Effects of communication based translation activities on efl high school students vocabulary achieviment m a

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – HO CHI MINH CITY
UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
FACULTY OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS & LITERATURE

EFFECTS OF COMMUNICATION-BASED
TRANSLATION ACTIVITIES ON EFL HIGH SCHOOL
STUDENTS’ VOCABULARY ACHIEVEMENT

A thesis submitted to the
Faculty of English Linguistics & Literature
in partial fulfillment of the Master’s degree in TESOL

By
PHAM NGOC TRUONG LINH

Supervised by
NGUYEN THI NHU NGOC, Ph.D.

HO CHI MINH CITY, JULY 2018


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am the one who loves exploring, discovering and trying new things; doing
research is what I consider an interesting activity in my whole-life professional career.
I am deeply indebted to the professors at the Faculty of English Linguistics and
Literature, University of Social Sciences and Humanities, who helped me construct the
very first jigsaw pieces together for a wonderful picture afterwards. With the precious
background theories, skills as well as experience they have provided, I am now more
confident to find many acceptable solutions related to my teaching contexts or be able
to approach new domains in the areas. They all together made me so new and ready for
the upcoming challenging stage of my life – doing research and working daily things

with scientific and professional senses.
However, this thesis would have remained a dream had it not been for the help
of many others. I wish to thank, first and foremost, my supervisor Dr. Nguyen Thi Nhu
Ngoc, who guided me to an appropriate decision on the research subject and approach.
Thanks to her constructive suggestion, thorough correction and incisive criticism, this
paper has been continuously revised before the completion. I also own a debt of
gratitude to my two beloved sisters and colleagues, Ms. Pham Ngoc Han and Ms. Le
Thi Kim Chi, who supported me a lot in the experimental project with the test
feedbacks, observation and assessment. Another special gratitude goes out to the head
as well as the staff of Marie Curie High School for their full assistance and
encouragement for me to conduct the study at the facility.
And finally, last but not least, to my family and all my friends who were always
keen to know what I was doing and how I was proceeding, although it is likely that they
have never grasped what it was all about! Their continuous hopes, wishes and supports
have been playing as a spiritual power for me to pursue my passion and recover
whenever my steps falter.

ii


STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY
The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a degree
or diploma at any other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and
belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person
except where due references are made.

HO CHI MINH CITY, JULY 10, 2018

PHAM NGOC TRUONG LINH

iii


RETENTION OF USE
I hereby state that I, Pham Ngoc Truong Linh, being a candidate for the Master’s
degree in TESOL, accept the requirements of the University relating to the retention
and use of Master’s thesis deposited in the University Library.
In term of these conditions, I agree that the original of my thesis deposited should
be accessible for the purposes of study and research, in accordance with the normal
conditions established by the Library for care, loan, or reproduction of theses.
HO CHI MINH CITY, JULY 10, 2018

PHAM NGOC TRUONG LINH

iv


TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Tittle page .................................................................................................................. i
Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................ii
Statement of originality ............................................................................................. iii
Retention of use ........................................................................................................ iv
Table of contents ........................................................................................................v
List of abbreviations................................................................................................. viii
List of tables .............................................................................................................. ix
List of figures .............................................................................................................x
Abstract .................................................................................................................... xi
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background to the study ...................................................................................... 1

1.2. Aims of the study .................................................................................................4
1.3. Research questions .............................................................................................. 4
1.4. Significance of the study ...................................................................................... 5
1.5. Scope of the study ................................................................................................ 6
1.6. Organization of the study ..................................................................................... 6
1.7. Summary ..............................................................................................................7
CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Vocabulary in second language acquisition ......................................................... 8
2.1.1. The role of vocabulary ................................................................................8
2.1.2. Aspects of vocabulary knowing ...................................................................9
2.1.3. Vocabulary teaching and learning.............................................................. 13
2.2. Translation in second language acquisition ......................................................... 15
2.2.1. The role of translation ................................................................................16
2.2.2. Translation in relation to contrastive analysis ...........................................18
2.2.3. Translation in communicative approach .................................................... 21
2.3. Summary ..............................................................................................................23
v


