A study on the vocabulary learning strategies employed by first year english majored students at vnua

VIET NAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE

FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND FOREIGN LANGUAGES

BA THESIS
A STUDY ON THE VOCABULARY LEARNING
STRATEGIES EMPLOYED BY FIRST-YEAR
ENGLISH-MAJORED STUDENTS AT VNUA
NGHIÊN CỨU NHỮNG CHIẾN LƯỢC HỌC TỪ VỰNG
ĐƯỢC SINH VIÊN NĂM THỨ NHẤT NGÀNH
NGÔN NGỮ ANH SỬ DỤNG TẠI VNUA

Student

: PHAM DUY SON

Student code

: 621254

Major

: ENGLISH

Supervisor

: NGUYEN THI KIM QUE

Hanoi – 2021

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

I, the undersigned, hereby certify my authority of the study project report
entitled “A study on vocabulary learning strategies employed by first-year
English-majored students at Vietnam National University of Agriculture”
submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor in
English Language. Except where the reference is indicated, no other person’s
work has been used without due acknowledgement in the text of the thesis.
Hanoi, 2021

Pham Duy Son

Approved by
SUPERVISOR

(Signature and full name)
Date:……………………

i


TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY ..................................................................... i
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................. iv
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................... v
LIST OF ABBREVIATION ................................................................................ vi
LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................. vii
Part 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................. 1

1.1. RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY ................................................................. 1
1.2. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY .............................................. 3
1.3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS ............................................................................ 3
1.4. SCOPE OF THE STUDY .............................................................................. 3
1.6. DESIGN OF THE STUDY ............................................................................ 3
Part II: DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................. 5
Chapter 1: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................... 5
1.1. REVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS STUDIES ................................................... 5
1.1.1. Review of the previous study at home ..................................................... 5
1.1.2. Review of the previous study abroad ...................................................... 6
1.2. REVIEW OF THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ........................................ 8
1.2.1. Statement of theoretical framework chosen ........................................... 8
1.2.1.1. Definition and importance of vocabulary ....................................... 8
1.2.1.2. Definitions of Language Learning Strategies ................................. 9
1.2.1.3. Classifications of Language Learning Strategies ......................... 11
1.2.1.4. Definitions of Vocabulary Learning Strategies ............................ 15
1.2.1.5. Classifications of Vocabulary Learning Strategies ...................... 16
Chapter 2: METHODOLOGY ........................................................................ 22
2.1. RESEARCH METHOD ............................................................................... 22
2.3. DATA COLLECTION................................................................................. 22
2.3.1. Data collection instruments .................................................................... 22
2.3.2. Data collecting procedures ..................................................................... 23
2.3.3. Data analysis ............................................................................................ 23
Chapter 3: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION .................................................. 24
3.2. THE MOST AND LEAST FREQUENTLY USED VLSs .......................... 25
3.3. DICTIONARY STRATEGIES EMPLOYED BY PARTICIPANTS ......... 27
3.4. MEMORY STRATEGIES EMPLOYED BY PARTICIPANTS ................ 28
3.5. GUESSING STRATEGIES EMPLOYED BY PARTICIPANTS .............. 29
3.6. NOTE-TAKING STRATEGIES EMPLOYED BY PARTICIPANTS....... 30

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3.7. SELECTIVE AND METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES EMPLOYED BY
PARTICIPANTS ................................................................................................. 31
3.8. RECOMMENDATION ............................................................................ 31
3.9. SUMMARY ................................................................................................. 32
Part 3: CONCLUSION ................................................................................. 34
1. Recapitulation ............................................................................................ 34
2. Limitation of the study .............................................................................. 35
3. Conclusion remarks ...................................................................................... 35
4. Suggestions for further study ....................................................................... 35
REFERENCE .................................................................................................... 37
APPENDIX ........................................................................................................ 43

iii


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many people have been of great help and I want to express my sincere
gratitude to them.
To Ms. Que, my personal instructor, who took care of me from the very
first day, gave me advantageous advice, corrected me even just a tiny detail. I
wish to express grateful thanks for her advice and counsel.
I cannot fully express my gratitude to Ms. Lam, an exceptional instructor,
enthusiast lecturer I have ever known. Thank you for your generosity, faith, and
superb guidance.
I could never have done this report without the eager cooperation and
skilled work of my friend, Hanh Nguyen. Her suggestions, too, have always

been valuable.
And finally, I would like to express my sincere to my parents, who always
give me the ultimate support, become my motivation so that I can conduct this study.
To these and all quoted in this study, I extend grateful thanks.

