. Teachers’ perception of TBLT ........................................................ 74
4.4.4. Teachers’ attitude toward TBLT ..................................................... 75
4.4.5. The features of the currently employed tasks. .................................. 75

Chapter 5 RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION .............................. 77


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5.1. RECOMMENDATION........................................................................ 77
5.1.1. Using suitable textbook ................................................................... 77
5.1.2. Changing assessment method .......................................................... 77
5.1.3.Training of Teachers ........................................................................ 79
5.1.4. Training of Learners........................................................................ 79
5.1.5. Changing the syllabus ..................................................................... 80
5.1.6 Analyzing students’ target needs ...................................................... 80
5.1.7 Designing good tasks ....................................................................... 80
5.2 CONCLUSION ..................................................................................... 81


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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 4.1 Students’ reasons for learning Business English ................................. 47
Figure 4.2 Students’ perception of the role of English in their future job ............. 48
Figure 4.3 The language areas the students want to improve most ....................... 49
Figure 4.4 Students’ preferences of the teachers’ role in the class ........................ 52
Figure 4.5 Students’ preference of learner interaction pattern .............................. 54
Figure 4.6 Students’ preferences of learning method ........................................... 55
Figure 4.7 Students’ preferred learning styles ...................................................... 56
Figure 4.8 Students’ perception of the usefulness of communicative tasks
in their class ..................................................................................... 57
Figure 4.9 Students’ perception of the relevance of the tasks in their class
for their needs in future job............................................................... 59
Figure 4.10 Teachers’ belief of the focus of Business English teaching on
language use ..................................................................................... 60
Figure 4.11 Teachers’ belief of the relevance of Business English teaching
with students’ practical needs ........................................................... 64

Figure 4.12 Teachers’ belief of the role of real contexts in the classroom ............ 65
Figure 4.13 Teachers’ views of the value of TBLT in Business English
classroom ......................................................................................... 66


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LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1 The students’ perception of the important language skill ................................ 50
Table 4.2 Students’ perception of the current tasks in their class .................................... 58
Table 4.3 Students’ opinion of problems with task performance .................................... 60
Table 4.4 Teachers’ understanding of TBLT concepts ................................................... 61
Table 4.5 Frequency of using TBLT in the class ........................................................... 67
Table 4.6 Frequency of subtasks using in the class ........................................................ 67
Table 4.7 The source of tasks teachers use in their teaching ........................................... 68
Table 4.8 Language skills taught through tasks .............................................................. 69
Table 4.9 Teachers’ problems with the implementation TBTL ....................................... 70


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ABBREVEATIONS
EFL

: English as a Foreign Language

ESP

: English for Specific Purpose

FLT

: Foreign Language Teaching

SLA

: Second Language acquisition

TBLT

: Task – Based Language Teaching

VHU

: Van Hien University

CLT

: Communicative Language Teaching


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Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
The study reported in this thesis investigates the factors that prevent
TBLT from working well at Van Hien University (hereafter abbreviated as
VHU). It is expected that the outcome of this study will help to improve the
effective use of TBLT at VHU which, in turn, will contribute to enhance the

students’ communicative competence more successfully.

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
In this age of integration and development, the importance of English is
gaining more and more momentum in our national life. English communicative
competence is now a vital requirement for employment and promotion. At
work, people need to handle variety of tasks which require them to use English,
such as making a presentation, meeting customers, etc. Hence the lack of
communicative competence will affect their efficiency in carrying out their
duties. As for job seekers, to become competitive in the job market, they have to
demonstrate possession of adequate communication skills in English to function
effectively in their future job. The increasing important role of English in
Vietnam has strong implications for Vietnamese students to learn English as an
actual means of communication. Hence, to furnish students this international
communication medium has become the major goal of many English courses at
Vietnamese universities. However, teaching students to become competent
communicators in English is still a burning issue in Vietnam. The reason
account for it is that Vietnamese students are limited in their accessibility to use
English on daily basis. As a result, providing them with real opportunities to be
exposed to language use in classroom is essential. Task Based Language