CHAPTER 3 – METHODOLOGY
3.1. Construction of a CTA for teaching and learning vocabulary ............................. 24
3.1.1. Target learners .......................................................................................... 24
3.1.2. Conceptual framework ..............................................................................24
3.2. Experimental project of CTAs application .......................................................... 27
3.2.1. Design of the experimental project ........................................................... 27
3.2.2. Participants ............................................................................................... 27
Sampling procedure ........................................................................27
Participants’ characteristics ........................................................... 28
3.2.3. Procedure ..................................................................................................29
Pilot stage ........................................................................................ 29

Implementation stage ......................................................................29
Post-stage ........................................................................................ 30
3.2.4. Research instruments ................................................................................30
Recognition Test ..............................................................................30
Writing Test ..................................................................................... 32
Speaking Test................................................................................... 33
Questionnaire .................................................................................. 34
3.2.5. Data analysis procedure ...........................................................................35
3.3. Summary ..............................................................................................................37
CHAPTER 4 – RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1. Some model CTAs for teaching and learning vocabulary at high school ...........38
CTA 1 - Vocabulary brainstorming ....................................................................39
CTA 2 - Vocabulary recognition ........................................................................40
CTA 3 - Vocabulary guessing .............................................................................41
CTA 4 - Controlled sentence translation ............................................................ 43
CTA 5 - Free sentence translation ......................................................................44
CTA 6 - Role play ............................................................................................... 45
CTA 7 - Translation with pictures ......................................................................48
CTA 8 - Translator-to-be .................................................................................... 50

vi


CTA 9 - Speedy translation .................................................................................52
CTA 10 - Writing-Translation ............................................................................53
4.2. Effects of CTAs on the students’ vocabulary achievement .................................57
4.2.1. Before the treatment .................................................................................. 57
4.2.2. After the treatment .................................................................................... 58
4.2.3. Correlation between recognition and production ....................................62
4.3. Experimental students’ attitudes towards CTAs .................................................. 65

4.4. Summary ..............................................................................................................72
CHAPTER 5 – CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
5.1. Conclusions ..........................................................................................................73
5.2. Implications ..........................................................................................................75
5.3. Limitations ...........................................................................................................78
REFERENCES............................................................................................................80
APPENDIX 1 – The relationship between vocabulary and the matrix of questions
in the English Test of National Examination 2016 .......................... 87
APPENDIX 2 – Glossary – English 10 – Semester 1 ................................................. 88
APPENDIX 3 – English 10 contents (Student book extracts) .................................. 91
APPENDIX 4 – Extra vocabulary exercise practice ................................................ 109
APPENDIX 5 – Some suggested ideas of CTAs for teaching and learning
vocabulary in the English 10 student textbook............................... 112
APPENDIX 6 – Vocabulary Test 1 – English 10 ..................................................... 127
APPENDIX 7 – Vocabulary Test 2 – English 10 ..................................................... 129
APPENDIX 8 – Speaking Tests – Questions ........................................................... 131
APPENDIX 9 – Speaking Assessment ..................................................................... 132
APPENDIX 10 – Questionnaire (English version) ................................................... 133
APPENDIX 11 – Questionnaire (Vietnamese version) ........................................... 135
APPENDIX 12 – Answer key to extra exercise practice .......................................... 137

vii


LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CALL
CG
CLT
CTA
EFL

EG
GTM
L1
L2
Ss
T
SPSS Statistics
df
Degrees of
freedom

M

Mean score

N
p

Number
Sig.(2-tailed)

r

Pearson
correlation
coefficient

SD

Standard

Deviation

t

t-value

Computer-Assisted Language Learning
Control Group
Communicative Language Teaching
Communication-based Translation Activity
English as a Foreign Language
Experimental Group
Grammar Translation Method
Native language/ mother tongue / source language
Target language
Students
Teacher
The number of values in the final calculation of a statistic that
are free to vary. ‘df’ is calculated by the number of
observations minus the number of necessary relations among
these observations.