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ABSTRACT

Vocabulary plays an vital role in acquiring a language, without
vocabulary nothing can be conveyed. Vocabulary is one of the three elements of
language, the building material and the basic of language. Encountering vast
amount new words to learn, it is necessary to investigate vocabulary learning
strategies. This study aims to investigate the use and preference of these
strategies among the students at Vietnam National University of Agriculture
(VNUA). Firstly it introduces the importance of vocabulary. Secondly it gives
definition and classifications about the vocabulary learning strategies. Thirdly it
discovers the vocabulary learning strategies used by first-year English-majored
students at VNUA. It is hoped that this paper can offer some help for students’s
English vocabulary learning and improve students’ interest in learning
vocabulary. The research method approach of the study was quantitative method
with the main data collection instrument was a questionnaire adapted from
Seddigh and Shokrpour (2012). The results show that the metacognitive and
dictionary strategies were preferred most by the participants whereas the least
used strategies were note-taking and selective strategies. The findings of this
study led to some suggestions to enrich English-majored students’ vocabulary
learning.

v

LIST OF ABBREVIATION

LLSs

Language Learning Strategies

M

Mean

SD

Standard Deviation

VLSs

Vocabulary Learning Strategies

VNUA

Vietnam National University of Agriculture

vi


LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Rubin’s Language Learning Strategy System (Rubin, 1975, p.4150; 1981, 117-131) .............................................................................................. 12
Table 2: Oxford’s Language Learning Strategy System (Oxford, 1990, p.17) .. 13

Table 3: O’Malley and Chamot’s Language Learning Strategy System
(O’Malley and Chamot, 1990) ............................................................................ 14
Table 4: A Taxonomy of Vocabulary Learning Strategies (Schmitt, 1997) ....... 18
Table 5: Frequency of Strategy groups used by English-majored students (K65)..... 25
Table 6: Most frequently used vocabulary learning strategies ........................... 26
Table 7: Least frequently used vocabulary learning strategies ........................... 26
Table 8: Dictionary strategies employed by participants .................................... 27
Table 9: Memory strategies employed by participants ....................................... 28
Table 10: Guessing strategies employed by participants .................................... 29
Table 11: Note-taking strategies employed by participants ................................ 30
Table 12: Selective strategies employed by participants .................................... 31
Table 13: Metacognitive strategies employed by participants ............................ 31

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Part 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1. RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY
According to David Crystal (2006), English is the official language of
more than 53 countries and territories, the second language of nearly 100
countries, and a common language of over 400 million people in the world. In
the era of Industry 4.0, many industries are using English, such as media,
healthcare, tourism, commerce, etc. In most of the forums, meetings, and
workshops in the world, despite the fact that there are many people from
different parts of the world where English is not their first language, they are
still able to communicate with each other thanks to this international language.
English is the ticket, the key to open the door connecting to the modern world,
connecting to people from all around the globe, and indispensable for anyone
wishing to prove themselves in nowadays globalization era. It is undeniable that
with the full equipment in both knowledge and communication skills, English

proficient people can quickly integrate into a multicultural environment and
have better performance. The English learners aim for four skills (Listening,
Speaking, Reading, and Writing).
Nonetheless, learning English or mastery of the four skills is like playing
the jigsaw puzzle, vocabulary is the pieces of the puzzle, and without it, nothing
can be created. Learners who want to master English must accumulate a lot of
vocabulary; nevertheless, numerous English learners do not have a rich
vocabulary as a result of not having an effective study strategy. No one can
deny the fact that vocabulary plays an important role when it comes to learning
and using English. Its importance is emphasized by Wilkins (1972): "without
grammar, very little can be conveyed; without vocabulary, nothing can be