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Teaching (hereafter abbreviated as TBLT) is assumed to be the approach which
can deal most satisfactorily with this requirement.
Being an offshoot of Communicative Language Teaching, TBLT has
gained

popularity

worldwide

for

its

merits

in

promoting learners’

communicative competence. Taking the idea that people need to use language to
perform different tasks in both their social life and professional life,
communicative tasks are employed as the basis unit of this approach. According
to Nunan (1999: 24), TBLT cultivates learners’ communicative competence by
providing them opportunities to experiment with and explore both spoken and
written language through learning activities which are designed to engage them
in the authentic, practical and functional use of language for meaningful
purposes. Unequivocally, by applying their language skills and knowledge to
carry out different tasks in the classroom, students are able to acquire English
naturally.
Because of its obvious advantages, TBLT has been introduced into
Business English classes at VHU with an aim to promote the students’
communicative skills. It is undeniable that with the adoption of TBLT, the
teaching and learning at VHU have achieved some encouraging progress.
However, just like in many other contexts, this innovation in pedagogy at VHU
is not without problems. Many teachers and students complained that they have
experienced a lot of difficulty with TBLT. Consequently, the goal of developing

the learners’ communicative skills has not been satisfactorily achieved. How to
make most of TBLT in order to better facilitate learners’ communicative
competence? I think it is necessary to examine major problems affecting the
application of this approach in VHU Business English classes. The results will
help to find out ways to promote the effectiveness of TBLT in developing VHU
Business English learners’ communicative competence. Although the research
is done at VHU, the author of this paper believe that its results will benefit


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many researchers and teachers who are involved in the implementation of
TBLT in a variety of contexts.
1.2 THE AIMS OF THE STUDY
The aims of this study are:
1. To identify factors affecting the implementation of TBLT in VHU
Business English classes.
2. To give recommendations to promote the effective implementation of
TBLT in order to enhance students’ communicative competence
accordingly.
For the purposes of the study, the investigation will be based on (1) the
researchers’ practical experiences in teaching Business English at VHU; (2) the
review of documents relating to TBLT and Communicative Competence; (3)
two questionnaires administered to Business English teachers and Business
English students to find out the students’ learning needs, students’ learning
motivation and attitude toward TBLT, teachers’ perception and attitude to
TBLT; (4) the observation of the practice of TBLT in different Business
English classes at VHU.
1.3 LIMITATIONS
Through investigating the factors impacting the implementation of TBLT

in VHU Business English classes, the present study is expected to look for ways
to foster the effectiveness of TBLT in the targeted context in order to develop
the learners’ communicative competence more successfully. Although there are
a great variety of factors that affect the implementation of TBLT in English
classes, due to the limited time, this study mainly focuses on discussing 5 main
issues: students’ learning needs, students’ learning motivation and attitude
toward TBLT, teachers’ perception of TBLT, teachers’ attitude toward TBLT


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and the features of the communicative tasks conducted in VHU Business
English classes.
What is more, the scope of this paper also hinders the author’s effort to
go further into examining how to implement TBLT at VHU to enhance different
components of communicative competence.
Another limitation of this study lies in the choice of subjects. Only the
third year students were selected because the first year students at VHU had not
started their Business English course by the time this research was done. The
second year ones had taken the course for only one semester, thus they had little
idea about the course as well as the teaching method. This method of subject
selection, to some extent, may negatively challenge the result of the study.

1.4 DELIMITATIONS
Since the study is carried out in VHU with its own conditions of learning
and teaching, therefore the research findings are not generalizable. In addition,
the research methods of data collection will also limit the generalizations and
recommendations of the study. The findings and suggestions will only be
limited to the teaching practice at VHU. Nevertheless, they may be beneficial to
others in similar situations.

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The aim of TBLT is to cultivate learners’ communicative competence.
However, how to make this approach work effectively to achieve its goal in
Vietnamese context is still a question that needs to be studied. Taking learners’
learning needs, learners’ learning motivation and attitude to TBLT, teachers’
perception and attitude toward TBLT and the characteristics of the currently
adopted tasks as the main factors that affect the implementation of this approach
at VHU, this paper will focus on analyzing them. The research findings will


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help to improve the effective use of TBLT in learning and teaching Business
English at VHU. As a result, the learners’ communicative competence will be
better promoted accordingly.