The number of participants in a group
Significant value between two independent samples.
p < 0.05: there is significant difference between the means.
p ≥ 0.05: the difference between the means is not significant.
r can take a range of values from +1 to -1.
r = 0: indicates no association between the two variables.
r > 0: indicates a positive association; that is, as the value of
one variable increases, so does the value of the other variable.

r < 0: indicates a negative association; that is, as the value of
one variable increases, the value of the other variable
decreases.
The average distance from the mean of the data set to a point.
The greater the SD, the greater the variances of the samples.
The smaller the SD, the greater the homogeneity.
The size of the difference relative to the variation in the
sample data. The greater the magnitude of t (it can be either
positive or negative), the greater the evidence against the null
hypothesis that there is no significant difference. The closer
t is to 0, the more likely there isn't a significant difference.
viii


LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1: What is involved in knowing a word? (Nation, 2001, p. 27) ....................... 10
Table 2: Receptive knowledge and use of the word ‘discontented’ ........................... 11
Table 3: Productive knowledge and use of the word ‘discontented’ .......................... 12
Table 4: Summary of participants’ English scores in the placement test ................... 27
Table 5: Summary of participants’ characteristics...................................................... 28
Table 6: Recognition Test - descriptions and examples .............................................31
Table 7: The matrix of items in Recognition Test ...................................................... 32
Table 8: Writing Test - descriptions and examples .................................................... 32
Table 9: The matrix of items in Writing Test ............................................................. 33
Table 10: Components of Attitudes (Schau, 2003) ..................................................... 34
Table 11: Levels of agreement indicated by mean score rating .................................36
Table 12: Example of role play activity ......................................................................46
Table 13: Elements and Potential vocabulary enhancement involved in the CTAs ...55
Table 14: Summary of pre-test results ........................................................................57

Table 15: Summary of control group’s results ........................................................... 58
Table 16: Summary of experimental group’s results .................................................58
Table 17: Summary of post-test results ......................................................................59
Table 18: Correlations of test scores in the control group ..........................................62
Table 19: Correlations of test scores in the experimental group ................................ 62
Table 20: Attitudes towards difficulty level of CTAs ................................................66
Table 21: Attitudes towards cognitive competence .................................................... 66
Table 22: Attitudes towards how CTAs affect feelings ..............................................67
Table 23: Attitudes towards personal interests ........................................................... 67
Table 24: Attitudes towards the values of CTAs ........................................................ 68
Table 25: Attitudes towards personal efforts .............................................................. 69
Table 26: Correlations between students’ attitudes and their background .................70
Table 27: Summary of the study results .....................................................................73
ix


LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1: The English scores of Marie Curie high school students in the National
Examination 2016....................................................................................... 2
Figure 2: Summary of elements and sub-elements that constitute a method .............25
Figure 3: Conceptual framework of a CTA for vocabulary teaching and learning ....26
Figure 4: Design of the experimental project ............................................................. 27
Figure 5: Example of rewards designed with computer .............................................49
Figure 6: Example of interactive characters designed with computer ........................ 50

x


ABSTRACT

In most EFL contexts of Vietnam’s high schools, vocabulary learning is
accompanied with long lists of first language (L1) equivalents in the grammartranslation method (GTM), which is criticized for abusing translation, focusing much
on form and structure, lacking space for communicative performance; whereas the
communicative language teaching (CLT) is preferred in modern language teaching
trends because it motivates learners’ discovery, participation and communication. How
likely is it to integrate translation with the CLT in communication-based translation
activities (CTAs)? This study suggests some models of CTAs for teaching and learning
EFL vocabulary at high school in Vietnam then tests their effects in an experimental
project with 73 tenth-graders in two groups (with and without CTAs application), prepost tests and a survey. After 8 weeks of treatment, the results highlighted CTAs in
enhancing students’ vocabulary achievement both in recognition and its assistance in
subsequent productive skills while the GTM only improved students’ receptive
vocabulary knowledge. Additionally, the survey indicated the experimental students’
positive attitudes, which were statistically influenced by their L1 and translation habits
except for their gender. The study is supposed to provide practical implications for
improving EFL students’ vocabulary and communicative performance at high school
in Vietnam and those with similar contexts.

xi


CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

This chapter explains the general outline of the study. The rationale is first
presented with an analysis of the current EFL vocabulary teaching and learning contexts
in Vietnam. The aims of the study are then clearly set out with research questions; and
finally, the conduction of the study is described in limited domains with expected
findings and implications.
1.1.