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conveyed". Moreover, vocabulary helps learners understand the information
imparted by others when communicating or when learning English.
Learning and improving the foreign language, especially English, is
highly essential for English-majored students at the Vietnam National
University of Agricultural (VNUA) as this is their major. Furthermore, the
English-majored students' level must be at least C1 (The Common European
Framework of Reference for Languages) in order to meet the graduation
requirements.
Unlike high school education, university education has a tremendous
amount of knowledge. However, due to the strict curriculum in university,
lecturers do not have enough time to introduce all the new words to the students.
Hence, the learning vocabulary relies on the self-studying process at home. On
the other hand, students believe that learning a new word is to memorize the
spelling and the meaning of that word. Thus, it is common to find that students
often suffer from acquiring and producing language as a result of their

insufficient vocabulary knowledge. It seems that by virtue of a massive
difference in terms of learning between high school and university, without a
suitable learning vocabulary strategy, a large number of English-majored firstyear students (K65) at VNUA can be overwhelmed and faced several
challenges. In order to bring a comprehensive picture of the English vocabulary
learning of university students, further research on this issue is needed. This
paper intends to study the current VLSs employed by first-year English-majored
students and proposing ways to use VLSs more effectively.

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1.2. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
This study was mainly about trying to understand the VLSs employed by
first-year English-majored students at VNUA.
The objectives of the study were to find out the VLSs used by the firstyear English-majored students at VNUA and to suggest some useful strategies
for English-majored students to enrich their vocabulary.
1.3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The following research questions have been developed to enable the
researchers to achieve the objectives of the study:
Research question 1: What strategies are used by first-year Englishmajored students at VNUA to learn vocabulary?
Research question 2: What strategies should be recommended to Englishmajored students at VNUA?
1.4. SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The subject of the study was the VLSs employed by first-year Englishmajored students at VNUA, and the study's objects were the English vocabulary
learning activities of first-year English-majored students at VNUA. There were
138 English-majored (K65) students participating in the research.
1.5. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This study mainly focuses on the research of current VLSs in order to
come up with appropriate strategies to hone the vocabulary learning quality of
English-majored students (in general and first-year English-majored students in
particular).

1.6. DESIGN OF THE STUDY
Besides the abstracts, references & appendices, the study consists of three
main chapters:

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The introduction provides the rationale of the study, the aims and
objectives of the study, research questions, the scope as well as significance of
the study.
Chapter 1 describes the review of related literature on vocabulary learning
strategies. This chapter summarizes how vocabulary learning strategies are
defined and classified by different researchers.
Chapter 2 mainly deals with the methodology used in the research
including quantitative research, setting, data collection instruments, data
collecting procedures, and the data analysis instruments.
Chapter 3 demonstrates and discusses the results of the research in terms
of students' overall strategy use, frequency of use of strategies reported by 138
first-year English-majored students (K65) at VNUA.
The conclusion summarizes the major findings of the study and proposes
suggestions for further studies.

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Part II: DEVELOPMENT
Chapter 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter mainly concentrates on the review of related literature
concerning VLSs. It starts with several concise reviews of related literature and
research works conducted by both Vietnamese and others. This is followed by

how the previous scholars define and classify VLSs.
1.1. REVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS STUDIES
1.1.1. Review of the previous study at home
In “Vocabulary learning strategies employed by students at Hung Vuong
Gifted High School” written by Đinh Thụy Hằng, ULIS; 2008, Dinh (2008)
analyzes the VLSs generally used by the students at Hung Vuong Gifted High
School and the differences in VLSs by genders. The statistics showed that most
of the strategies were not used with high frequency. The data also pointed out
the participants used determination strategies more often than memory,
cognitive, metacognitive, and social strategies. Regarding the impact of genders
on the choice of VLSs, Dinh finds out that the difference between males and
females in the use of VLSs was not significant.
Tran (2012) investigates the frequency of VLSs are used by students at
the University of Da Nang. She finds that because students are used to the
traditional learning technique, students realize that they only need to repeat or
write the word constantly in order to memorize that word. However, it is likely
that very few words you can obtain and remember through this way of learning,
we can see that this strategy is not efficient. In her study, Tran also indicates the
inappropriate use of VLSs of the students and the lack of linking vocabulary
with reality. However, she did not point out which strategies are suitable for

