(Luận văn) an investigation into stylistic devices in english contemporary short stories

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
QUY NHON UNIVERSITY

TRẦN ÁI VI

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AN INVESTIGATION INTO STYLISTIC DEVICES

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IN ENGLISH CONTEMPORARY SHORT STORIES

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Field: English Linguistics

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Code: 8.22.02.01

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Supervisor: HÀ THANH HẢI, Ph.D.

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BỘ GIÁO DỤC VÀ ĐÀO TẠO
TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC QUY NHƠN

TRẦN ÁI VI

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TRONG TRUYỆN NGẮN ĐƯƠNG ĐẠI TIẾNG ANH

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NGHIÊN CỨU CÁC BIỆN PHÁP TU TỪ

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Chuyên ngành: Ngôn ngữ Anh

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Mã số: 8.22.02.01

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Người hướng dẫn: TS. HÀ THANH HẢI

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STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP
I certify that the substance of this thesis has not already been submitted
for any degree and is not currently being submitted for any other degree or
award.
I also declare that any help received to successfully complete this
thesis, and all sources employed, have been acknowledged in this thesis.

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Binh Dinh, 2021

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Tran Ai Vi

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many individuals both academically and personally have been
considered as important parts of my journey. Without their support, the
accomplishment of my study would have never been perfect.
First of all, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my
respectable supervisor, Dr. Ha Thanh Hai for his considerable encouragement,
timely enlightenment through valuable comments on every piece of my work.

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Thanks to his great experience on Stylistic Devices, I have been expertly

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guided throughout the thesis. And without his support, my study could not be

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perfectly completed. I genuinely appreciate and learn a great deal from his
Additionally, I would like to thank all the lecturers of my master‟s

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intellectuality, dedication, and professionalism.

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course at Quy Nhon University, who helped me to upgrade my knowledge

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and my skills of Linguistics during my course. They all definitely play a vital
role in enriching my high interest in linguistic research to further explore

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other aspects of both the English and Vietnamese languages. I am also

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indebted to the authors and experts whose works have been cited in the

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Literature Review part of my study.

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Last but not least, my special thanks are extended to my family, my
friends who always stand by me, motivate and support me to participate in
this course, and fully concentrate on completing the course and my thesis, and

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study.

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confidently overcome all the challenges and obstacles during the time of my

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ABSTRACT
The thesis is a study of identifying the types and functions of figures of
speech in English contemporary short stories.This study is aimed to examine
types of figures of speech and investigate the significant of them into in
English contemporary short stories. A combination of descriptive, quantitative
and qualitative methods is employed to use for data analysis. The data of this
research is 20 English contemporary short stories of the U.S and England

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from 2000 to 2019.The study points out that there are ten of twelve types of

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figures of speech found based on Perrine‟s theory, namely metaphor, simile,

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personification, metonymy, synecdoche, symbol, paradox, overstatement,

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understatement, and irony. Simile is the most frequently used, and metonymy

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ranks at the lowest point in the data of study. As for the effects they create for

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the stories, there are four functions of these figures of speech found based on

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Perrine‟s theory: to afford imaginative pleasure, to bring an additional
imagery, to add emotional intensity, and to say much in a brief compass.The

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study hopefully contributes to the procedure of teaching, and learning English

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in particular and encourages them to use the stylistic device in writing to

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make their written papers more beautiful and attractive.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP ................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................. ii
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................... iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................. iv
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................... 1
1.1. Rationale ................................................................................................. 1

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1.2. Aims and objectives of the study ............................................................ 3

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1.2.1. Aims .................................................................................................. 3

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1.2.2. Objectives ......................................................................................... 3

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1.3. Research questions .................................................................................. 3
1.4. Scope of the study ................................................................................... 3

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1.5. Significance of the Study ........................................................................ 4

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1.6. Design of the study ................................................................................. 5

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CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................... 6

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2.1. Stylistic devices....................................................................................... 6

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2.1.1. The Definition of Figure of Speech .................................................. 7
2.1.2. Types of Figure Speeches ............................................................... 10

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2.1.3. Functions of figures of speech ........................................................ 19

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2.2. Contemporary short stories ................................................................... 22
2.2.1. Definition ........................................................................................ 22

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2.2.2. Features of short stories .................................................................. 23

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2.3. Previous studies..................................................................................... 26

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CHAPTER 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ........................................... 29
3.1. Research methods ................................................................................. 29

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3.2. Research procedure ............................................................................... 29
3.3. Data collection ...................................................................................... 30