Background to the study
Although vocabulary competence plays a very important role in the second

language acquisition, most EFL classrooms in Vietnam have not provided adequate
concern for teaching and learning vocabulary. To save time, many teachers mainly
focus on grammar instruction and skill practice; and vocabulary instruction is often
done by providing new words and their Vietnamese equivalents. Students have to look
up the required words by themselves prior the lessons or are given glossaries to learn
by heart. However, remembering such long lists of words and their meanings is not
easy for many students, especially high school students who are almost not English
majors and often lack learning motivation. This not only leads to a serious shortage of
input to master the target language but also causes the students some confusion,
boredom and discouragement in their real communication.
For example, an investigation into the National Examination 2016 for high
school students shows that at least 23 out of 68 questions in the English test are mainly
concerning vocabulary knowledge, not to mention some others that require a wide range
of vocabulary to process such as ones in the reading and writing sections (Appendix 1,
p. 86); however, the results of Marie Curie High School in Ho Chi Minh City were not
very satisfying, which indicated that many students were not good at vocabulary.

1


Poor
0 - 3.4

Low
3.5 – 4.9

Fair
5.0 - 6.4

Good
6.5 – 7.9

Excellent
8.0 - 10

Level Group
score range

Figure 1. The English scores of Marie Curie High School students in the
National Examination 2016

As shown in Figure 1, the total number of students who got good and excellent
scores in the test accounts for only 11.4% while the most common scores observed fall
into the low group (37.8 %), followed by the fair group (26.7 %) and the poor group
(24.2 %). Such disappointing results might have been affected by many different
factors, but it was likely that the students did not acquire the necessary amount of
vocabulary knowledge to approach other linguistic features, to process various input
and thus could not pass the test with flying colors. Obviously, vocabulary is an essential
element to acquire a second language and therefore should receive more attention in the
learning and teaching process.
Vocabulary, i.e. words and expressions, is acquired day by day in class and from
many other sources, requiring students a good memory and patience to acquire and
practice. Thus, it is necessary to find out some techniques or solutions for EFL high
school students in Vietnam to be more interested in vocabulary and recognize it as an
important and practical way to improve their English competence. There have been so
many studies concerning the methods of teaching vocabulary such as using visual aids,

using contexts to guess the meaning of words, but little research has been done into
‘translation activities in the communicative approach’ and their effects on EFL
vocabulary teaching and learning.
2


In this study, the activities are called communication-based translation
activities (CTAs), which refer to those that utilize translation in combination with the
communicative language teaching (CLT) as a means to overcome cultural-linguistic
barriers in language acquisition and encourage learners’ use of language to
communicate in practical contexts.
This utilization is different from the use of translation activities that have been
criticized for following the traditional patterns of the grammar-translation method
(GTM). Actually, there is nothing wrong with translation itself; the problem is from the
method that misconceives and overuses it, separating language from its communicative
function (Mogahed, 2011). However, translation has recently been brought back to its
own deserving position in language learning thanks to the incorporation with the CLT,
one of the most effective teaching approaches in most of the EFL and ESP contexts.
The combination of translation and the CLT was then suggested and discussed
in many studies. For example, Kiraly (2000), Colina (2003) and Liao (2011) proposed
that language transition should take communicative competence into consideration;
Malmkjaer (1998) encouraged integrating translation into real life activities to foster
language skills while Gohil (2013) and Nguyen (2016) provided some implications and
models of translation activities in communicative approach for language skills and
language forms such as vocabulary.
Nevertheless, how and to what extent the integration of translation and the CLT
can be applied to enhance students’ vocabulary achievement as well as subsequent
skills in the EFL teaching contexts at high school has not been adequately investigated
in prior research and thus is what motivates this study to be carried out.

3


1.2.