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ESP (English for Specific Purposes) students in the College of Foreign
Language - the University of Da Nang.
Nguyen (2012) finds that the most used strategies of Thai Nguyen
University of Technology students were repeating the word by writing and
keeping vocabulary notebook strategies. Additionally, memory strategies are
used at the lowest frequency. Thus, the findings confirmed that LLSs are one of

the effective ways to enhance learners’ autonomy.
On the other hand, Vi (2018) has a slightly different definition of VLSs
compared to Dinh (2008) or Tran (2012). Instead of dividing it into
determination, memory, cognitive, metacognitive, and social strategies, she
considers VLSs as creating motivation for self-learning, recognizing important
and popular vocabulary, using the dictionary, guessing the meaning of the
words, noting when self-learning, and put vocabulary in context. Her study
indicates that motivation, serious attitude, learn from people around, know how
to apply vocabulary in all communication situations.
According to Pham (2020), students at Thai Nguyen University of
Agriculture and Forestry were aware of the importance of vocabulary learning.
Many students claimed that learning vocabulary means that they know the
meaning, spelling as well as pronunciation of that word. Nonetheless, most of
the strategies they used are shallow strategies that are popular among the new
learners.
1.1.2. Review of the previous study abroad
Gu (2002) explored the relationship among gender, academic major,
learning strategies and learning outcomes and found that the female students
significantly outperformed their male counterparts; academic major was found

6


to be a less potent background factor; strategy differences were also found
between majors.
MSG. Hamzah, R. Kafipour, and SK. Abdullah (2009) declare that only
nine out of forty-one VLSs showed a contribution and related significantly to the
vocabulary size. The study revealed that cognitive and metacognitive strategies
are the most frequently used strategies, and the three least frequently used
strategies belong to social, memory, and studying the word with classmates.

Hashemi & Hadavi (2015) identify the use and preferences of VLSs
among the students in an Iranian university (Investigation of vocabulary learning
strategies among EFL Iranian medical sciences students. Procedia-Social and
Behavioral Sciences.). The data revealed that social and guessing strategies
acquired the highest mean scores, whereas autonomy and note-taking were the
least used strategies. On the other hand, Hashemi and Hadavi indicate that male
students preferred autonomy and note-taking strategies while female students
went for social strategies.
Whereas Aravind & Rajasekaran (2018) find that cognitive strategies
were the most used strategies by research scholars at VIT Chennai, Tamil, Nadu,
determination strategies were ranked second and followed by metacognitive
strategies. Unlike Hashemi & Hadavi, Aravind & Rajasekaran did not concern
the correlation point between genders and choices of strategies.
In summary, in the field of VLSs, research works have explored many
aspects in different contexts, however, there was almost no one has carried out
the VLSs employed by English students at VNUA. As a result, it is necessary to
conduct research on this specific context.

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1.2. REVIEW OF THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
1.2.1. Statement of theoretical framework chosen
1.2.1.1. Definition and importance of vocabulary
1.2.1.1.a. The definition of vocabulary
Words are the fundamental factors of print and oral communication in our
daily life. Word is an instrument of interpretation. It is clear that the more words
a person possesses, the better he can deliver his thoughts. According to Vardar
(1998), all the words a person uses to express his ideas are called vocabulary. It
is impossible to be succeeded in studying a language without comprehending the

vocabulary. Kamil and Hiebert (2005) asserted that vocabulary is the
comprehension of the meaning of words; they also indicated that the forms of
vocabulary are divided into oral and print forms, which is the complex factor
that affects the defining vocabulary definition. The Kamil and Hiebert’s
definition will be used in this study because this definition can deliver the
clearer meaning and also provide broader view about vocabulary.
1.2.1.1.b. The importance of vocabulary
Several researchers have stated that the mastery of vocabulary is a crucial
component in learning English. For instance, McCarthy (1990) pointed out that
“for successful communication in a foreign language, vocabulary is more crucial
than any other language skills”. Similarly, Katatay (2004, p.21) stated that "The
ability of the four basic language skills to read, write, speak and listen, and to be
able to use these skills actively is closely related to acquired vocabulary".
Moreover, Zhihong Bai (2018, p.853) indicated that “vocabulary is one the three
key factors for language learning. It is the basic to make sentences and express
thoughts and meanings, and a requirement of language communication, so a big