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3.4. Data analysis ......................................................................................... 31
3.5. Reliability and validity .......................................................................... 32
3.6. Summary ............................................................................................... 32
CHAPTER 4. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ............................................ 33
4.1. Findings ................................................................................................. 33
4.2. The types of stylistic devices in 20 English contemporary short stories ..... 36
4.2.1. Metaphor ......................................................................................... 36
4.2.2. Simile .............................................................................................. 37

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4.2.3. Personification ................................................................................ 39

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4.2.4. Symbol ............................................................................................ 41

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4.2.5. Overstatement ................................................................................. 41
4.2.7. Irony ................................................................................................ 43

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4.2.6. Understatement ............................................................................... 43

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4.2.8. Paradox ........................................................................................... 45

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4.2.9. Metonymy ....................................................................................... 45

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4.2.10. Synecdoche ................................................................................... 46

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4.3. The functions of stylistic devices in 20 English contemporary short

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stories ........................................................................................................... 47
4.3.1. To afford imaginative pleasure ....................................................... 47

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4.3.2. To bring an additional imagery....................................................... 48

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4.3.3. To add emotional intensity ............................................................. 49
4.3.4. To say much in a brief compass ..................................................... 50

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CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSION ....................................................................... 53

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5.1. Summary of Findings ............................................................................ 53

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5.2. Implications ........................................................................................... 55
5.3. Limitations ............................................................................................ 56

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5.4. Recommendation for further study ....................................................... 56
REFERENCES ................................................................................................ 57

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1. General view of types and functions of figures of speech ............. 33
Table 4.2. The frequency of figures of speech in 20 short stories .................. 35

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Rationale
Language may refer either to the specifically human capacity for
acquiring and using complex systems of communication, or to a specific
instance of such a system of complex communication. The scientific study of
language in any of its senses is called linguistics. It has brought to the subject
of semantics a certain degree of analysis combined with a view of the study of

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meaning as an integrated component within the total theory of how language

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works.

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When we study about linguistic, we will know about semantics which

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study the meaning. In English we know that meaning has important position

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to study because it will create some effects when someone tries to understand

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what the speakers or the writers mean.

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When creating a piece of writing as a literary text, the writer has to use

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words to express his denotative and connotative meanings. To have good
quality of art, a writer not only has to use words effectively, colorfully but

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also has to use stylistic devices to make his writing more interesting and more

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persuasive. In literature and writing, using stylistic devices gives an auxiliary

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meaning, idea, or feeling. Indeed, the frequent use of stylistic devices is an
important element to make the literature more attractive and lively.

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Particularly, the use of stylistic devices in their written papers has great

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impact on the readers.

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Under stylistics, figure of speech is one of language style aspects

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commonly discussed. Also under stylistics, language style can be seen as

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figurative language through figures of speech. Leech & Short (2007) pointed

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out that figures of speech are the features which are foregounded by virtue of
departing in some way from general norms of communication by means of the
language code. Indeed, many researches have been done on figures of speech
of literary texts like poems (Perrine, 1987), prose texts (Leech & Short, 2007),
and short stories (Abet, 2019). This domain of research is spread to the setting
of education for student researchers as well (Simpson, 2004). It can be said
that most of the studies made a great effort to understand the famous writer
and their typical works like Hemingway‟s novels, O‟Henry‟s short stories, or

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Emily Dickinson „s poems.

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It is clear that short stories not only use denotative meaning to express

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message from the author but also connotative meaning which is used to

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express agreement, disagreement, happiness, unhappiness, etc, conveyed to

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the listeners or readers. Many kinds of figures of speech give us so much

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information in which they use non literal meaning of words. For example,

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some sentences in the story use figurative language to make it more beautiful,
interesting and imaginative. Figurative language is language using figures of

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speech (a way of saying one thing and meaning another). There are many

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types of figurative language such as: metaphor, simile, symbols, hyperbola,

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irony, etc. But in general, the figurative language is differentiated into 3

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groups in terms of their meanings by comparison, by association and by
contrast. These figurative languages are famous in society, and also in the
field of education starting from elementary school up to the university level

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(Simpson, 2004).

The proved importance of understanding the stylistic devices or figures

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of speech in literary texts and the insufficient analysis in contemporary short

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stories encouraged the author of this thesis to conduct the study on stylistic

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devices used in English contemporary short stories from 2000 to 2019 to

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detect the styles of the modern short story writers.
1.2. Aims and objectives of the study
1.2.1. Aims
This study aims to detect the typical figures of speech used in English
contemporary short stories to enable enable the learners of English to
understand English contemporary short stories thoroughly. Besides, the study
also find out the functions of these stylistic devices in these stories in terms of
aesthetic view.