1.6 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS
This study constitutes of five chapters. Chapter One describes the
background to the study. This is followed by Chapter Two, which provides the
readers with some literature review and previous research relevant to the study.
Chapter Three elaborates the research methodology undertaken in realizing this
study. Chapter Four presents the findings and analyses of data collected.
Finally, chapter Five provides the final conclusion of the study and
recommendations to the problems identified in the previous chapter.


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Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter presents a relevant literature review including (1) an
account of the theoretical and empirical basis for TBLT, task identifications,
task components, task types and task procedures, (2) communicative
competence definition and its components, (3) analysis of the role of TBLT in
developing learners’ communicative competence, (4) some potential factors
affecting the implementation of TBLT (5) discussion of some empirical
research relating to TBLT implementation.

2.1. TASK BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING
As Nunan (1991: 279) says, "Task based teaching and learning is
teaching and learning a language by using the language to accomplish open
ended tasks. Learners are given a problem or objective to accomplish but are
left with some freedom in approaching this problem or objective." The aims of
TBLT are:
1. Emphasizing not only on the language knowledge but also on the
language use
2. Providing students opportunities to learn the language through interactive
activities
3. Facilitating the learning progress
4. Linking classroom language learning with language use outside the
classroom
5. Giving students chances to input and output the language

2.1.1 Theoretical background of TBLT


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The emergence of TBLT is connected to what became known as the

“Bangalore Project” in India in 1979. In carrying out this project, Prabhu puts
his theories into practice with the belief that students may learn more effectively
when their minds are focused on something else, rather than on the language
they are using. In other word, if the emphasis in class was on meaning, the
language would be learnt incidentally (Harmer, 1991:35).

2.1.1.1 The cognitive theory
It is usually thought that cognitive psychology contributes to the
theoretical basis of TBLT. As early as the year of 1977, a famous British
applied linguist Allright claims that “if the language teacher’ management
activities are directed exclusively at involving the learners in solving
communicative problems in the target language, language learning will take
care of itself” (Harmer, 1991: 34).
Piaget ( believes that overall
development is the result of children’s interaction with their environment. He
especially emphasizes the role of peer support in children’s learning. That is,
children’ interactive experiences with their peers will help them modify their
own cognitive systems and foster intellectual growth.
Another cognitive psychologist, Vygotsky (1978:4) argues that cognitive
development and learning originate in a social context. Learning comes about as
a result of social interaction. Language is an important mediation tool in
learning as well as in interaction. He concludes that language is a social event, a
shared social activity, not the result of ‘isolated’ learning and linguistic ability is
built inside our mind to communicate with the outside world. This social
perspective is a vital factor in the learning process of languages. Learners can,
with the support of adults and peers, master concepts and ideas that they cannot


8

understand on their own. In his theory, therefore, the roles of teachers and more
experienced children are emphasized in the learning process.
From the above analysis, it can be inferred that interactions and external
support (from peers and teachers) are especially important in fostering students’
learning process in language classrooms.

2.1.1.2 Input and Interactionist hypothesis
This theory holds that we acquire a language mostly through the using of
that language for communicative activities, rather than through practicing
language skills. Therefore, language is best learned and taught through
interaction.
Krashen (1987:20) who advances the Input Hypothesis, believes that
learners acquire an L2 incidentally and subconsciously when they are able to
comprehend the input they are exposed to. He insists that comprehensible input
is a necessary condition for Second Language Acquisition (SLA). To facilitate
the language acquisition, the input should be a bit beyond the learners’ current
level of competence. That input becomes comprehensible with the help of
context or extra-linguistic information.
Sharing Krashen’s views but Long (1996) points out that the “best” input
for language acquisition arising when learners have opportunity to negotiate
meaning. He claims that meaning negotiation not only plays important role in
providing comprehensible input but it contributes to language acquisition
through the clarifications, the negative feedback that learners receive by means
of recasts, i.e. interlocutor reformulations of learner utterances that contain
errors and through opportunities to reformulate their own erroneous utterances
in a more target – like way (cited in Nunan, 2005:23). It is undeniable that
meaning negotiation only arises in communicative interaction.
According to Ellis (2000: 210) input and interaction of L2 acquisition
shows that “language learning is assisted through the social interaction of