8


amount of stable vocabulary is significant and essential”. Therefore, it is
undeniable that vocabulary plays a vital role in language acquisition, possess a
wide and deep range of vocabulary can help learners convey their message more
efficiently.
1.2.1.2. Definitions of Language Learning Strategies
The term “language learning strategies” has been defined by numerous
researchers in various ways and various aspects. Each definition is varying
based on the author's perception, notwithstanding they still have some points in
common. This part aims to provide some LLSs definitions.
According to Chang, Liu, and Lee (2007), “Strategy” refers to the

generalship or the art of war. “Tactics”, on the other hand, is different but
however still related to strategies. Thus, the two expressions have a number of
concepts in common such as competition, conscious manipulation, planning, and
movement toward a goal. Schemeck (1988, p.5) stated in his study that strategy
is “the implementation of a set of procedures (tactics) for accomplishing
something” and learning strategy is “a sequence of procedures for
accomplishing learning” while Weinstein and Mayer (1986, p.315) defined
learning strategies as “behaviors and thoughts that a learner engages in during
learning and that are intended to influence the learner’s encoding process”.
Bialystok (1978, p.76) described LLSs as “optional means for exploiting
available information to improve competence in a second language” (p.71). He
identified four kinds of LLSs: (a) formal practicing; (b) functional practicing; (c)
monitoring; and (d) inferencing. On the other hand, O’Malley et al. (1985, p.23)
gave different a definition of LLSs as “language learning strategies have been
broadly defined as any set of operations or steps used by a learner that will

9


facilitate the acquisition, storage, retrieval, or use of information”. Similarly,
Rubin (1987, p.23) defined LLSs as “strategies which contribute to the
development of the language system which the learner constructs and affects
learning directly”.
Nunan (1991, p. 168) offered the definition of LLSs as “the mental
process which learners employed to learn and use the target language”.
However, McIntyre (1994, p. 185) saw the LLSs as “the techniques and tricks
that learners use to make the language easier to master”. Share the same idea,
Ellis (1997, pp. 76-77) defines LLSs are “particular approaches or techniques
that learners employ to try to learn a second language. They can be behavioral
(for example, repeating new words aloud to help remember them), or they can

be mental (for example, using the linguistic or situational context to infer the
meaning of a new word”).
Nevertheless, Brown (2000) defined LLSs as “specific attacks that are
made on a given problem. They are moment-by-moment techniques employed
to solve problems passed by second language input and output”. Chamot (2005)
said that learning strategies are consist of methods, approaches, and actions
taken by students to encourage learning and obtaining linguistic information
,while Griffths (2008) stated that LLSs are “activities consciously chosen by
learners for the purpose of regulating their own language learning”.
Oxford (2003, p.8) defined LLSs as “specific actions taken by the
learners to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed,
more effective and more transferable to new situations”. Although the LLSs
definition may be controversial, Oxford’s definition has been chosen for this

10


study because it reflects the meaning and the semantic components of the term
“learning strategies”.
We can observe that different language researchers have different choices
of words to describe the term “strategies”, for instance, “means” (Bialystok,
1978); “set of operations” (O’Malley et al., 1985); “behaviors and thoughts”
(Weinstein and Mayer, 1986); “procedures” (Schemeck, 1988); “mental
process” (Nunan, 1991); “techniques and tricks” (McIntyre, 1994; Ellis, 1997);
“actions” (Oxford, 2003); “activities” (Griffths, 2008). Despite the fact that
different researchers proposed different definitions of LLSs, nonetheless, their
definitions still share some common characteristics as LLSs refer to students'
acts (conscious or unconscious, observable or unobservable) in carrying out
tasks or processing information to obtain the target language successfully. The
students' acts may contribute to their language learning either directly or

indirectly.
In conclusion, the LLSs definition may vary in many different ways. As a
result, language learners in order to succeed in learning a language have to
discover the swiftest or the simplest approaches to achieve the target language.
1.2.1.3. Classifications of Language Learning Strategies
It is clear that different researchers have different ways or personal criteria
or their own theory to classify LLSs. Therefore, the variation of the language
learning strategy classifications is inevitable, the classifications may be based on
the researchers' personal experiences, their investigations, or other researchers'
theories. What follows is the classifications of LLSs proposed by three
researchers in different settings. These works include Rubin (1975, 1981);
Oxford (1990), and O'Malley & Chamot (1990).