Aims of the study
The current study is conducted with two primary aims: (1) to provide some

applicable model CTAs for teaching and learning vocabulary in EFL classrooms at high
school, and (2) to identify the effects of such models on students’ vocabulary
achievement in terms of receptive knowledge, productive practice and attitudes.
In order to achieve the aims above, the study first defines a framework of how a
CTA is constructed based on previous theories and suggestions, then some model CTAs
are given with detailed descriptions, examples and analyses.
Next, the study regards an empirical project with pre-tests, post-tests, trial
lessons and a questionnaire over two participant groups of different methods (with and
without the application of CTAs) to test the effects of CTAs compared to the GTM in
the EFL high school context.
Finally, some discussions and implications of CTAs for teaching and learning
EFL vocabulary at high school in Vietnam are provided.
1.3.

Research questions
Stimulated by the basis of the mentioned reality, the researcher came to a

decision to conduct a study to help students get improved in English vocabulary
knowledge and communicative performance at least in the form of writing and
speaking. To obtain the above purposes, the study addresses the following research
questions:
(1) What are applicable CTAs for teaching and learning EFL vocabulary at high

school in Vietnam?
(2) Are there any significant differences in terms of recognition and production
in the vocabulary achievement of high school students who use CTAs and
those who do not?
(3) What are the students’ attitudes towards CTAs in their EFL classrooms?
4


Responding the research questions, three hypotheses are laid out respectively as
follows:
(1) The translation activities created in combination with the CLT will possess a
significant number of characteristics that might be successful in enhancing
EFL high school students’ vocabulary knowledge and communicative
performance.
(2) The student group who study English vocabularies with CTAs will
significantly surpass the other group in the Vocabulary-Recognition Test, the
Writing Test and the Speaking Test after the treatment thanks to the
significant connection between the vocabulary knowledge acquired through
CTAs and its application in subsequent use.
(3) With reference to the students’ views on CTAs, there will be a relationship
between how the students perform and what the students think; more positive
attitudes will be statistically observed.
The first research question will be answered based on prior theories and
suggestions while the others will be made clear to a certain extent through an
experimental project.
1.4.

Significance of the study
This study provides some model CTAs and at the same time examines their

effects on enhancing students’ vocabulary competence, so some significant
contributions are supposed to be made as follows.
In theory, the study tries applying some implications of previous studies
concerning teaching and learning vocabulary based on translation in the communicative
approach to expand the theoretical background for further research in the area. The
result is some model CTAs that can be applied or adapted for different EFL teaching
contexts such as translation, basic language skills and language forms in which
vocabulary plays an important role in stimulating communication.
5


In practice, the empirical results may provide EFL teachers with implications of
applying CTAs in their students’ language acquisition process; this means that they will
have more choices of teaching vocabulary besides the traditional methods. On the other
hand, the results from the survey would help teachers check the students’ compatibility
with the new practice for further modification and adjustment to meet the students’
differences (i.e. needs, gender, personality, language level, learning strategies, etc.)
1.5.

Scope of the study
The conduction of the study is limited in the following range of aspects.
First, the suggested model CTAs are designed for teaching and learning EFL

vocabulary at high school in Vietnam; the specific examples and applications are given
based on the contents of the English 10 student book published by Vietnam Minister of
Education and Training (Appendix 2, pp. 87-89; & Appendix 3, pp. 90-107).
Second, the subject is empirically investigated within tenth-graders in the EFL
teaching context of Marie Curie High School in Ho Chi Minh City. Because the
participants are high school students and translation is not a compulsory subject, the
translation activities in this research are not deeply academic.

Finally, the productive knowledge of words is tested in some basic writing tests
and short talks due to the students’ language levels and the allocated time in the required
syllabus at high school in Vietnam.
1.6.

Organization of the study
The thesis consists of five chapters:
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION – states the background of the problem from

which the author’s motivation is raised to look for some solutions. To make it more
specific, the aims and the research questions with hypotheses are proposed; then the
structure of the study is introduced.
6


Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW – provides some background knowledge
concerning the key terms of the study such as vocabulary, translation, grammartranslation method, communicative approach, communication-based translation
activities, and some relevant information in previous studies.
Chapter 3: METHODOLOGY – establishes a conceptual framework to explain
the theoretical background on which CTAs are created and applied; then presents how
the experimental project is conducted to test the effects of CTAs. The chapter includes
descriptions and explanations of methods, participants, instruments and data collection
procedure.
Chapter 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS – suggests some model CTAs with
an analysis of applicability and processes data collected from the experimental project
to reveal some significant findings. Discussions will be laid out along the analysis.
Chapter 5: CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS – confirms the answers to
the research questions then proposes some solutions to the problems that might arise in
the practice of CTAs at high school. At the end of the chapter, some limitations and
implications of the research are indicated as concerns for further studies.