9

learners and their interlocutors, particularly when they negotiate toward mutual
comprehension of each other’s message and meaning”. It follows that, to foster
learners’ language acquisition, teachers should maximize the opportunities for
students to interact with each other in the classroom. Opportunities for learners
to work out meaning in negotiation should also be created.
2.1.1.3 Communicative Language Teaching
CLT is based on the theory that the primary function of language use is
communication. For this reason, CLT makes use of communication to teach
languages and its primary goal is to develop learners’ communicative
competence, or simply put, communicative ability. It puts a high value on the
development of the ability to use appropriate language in authentic and
communicative contexts.
To realize its goal, CLT emphasizes real-life situations and
communication in contexts. In CLT classrooms, the teacher sets up
communication situations for students to rehearse using the target language to
express his or her needs and thoughts. The focus is on the content of what they
are saying or writing rather than on a particular language form. To get their
meaning across, students should use a variety of language which arises from
their communicative needs. These activities should attempt to replicate real
communication. Most importantly, Harmer (1991:49) claims that what matters
in these activities is that students have a desire to communicate something.
Their motivation to learn comes from their desire to communicate in
meaningful ways about meaningful topics.
Obviously, the current interest in communicative tasks stems largely
from CLT approach. It has been generally agreed that language is more than
simply a system of rules. It is a system for the expression of meaning as well.
Therefore in language learning and teaching, we should distinguish between

10

knowing various grammatical rules and the ability to apply these rules
effectively and appropriately to express different communicative meanings.
To sum up, TBLT draws on and reflects latest research achievements of
SLA and it has been agreed that it is the further development of the
Communicative Language Teaching approach.

2.1.2. Task definition
In the literature, various definitions for a task have been offered. It is
something done, not something said. Long (1985: 89) argues that a task is:
a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, for nothing or
for some reward. Thus examples of tasks include painting a fence,
dressing a child, filling out a form, buying a pair of shoes, making an
airline reservation, borrowing a library book, taking a driving test,
etc. In other words, 'task' means hundred of things people do in
everyday life, at work, at play, and in between.
(cited in Nunan, 1999:24)
This definition is made in the aspect of real-world tasks in which it
describes all sorts of things individuals do with language outside the classroom,
thus some of the task may not necessarily involve the use of language (e.g
painting a fence, dressing a child). While language teaching only concerns with
the tasks that necessitates language use for its performance, non-linguistic tasks
can be adapted to make language ones if they can not be done without some use
of language. Using language to achieve a particular goal in a particular situation
is also emphasized by Branden (2004) as the condition to make an activity a
language task.
Richards, Platt & Weber (1985, cited in Branden 2004:7) offer a more

pedagogically oriented definition. They suggest that a task is: an activity or
action which is carried out as the result of processing or understanding language
(i.e. as a response), for example: drawing a map while listening to a tape,


11

listening to an instruction and performing a command. A task may or may not
involve the production of language and it usually requires the teacher to clarify
what will be regarded as successful completion of the task. The purpose of
using of a variety of different kinds of tasks in language teaching is to make
teaching more communicative because it provides a purpose for a classroom
activity which goes beyond the practice of language for its own sake.
In a similar vein, Breen (1987, cited in Branden, 2004:7) states that
language tasks can be viewed as a range of workplans, from simple and brief
exercise type, to more complex and lengthy activities, with the overall purpose
of facilitating language learning. This definition underscores the idea that a task
is a structured instructional plan that requires learners to move toward an
objective or outcome using particular working procedures.
Besides, the pedagogical task defined by Nunan (1989: 10) is of practical
sense as well. He describes a task as
a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending,
manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while
their attention is focused on mobilizing their grammatical knowledge
to express meaning and their intention is to convey meaning rather
than to manipulate form. The task should also have a sense of
completeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act in its
own right with a beginning, a middle and an end.
Task here equals communicative activity which involves using language
to acquire and express meaning in order to achieve a particular purpose and the

meaning rather than language forms is primarily focused.
Willis is another figure who contributes to the use of tasks in language
classroom. She states that a task is a goal-oriented activity. To achieve the