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1.2.1.3.a. Classification of Language Learning Strategies by Rubin (1975, 1981)
Rubin (1975, p.41-50; 1981, 117-131) classified LLSs into two categories
that can help language learners acquire the target language directly or indirectly.
Her classification consists of six direct strategies and two indirect strategies (See
Table 1).
Table 1: Rubin’s Language Learning Strategy System
(Rubin, 1975, p.41-50; 1981, 117-131)
Type

Strategies

Explanation
Asking for an example of how to use a

1. Classification
particular word or expression .
Using clues from other items in the
2. Guessing

sentence/phrase, or key words in a sentence to
guess.
Inferring grammatical rules by analogy, or

3. Deductive
Direct

grouping words according to similarity of
Reasoning
endings.

strategies

Experimenting with new words in isolation and
4. Practice
in context, or using mirror for practice.
Taking notes of new items with or without texts
5. Memorization
and definitions.
Correcting error in own/other‟s pronunciation,
6. Monitoring
vocabulary, spelling, grammar, and style.
1. Create

Initiating conversation with fellow

oppotunities for

student/teacher/native speaker, or creating

practice

situation with natives in order to practice.

Indirect
strategies

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Using circumlocution and paraphrase to get
2. Production
message across, or repeating sentence or further
tricks
understanding.

1.2.1.3.b. Classification of Language Learning Strategies by Oxford (1990)
In Oxford’s (1990) study, she synthesized study results and produced a
new LLSs system with six categories (memory strategies, cognitive strategies,
compensation strategies, metacognitive strategies, affective strategies, and
social strategies) were divided into two major types which are direct and
indirect (See Table 2).
Table 2: Oxford’s Language Learning Strategy System (Oxford, 1990, p.17)
Type
Direct

strategies

Primary
strategies
1. Memory
strategies

Secondary strategies
A. Creating mental linkages
B. Applying images and sounds
C. Reviewing well
D. Employing action

2. Cognitive
strategies

A. Practicing
B. Receiving and sending messages
C. Analyzing and reasoning
D. Creating structure for input and output

Indirect
strategies

3. Compensation
strategies

A. Guessing intelligently

1. Metacognitive

strategies

A. Centering your learning

B. Overcoming limitations in speaking and
writing
B. Arranging and planing your learning
C. Evaluating your learning

2. Affective

A. Lowering your anxiety
B. Encouraging yourself

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strategies

C. Taking your emotional temperature

3. Social
strategies

A. Asking questions
B. Cooperating with others
C. Empathizing with others

1.2.1.3.c. Classification of Language Learning Strategies by O’Malley and
Chamot (1990)

O’Malley and Chamot (1990) have a different perspective in terms of
classifying LLSs. They proposed a classification of LLSs based on their own
investigation, which consists of three fundamental categories: cognitive,
metacognitive, and social/ affective (See Table 3). For more specific, cognitive
refer to the psychological processes, while metacognitive strategies refer to
learners’ management of their learning. Social strategies are the ways in which
students cooperate or interact with other people during the learning progress.
Last but not least, affective strategies refer to manipulating over emotions or
pessimistic thoughts in order to maintain study.
Table 3: O’Malley and Chamot’s Language Learning Strategy System
(O’Malley and Chamot, 1990)
Type

Examples

Cognitive strategies e.g: self-monitoring, self-management, self-evaluation
of learning.
Metacognitive

e.g: repetition.

strategies
Social/Affective

e.g: cooperation, questioning for clarification, self-talk .