1.7.

Summary
The chapter has explained the background of the study in terms of necessity,

feasibility, significance and construction. It aims to advocate CTAs, in contrast to the
GTM, as a new method to help EFL high school students take advantage of L1 and
translation in vocabulary acquisition and communication. The study is both qualitative
and quantitative in its research to provide significant theoretical and practical outcomes.
The insights into CTAs and their effects in the EFL vocabulary teaching and learning
at high school are yielded in the following chapters of the study.

7


CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter looks at the role of vocabulary and translation in second language
acquisition. To make it more specific, vocabulary teaching and learning is analyzed
with the aspects involved in knowing a word while translation is investigated in the
support of contrastive analysis and communicative approach. The literature review
plays as a conceptual framework from which CTAs are constructed and applied in EFL
contexts.
2.1.

Vocabulary in second language acquisition

2.1.1. The role of vocabulary

To discuss the importance of vocabulary in language acquisition as well as
communication, Wilkins (1976, p. 111) argues that without grammar, there are few
things we can express; while without vocabulary, there is nothing we can express.
Vocabulary is supposed to be crucially important because it is an instrument for
thinking about the meanings which it conveys. Neuman & Dwyer (2009, p. 385) state
that we must know words to communicate effectively – words in speaking (expressive
vocabulary) and words in listening (receptive vocabulary). However, communication
is not just about speaking and listening; reading and writing should also be taken into
account. In fact, research shows that there is an evident correlation of vocabulary with
reading comprehension and writing skill among second language learners (Proctor et
al., 2005; Olinghouse & Wilson, 2013). Therefore, vocabulary obviously plays as the
most basic tool to approach a language and it is the least device to base on for
communication.
Jue (2010, p. 1) warns that insufficient vocabulary or vocabulary difficulties will
result in communication barriers or failures because without the mediation of
vocabulary, no amount of grammatical or other types of linguistic knowledge can be
employed in second language communication or discourse. In other words, language
acquisition now seems likely to start with word learning rather than syntax prompting.
8


With a shortage of vocabulary, learners cannot understand and use the structures
and functions, and thus cannot get their language skills improved or communicate well
in practical contexts. In a survey conducted among 185 students at Ho Chi Minh City
University of Social Sciences & Humanities (Nguyen, 2009, pp. 51-63), the results
indicate that 72% of the responding students found it difficult to learn the English skills
(reading, speaking, listening, writing) due to their serious lack of general vocabularies.
The finding is also similar in another survey within 417 EFL students (Hasan, 2016, p.
219), which indicates 38.14% of the participants were strongly influenced by the
problem of vocabulary shortage and were not good at using the four language skills as

a result. It was explained that the vocabulary insufficiency caused the students
difficulties in understanding texts, their teachers, and native speakers of English as well
as in expressing their own opinions and feelings.
In short, vocabulary learning is essential and should be the first thing to begin in
second language acquisition. The benefits of building vocabulary can be acknowledged
as it gives learners the ability to process the input from texts, instructions and
conversations so that they can think more logically and express themselves precisely
without misunderstanding, confusion and repetition of ideas.
2.1.2. Aspects of vocabulary knowing
Pikulski and Templeton (2004, p.1) believe that the greatest tools for learners to
be successful, not only in their education but more generally in life, is a large, rich stock
of vocabulary and the skills for using those words. Then the question to concern here
is how and to what extent one can tell a language learner has acquired a word.
To suggest a way for explanation and assessment, Nation (2001, pp. 26-28)
analyzes word knowing based on three aspects, i.e. form, meaning and use, which are
strongly correlated within a word. Each aspect itself contains many sections supporting
each other.