12

outcome (goal), learners need to use the target language for communication.
Although the focus is on the outcome of the activity rather than on the language,
the language is seen as the vehicle to bring about the outcome through the
exchange of meanings (Willis, 23:1996).
Ellis (2003: cited in Branden, 2004:8) provides a detailed description of
task which is defined as a workplan that requires learners to process language
pragmatically in order to achieve an outcome that can be evaluated in terms of
whether the correct or appropriate propositional content has been conveyed. To
achieve this purpose, learners are required to give primary attention to meaning
and to make use of their own linguistic resources, although the design of the
task may predispose them to choose particular forms. The aim of task
employment is to elicit language use that resembles the way language is used in
the real world. As a result, a task can engage productive or receptive, and oral or
written skills.
Although the definitions vary somewhat, most of them emphasize the
primacy of meaning: the learners’ attention should be directed toward meaning
exchange in order to arrive at an outcome other than that of learning a specified
feature of the language. The outcome can be a decision, a solution to a problem,
an agreement reached among participants. This rules out activities which,
though involving exchange of information, do not result in a specific outcome
such as telling a story, questions and answers as independent tasks though they
can be part of a task. Pedagogically, tasks are deployed in classrooms to
facilitate meaningful interaction and offer the learner opportunities to process

meaningful input and produce meaningful output in order to reach relevant and
obtainable goals. In other words, tasks invite the learner to act primarily as a
language user and not as a language learner. Tasks are supposed to elicit the
kinds of communicative behaviour that naturally arises from performing reallife language tasks because these are believed to foster language acquisition.


13

Apart from a primary focus – on - meaning orientation, a number of arguments
supporting the combination of focus on meaning and form can be inferred from
the above definitions (Willis, Ellis, Nunan). Nunan’s definition refers to the
deployment of grammatical knowledge to express meaning, highlighting the
fact that meaning and form are highly interrelated, and that grammar exists to
enable the language user to express different communicative meanings. The
marriage of meaning and form is also asserted by Branden (2004:9) when he
explains that “since the meaningful use of language will necessarily imply the
establishment of relevant form-meaning mappings, the learner will need to
manipulate and thus pay at least some attention to form” and he believes that
the learners’ attention to particular aspects of the language code in the context
of a meaningful activity will strongly promotes L2 acquisition.
Besides, these definitions also suggest that, the things learners do with
the target language in the classroom should be related to or derived from what
the learners are supposed to be able to do with the target language in the real
world. Learning Task should resemble an outside-world task insofar as it
requires interaction among participants and the application of all abilities and
cognitive processes involved in actual language use.
Based on the way most researchers define and use the term and the actual
examples people give in their discussion of task-based language teaching, some
defining features of tasks are outlined below.
*Tasks are goal-directed activities

*Task completion engages learners in using the language communicatively
*A primary focus on meaning is involved
*There is a close link between the tasks performed by learners in the
language classroom and in the outside world
*the assessment of the task is in terms of outcome.
Different teachers may adopt different definitions of task in their teaching
but these above defining features are the necessary conditions an activity has to


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meet to be considered as a task. Therefore, they are eployed as the base in this
study.

2.1.3. Task components
Nunan (1989:49) recommends analyzing or categorizing tasks according
to their goals, input data, activities, settings and roles. The goals, input and
activities are used for task analysis, and the roles and settings are implied by the
task.
Goals refer to the general intention for the learning task. They serve as a
guideline in the overall process of task performance and provide the point of
contact between the learning task and the real world target task. In other words,
the goals of a particular learning task are dictated by the purposes for
performing the task in the real world. These goals represent the communicative,
affective or cognitive aspects of a given target task (Nunan, 1989:49). A
complex task involving a range of activities may have a number of goals, from
general to specific one. To motivate learners to engage in the task, goals should
reflect their needs and interest.
Input is defined as the data that learners are to work on when performing
a task. It may be linguistic (e.g. an article, a weather forcast, a radio news, etc)

or non-linguistic (pictures, photos, charts, maps, ect). In fact, input data can be
derived from a wide range of sources in a real world context. Nunan (1999:27)
argues that the authenticity of data will help the learners encounter target
language in natural context. Input forms the point of departure for the task, thus
it must be comprehensible and interesting to learners to motivate them to move
to the next stage of the task. According to Brown and Yule (1983, as cited in
Jeon & Hahn, 2002:7) dialogue texts (linguistic data) containing description or