strategies

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1.2.1.4. Definitions of Vocabulary Learning Strategies
It is undeniable that vocabulary is a vital element of language proficiency
and its acquisition is a prime factor of effective communicative skills. Language
learners need to use strategies to help them obtain new lexical items and enrich
their vocabulary. As a result, researchers have paid more attention to VLSs since
the late 1970s, and their investigation has progressed our perception of the
processes learners use to utilize their skills in a second language. Therefore,
numerous language researchers like Gu (1994) and Schmitt (1997) applied their
knowledge of LLSs came up with a sub-category of LLSs called “Vocabulary
Learning Strategies”.
As stated by Oxford (1990, p.8), VLSs are “operations employed by the
learner to aid the acquisition, storage, retrieval, and use of information".
Similarly, Schmitt (1997, p.203) declared VLSs as “the process by which
information is obtained, stored, retrieved and used... therefore vocabulary
learning strategies could be any which affect this broadly defined process”.
Cameron (2001, p.92) defined VLSs as "the actions that learners take to help
themselves perceive and recall vocabulary items". Sharing the same idea, Wen
Qiufang (2003) believed that VLSs are “behaviors or actions which learners use
to make learning more effective”. Adopted VLSs definitions from Rubin (1987);
Wenden (1987); Oxford (1990); and Schmitt (1997), Catalán (2003, p.56) came
up with her own VLSs definition as "understanding about the mechanisms
(techniques, methods) used in order to acquire vocabulary as well as steps or
actions taken by students to identify the meaning of unknown words, to maintain
them in long-term memory, to recall them at will, and to use them in oral or
written mode". In contrast with Catalán's definition, Nur Hanisah Safian et al.
(2014, p.1) definition is much simpler, they stated VLSs are steps taken by

15

language learners to acquire new English words. Similarly, VLSs are behaviors
or actions which learners use to make vocabulary learning more effective
(Zhihong Bai, 2018, p.885).
For the purpose of this study, the Oxford’s definition was selected
because of its comprehensiveness and it is considered the most detailed
definition.
In conclusion, most of the literature which has been studied presents a
related point of view and places emphasis on the significance of having VLSs. It
does not mean that the strategies are only restricted to the learners, it is equally
crucial to the teachers as it is to the learners. Having knowledge about the
distinctive sorts of choices in VLSs will provide an abundance of opportunities
for teachers, researchers, and curriculum developers to design appropriate
materials for classroom purposes.
1.2.1.5. Classifications of Vocabulary Learning Strategies
Oxford (1990) established a system that includes a list of six dominant
strategy categories, containing (1) memory, (2) cognitive, (3) compensation, (4)
metacognitive, (5) affective, and (6) social. Memory strategies relate the new
material to existing knowledge. Cognitive strategies exhibit the common
function of controlling or transformation of the target language by the learner.
Compensation strategies involve different ways of compensating for missing
knowledge. Metacognitive strategies involve a conscious overview of the
learning process and making decisions about planning, monitoring, or evaluating
the best ways to study. Affective strategies exhibit how to manage one’s
emotions in language learning. Social strategies use the interaction with other
people to improve language learning.

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Stoffer (1995) developed a survey of VLSs that included 53 items and
came up with nine categories: (1) strategies involving authentic language use;
(2) strategies used for self-motivation; (3) strategies used to organize words; (4)
strategies used to create mental linkages; (5) strategies involving creative
activities; (6) strategies involving physical action; (7) strategies used to
overcome anxiety; (8) memory strategies; and (9) auditory strategies.
Gu and Johnson (1996) listed VLSs as 4 major strategies: (1) cognitive, (2)
metacognitive, (3) memory, and (4) activation strategies. The cognitive strategies
include guessing strategies, note-taking strategies, and skillful use of dictionary.
Metacognitive strategies consist of selective attention and self-initiation strategies.
Memory strategies comprise of rehearsal and encoding. Finally, activation
strategies are those strategies that learners use new words in multiple different
contexts. The total number of strategies in their study was 74 items.
Sharing Oxford's ideas, Schmitt (1997) adopted four strategy groups from
Oxford’s system which are: memory, cognitive, metacognitive, and social.
Schmitt stated that Oxford's system lack of category which describes the sort of
strategies employed by an individual when encountered with discovering a new
word's meaning recourse to another person’s expertise so he added a new
category which is “determination strategies” to the taxonomy. Schmitt’s
strategies are divided into two groups in the form of “Discovery” and
“Consolidation”. The former (discovery) strategies include determination and
social strategies, the primary focus of these strategies is to determine the
meaning of the new words. Whereas the latter (consolidation) strategies consist
of social, memory, cognitive, and metacognitive, the major purpose of these
strategies is to reinforce, modify, and enrich the meaning of the words that are
either already known or partially known. However, with the rapid pace of

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