9


Specifically, ‘form’ is analyzed with pronunciation including stress pattern
(spoken), spelling (written) and word structure or word family (word parts); ‘meaning’
includes successful retrieval of words (form and meaning), knowledge of homonyms
(concept and referents), synonyms, antonyms and hyponyms (associations); while ‘use’
deals with syntactic patterns of words (grammatical functions), word compatibility
(collocation) and practical contexts (constraints on use). Such a complex relationship
of the aspects involved in knowing a word is summarized as follows.
Table 1. What is involved in knowing a word? (Nation, 2001, p. 27)
R What does the word sound like?

Spoken

Form

P How is the word pronounced?
R What does the word look like?

Written

P How is the word written and spelled?
R What parts are recognizable in this word?

Word parts

Meaning

P What word parts are needed to express the meaning?

Form and

R What meaning does this word form signal?

meaning

P What word form can be used to express this meaning?

Concept and

R What is included in the concept refer to?

referents

P What items can the concept refer to?
R What other words does this make us think of?

Associations

P What other words could we use instead of this one?

Grammatical

R In what patterns does the word occur?

functions

P In what patterns must we use this word?
R What words or types of words occur with this one?

Collocations

Use
Constraints
on use

P What words or types of words must we use with this one?
R Where, when, and how often would we expect to meet this
word?
P Where, when, and how often can we use this word?

*Receptive knowledge (R)

*Productive knowledge (P)
10


As can be seen from Table 1, the comprehension of a word requires knowledge
of the three aspects – form, meaning and use – receptively and productively. According
to Nation (2001, pp. 24-25), the distinction of receptive and productive knowledge
depends on its resemblance to the distinction between receptive skills and productive
skills, i.e. ‘receptive’ refers to receiving and comprehending input from others through
listening and reading while ‘productive’ carries the idea of producing language forms
by speaking and writing to convey messages to others. Accordingly, receptive
vocabulary use is said to involve perceiving the form of a word while listening or
reading and retrieving its meaning; productive vocabulary use involves wanting to
express a meaning through speaking or writing, retrieving and producing the
appropriate spoken or written word form to fit the contexts.
From the point of view of receptive knowledge and use, knowing the word, for
example, ‘discontented’ (Reading section, Unit 1, English 10, p. 13) involves:
Table 2. Receptive knowledge and use of the word ‘discontented’
Spoken form

Being able to recognize the word when it is heard.

Being able to locate the word when it is met in reading.
Recognizing that the word includes a root –content, a
Word parts
suffix –ed and a prefix dis-.
Knowing that the word signals the meanings ‘not happy’
Form and
or ‘not satisfied’ with –content (satisfy), –ed (adjective

Meaning
inflection) and dis- (not).
Meaning Concept and Knowing that the word refers to conditions opposite
Referents
happiness or satisfaction and do not have a homonym.
Knowing that there are related words like contented,
Associations
happy, unhappy, satisfied, dissatisfied.
Grammatical Knowing that the word is an adjective and thus may
functions
precede a noun or come after a linking verb.
Being able to recognize that ‘discontented with’ is a
Collocations
typical collocation.
Use
Being able to recognize that ‘He felt discontented with
Constraints
the way his life had been improved’ is incorrect, while
on use
‘He felt discontented with the way his life had turned
hard’ is correct.
Form

Written form

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And from the point of view of productive knowledge and use, knowing the word
‘discontented’ involves:

Table 3. Productive knowledge and use of the word ‘discontented’
Spoken form
Form

Being able to say it with correct pronunciation & stress.

Written form
Word parts

Being able to write it with correct spelling.
Being able to construct all its word forms from the root.
Being able to produce the correct word form to fit the
Form and
sentence, e.g. ‘He felt (content) ________ with the way
Meaning
his life had turned hard.’
Meaning Concept and Being able to retrieve the word for speaking or writing to
Referents
express the feeling when unexpected situations occur.
Being able to produce dissatisfied or unhappy as
Associations
synonyms, satisfied or happy as antonyms.
Being able to use the word grammatically in an original
Grammatical sentence. e.g.
functions
‘I discontented with my poor English scores.’ (*)
‘I am discontented with my poor English scores.’
Being able to produce words that commonly occur with
it. e.g.
Collocations ‘I am discontented my poor English scores.’