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1.2.2. Objectives

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In order to achieve these aims, I try to fulfill the following objectives:

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- To investigate stylistic devices in English contemporary short stories.

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- To interpret the functions of these figures of speech in English

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contemporary short stories.

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1.3. Research questions

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In order to achieve the above aim and objectives, the research collect

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and analyze the data in order to answer the following questions:

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short stories?

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1. What are common stylistic devices used in English contemporary

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1.4. Scope of the study

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2. What are the functions of these stylistic devices?

There are different types of stories, like novels, short stories, flash
fiction, short fiction challenges,... However, I mainly focus on English

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contemporary short stories for some reasons. Firstly, choosing 20 English
contemporary short stories with different authors helps the research be more

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precise. Each author has a special style. Secondly, I want to investigate

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various topics instead of just one topics. Besides, within the framework of this

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minor thesis, I mainly focus on English contemporary short stories of the U.S

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and England from 2000 to 2019. 20 English contemporary short stories are
collected mainly from Internet. This study focuses on 12 figures of speeches
as stylistic devices in English contemporary short stories categorized by
Perrine (1987).
Moreover, all over the world, there are many varieties of English such
as British English, Indian English, United States English, etc. However, the
thesis only focuses on contemporary short stories of the U.S and England
because this is the main source of English and this thesis can figure out the

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beauty of English linguistics as a native language.

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1.5. Significance of the Study

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Theoretically, the research will provide a systematic insight into lexical

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stylistic devices in English contemporary short stories. Practically, the

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research is expected to be a valuable contribution to the teaching and learning

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of English stylistics in general and of stylistic devices in English

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contemporary short stories in particular. Through the study on the use of
stylistic devices in English contemporary short stories, the learners recognize

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and achieve the beauty of using language in writing stories. Moreover, it will

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not only help them get better understanding of English contemporary short

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stories language but also provides them with some necessary techniques in the

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use of words in writing papers. As a result, their experience will certainly
facilitate their English language learning so that they will be able to learn
more accurately and effectively. Stylistic devices are used not only in English

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contemporary short stories but also in everyday life as well. Understanding
stylistic devices in contemporary short stories help both writers write a lot of

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successful short stories and readers understand the hidden message under the

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words so that they can read the short stories more quickly and accurately.

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1.6. Design of the study
The study is organized into five chapters as follows:
Chapter 1 presents the rationale, aims and objectives, research
questions, scope of the study, significance of the study, and design of the
study.
Chapter 2 is a summary of the theory, including not only definitions of
stylistic devices, figures of speeches and contemporary short stories but also
mainly focusing on the types and the functions of figures of speech. Then, a

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concise review of the previous studies related to the issues under investigation

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is also indicated.

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Chapter 3 is a description of research method and procedure, data

Chapter 4 deals with finding and analyzing the types of figures of

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collection, data analysis and reliability ad validity will be fully described.

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speech used in 10 English contemporary short stories. Besides, four functions

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of figures of speech are clearly discussed.
Chapter 5, Conclusion and Implications, provides a brief summary of

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the research findings, and mentions the limitations of the research.

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Furthermore, suggestions for further studies related to the research are also

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included in this chapter.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Stylistic devices
There are many definitions of stylistic devices from different authors.
According to Galperin (1977), “a stylistic device is a conscious and
intentional intensification of some typical structural and/or semantic property
of a language unit (neutral or expensive) promoted to a generalized status and
thus becoming a generative model”.

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Widdowson (1975) defines stylistics as the study of literary discourse

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in a linguistic context. Stylistics, he claims, is distinct from both literary

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criticism and linguistics, and it occupies a middle ground between linguistics

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and literary criticism. He adds that stylistics is an area of mediation between

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two disciplines. According to that, stylistics is a synthesis of two schools of

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literary criticism, incorporating the reader's subjective, intuitive judgment and

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linguistics, which provides a method of describing the reader's reaction.

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Styles, according to Short (1996), interpret the connection between
language and aesthetic function. Stylistic analysis is an attempt to investigate

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artistic components based on the writer's choice of language, therefore it is

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important to analyze each text's perspective of the overall artistic impact and

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how to integrate the parts into the whole.

Stylistic devices refers to different techniques to provide additional and

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complementary meaning, ideas, or sensations. Also known as figures of

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speech or rhetorical devices, the goal of these techniques is to create image,

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emphasis, or clarity in the text in the hope of engaging the reader.