(*)
Use
‘I am discontented for my poor English scores.’ (*)
‘I am discontented with my poor English scores.’
Being able to decide to use or not to use the word to suit
the degree of satisfaction of the situation. e.g.
Constraints
‘I am discontented with my best English scores.’
on use
[I need to try more]
‘I am discontented with my luxurious life.’
[I hardly feel happy despite my luxurious life]
(*) Incorrect

Table 1 and the accompanying example ‘discontented’ serve as an indication of
the range of aspects of receptive and productive knowledge and use. They seem to
overlap but in fact are separate from each other, which helps thoroughly analyze and
assess a learner’s knowledge of a word to answer the following questions:
 How much is the learner able to comprehend the word?
 How much is the learner able to produce the word?
 Which aspects does the learner seem to acquire smoothly?
 Which aspects does the learner seem to struggle?
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The processing model mentioned above might make a useful contribution to
vocabulary teaching and learning in EFL contexts since teachers can base on it to design
vocabulary test or modify their lessons appropriately while learners might take it as a
checklist to reflect on their knowledge for further study and practice.
2.1.3. Vocabulary teaching and learning

Throughout the life span, people develop vocabulary effectively and almost
effortlessly as long as they see words in meaningful contexts, it is a natural and lifelong
phenomenon (Bintz, 2011, p. 45). In language teaching context, however, vocabulary
acquisition needs instruction, facilitation and enhancement as the target items are
required to be obtained purposefully. To meet the vocabulary need for accessing and
using the language, both teachers and leaners are expected to be involved with great
effort in the teaching and learning process.
Nation (2001, pp. 63-70) suggests three important general processes that may
lead to a word being remembered. These comprise noticing, retrieval and generation.
‘Noticing’ is giving attention to an item through formal instruction and negotiation
based on learners’ interest and motivation to comprehend or produce the word.
‘Retrieval’ refers to the acts of recalling the word meaning with the form encountered
in listening and reading (receptive), or recalling the word form when wishing to
communicate its meaning in speaking and writing (productive). ‘Generation’ occurs
when learners encounter a word used in new ways that have not been met previously
(receptive) or when learners produce new ways of using the wanted vocabulary in new
contexts (productive).
Based on the mentioned scales for describing depth of processing for
vocabulary, a number of vocabulary teaching strategies have been applied in EFL
classrooms. For example:

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Noticing. According to Nation (2001, p. 64), the chances of a word being noticed
can be increased by ‘highlighting’ the word in the text, letting learners ‘negotiate’ the
word meaning with each other or with the teacher, ‘explaining’ the word to the learners
by giving a definition, a synonym or a L1 translation. This roughly responds to Chung’s
(2012, p. 107) assertion that teacher reading-aloud accompanied with explanations and
discussions of vocabulary or modeling of new and high-level vocabulary usage will

enhance vocabulary growth. Besides, ‘morphological analysis’ and ‘basic word
presenting’ should be taken into consideration as strategies for noticing (Sedita, 2005;
Chung, 2012) because word part or word family are likely to be challenging aspects for
learners when they first meet a word, and because all of the words that need to get
known cannot be taught at a time.
Retrieval. Retrieval can be designed into tasks of ‘story impressions’ or ‘word
sorts for text’ suggested by Bintz (2011, pp. 48-49). In ‘story impressions’, clue words
and phrases taken directly from a story are arranged in the order in which they appear,
learners are asked to guess the content of the story based on the items given, then read
the story to check their impression. In ‘word sorts for text’, the teacher creates a
collection of important words and phrases from a story on index cards, learners arrange
the cards in an order that supports the telling of the story and then use the cards to retell
the story to the class. Nation (2001, pp. 72-73) argue that these tasks will help learners
get repeated retrieval as they have to bring back the meaning or use of the words over
and over again when the story is read several times, which at last strengthens their
memory of the words.
Generation. Teachers can try to encourage generation by ‘wide reading’, i.e.
using a long text and present it part by part as a serial (Elley, 1989, as cited in Nation,
2001; Sedita, 2005; Chung, 2012). Long texts provide an opportunity for the same
vocabulary to recur in contexts that differ from those previously met in the story, this
generative use will contribute to vocabulary learning. ‘Simple contextual definitions’ of
words are also suggested as useful strategies for vocabulary generation (Nation, 2001;
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