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Most stylistic devices display an application of two meanings: the

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ordinary one is the meaning (lexical or structural) which has already been

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established in the language-as-a-system, and a special meaning which
originates within certain context and is contextual.
Leech and Short (2007) claim that the study of stylistics aims to give an
explanation of the language use and aesthetic function. They also affirm that

every analysis of style is an attempt to find the artistic principles underlying a
writer‟s choice. Moreover, the essential purpose of stylistics is to explore
language and creativity in language use (Simpson, 2004: 3).
Leech and Short (2007) also mentions four fields of study for stylistics.

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The first of them is lexical categories. Lexical categories are concerned with

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lexical elements found in the text, i.e. verbs, adjectives, nouns and adverbs.

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The second is grammatical categories. Grammatical categories are concerned

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with the structure of the sentence, including tenses, voice, aspects…. The

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third is cohesion and context. Cohesion and context also play important roles

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in the research of language styles. Cohesion is a relationship between words

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and phrases in a text, whereas the context is the location of the text. The
fourth is figures of speech. Figures of speech are the forms of speech that are

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figurative.

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different from common speech in use, which makes the language more

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In conclusion, stylistic devices are a part of general linguistic with rules

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that include the lexical, grammatical, context and cohesion and figures of
speech. It expresses the transfer of thoughts and emotions. It offers the result
and the input of the act of communication. In this thesis, stylistic devices are

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of these.

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2.1.1. The Definition of Figure of Speech

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limited in the meaning of the figures of speech, so following will be the detail

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Figurative language is pervasive in many forms of discourse. Some

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linguists have different perceptions to define figurative language. Dancygier,

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& Sweeter (2014) suggest that figurative language is the language used in a
creative work. It is widely used through verbal communication to create the
ideas and to shed light on the audience‟s feelings. Moreover, Eubanks (2011)
has said that figurative structures are far from being just decorative. They are
important and persuasive in language; furthermore, it is the relevant cognitive
structures that are important and persuasive in thought, draw creative meaning
for the audience, and provide imagination through the words implied.
According to Perrine (1987), figures of speech should not be interpreted

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literally. It is because figures of speech cause the speaker to communicate

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things in an unusual manner. Figures of speech are used to provide new

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meaning to something that has already been spoken.

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Perrine (1987) argues that figurative language is a way of saying one

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thing in order to mean another. She explains that the use of figurative

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language thoroughly serve the function of providing extended meaning to

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words, phrases or sentences from their literal expressions. She also avers that
figurative language can be a more effective method of saying what we need to

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mean rather than direct statements. Moreover, she proposes seven

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classifications of figurative language, metaphor, simile, personification,

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metonymy, paradox, overstatement, understatement, irony and allusion.

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Rozakis (1995), supports Perrine‟s idea that “figurative language is the way of
saying one thing in terms of another”. She exemplifies that figurative
language is an expression used by a person to refer to another meaning by

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using the comparison, the expression cannot be interpreted literally because
the comparison in figurative language has an intended meaning.

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Ogunsiji (2000) suggests that the use of figurative language implies

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extended or associative meanings in terms of an imaginative understanding at

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the same time to appeal to the readers‟ emotions. Figuration is an important

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element in the composition of poetry texts and creative writings in the sense
to extend the meaning of phenomena and create readers‟ emotions in deep
perception
Thus, it can be said that definitions of figurative language differ, but the
concept and function are almost the same. That is, they agree that figurative
language is a way of describing stories through the non-literal language. The
uses of figurative language were seen as stylistic decorations in which the
writers dressed up their language to go beyond meanings, make the writing

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more engaging, clarify the meaning they wanted to communicate and shed

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light on the audiences‟ perceptions through the cosmetic uses of figurative

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language.

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Meanwhile, scholars of classical western rhetoric have classified

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figurative language into two main categories of tropes and schemes. Some

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experts like Abrams and Harpham (2012), Perrine (1987) and Znamenskaya

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(2004) have employed the term „figurative language‟ to refer to both tropes
and schemes.

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Znamenskaya (2004: 193) claims that figures of speech are stylistic

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devices which include schemes, tropes, and other syntactical expressive

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often useful categories.

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means. For identifying features in figures of speech, tropes and schemes are

Leech and Short (2007: 66) state that schemes are defined as
„foregrounded repetitions of expressions‟, and tropes as „foregrounded

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irregularities of content‟. Schemes are classified into several types, i.e.

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phonological schemes, grammatical schemes, and lexical schemes (Leech and

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Short, 2007: 63). Phonological schemes include phonological patterns of

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rhyme, alliteration and assonance while grammatical and lexical schemes

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contain formal and structural repetition (such as anaphora and parallelism)

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and mirror-image patterns (chiasmus). In addition, tropes also contain
traditional poetic figures of speech and their special interpretation.
2.1.2. Types of Figure Speeches

The classification of figures of speech is based on Perrine‟s theory
(1987) which divided figures of speech into three categories: The first one is
figures of speech by comparison, which contain metaphor, simile,
personification, and apostrophe. Second, there are figures of speech by
association which consist of metonymy, symbol, synecdoche, and allegory.

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The last one is figures of speech by contrast which include paradox,

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overstatement, understatement, and irony.

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2.1.2.1. Figures of speech by comparison

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Based on Perrine (1987), both metaphor and simile are used to compare

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2.1.2.1.1. Simile

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things that are fundamentally unlike. The similarity is stated directly in simile

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by the use of a connector word.

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Furthermore, Kennedy & Gioia (2007) say that “Simile is indicated by

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some connective words such as like, as, than, or a verb such as resembles.”

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For instance, the sentence He is like my sunshine uses the word “like” to

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make a connection between the words “he” and “my sunshine” and to

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demonstrate that they have a resemblance, which is the value of beauty. The
presence of simile may be seen in various domains of language, including
literature, music, newspapers, ads, and so on. Another example is presented in

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“He slithers like a snake.”

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“He fights like a lion.”

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this poem:

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“The café was like a battleship stripped for action.”

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(extracted from Kennedy & Gioia, 2007)

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Simile is a very effective and widely used literary device. Here are
some examples of simile and how it adds to the significance of literary works:
A library is like an island in the middle of a vast sea of ignorance,
particularly if the library is very tall and the surrounding area has been
flooded. (extracted from Kennedy & Gioia, 2007)
According to Kennedy & Gioia (2007), in this sentence, Lemony
Snicket displays the power of figurative language in comparing a library to an
island and conjures a literal picture of a library as an island. This reinforces

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the significance of a library as a refuge and protective haven against

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ignorance and other potentially destructive forces.

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2.1.2.1.2. Metaphor

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According to Perrine (1987), “Metaphor is a comparison between
In addition, Simpson (2004) says that “Metaphor as a process of

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things which essentially unlike.”

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mapping between two different conceptual domains that are known as the
source domain (the topic or concept that a speaker or writer draws in order to

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create the metaphorical construction) and target domain (the topic or concept

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that a speaker or writer wants to describe).”

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Leech and Short (2007) states that “The analogizing sense in figures of

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speech can be revealed through metaphor. Implicitly, metaphor is a kind of

analogy or comparison. Metaphor can function as subject, object, etc.” They
also examplify the use of metaphor “a heart of lion” in the sentence He had a

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lion's heart, which is strong and courageous.

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heart of lion. This phrase, according to them, means that the person has a

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In addition, Leech and Short (2007: 21) also say that “Poetic metaphor

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makes people to deny a literal sense and provokes people to make sense, i.e.

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to find interpretations by paraphrase”. For example:

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"Dear Nature is the kindest Mother still" (Leech and Short (2007)
The concept of mother evokes acts such as breastfeeding, caring for,
and so on. However, the concept of nature does not. There is no actual
resemblance but it is defined metaphor as the ability to realize two lexical
meanings at the same time.
Metaphors can make your words come to life (or in the case of the
exam, to death). It turns up everywhere from novels and films to presidential
speeches and even popular songs. For example:

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“All the world's a stage,

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And all the men and women merely players;

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They have their exits and their entrances;”

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In “You are the sunshine of my life”, the metaphor lies in the noun

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(Perrine, 1987)

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sunshine. The meaning is the happiness created by a certain person and the

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vehicle is the sun and happiness is the common ground.
There must be some similarities between the two items being compared

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in order to make this comparison. Metaphor translates the features of a

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tangible item into a more abstract concept. It gives the reader a new

2.1.2.1.3. Personification

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perspective on one thing by comparing it to another.

According to Perrine (1987), personification gives human being
attributes to an animal, an object, or or a concept. Those animals, un-living

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things, or ideas can perform actions like human. In his book Sound and Sense,
Perrine (1987) gives an example of personification:

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And the startled little waves that leap

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And the yellow half-moon large and low:

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The gray sea and the long black land;

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In fiery ringlets from their sleep,

As I gain the cove with pushing prow,
And quench its speech i„ the slushy sand.
(Perrine, 1987)
Waves mean a raised line of water which moves across the surface of a
sea. This poem uses “the startled little waves” as a personification because
waves are non-human entities that cannot experience emotions such as
surprise and worry since emotion is only held by humans.

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Perrine (cited in Kovecses, 2002: 35) states that personification

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happens when human traits are transferred to non-human things through the

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use of a word or phrase. Non-human beings in a book have a stronger feeling

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of imagination since they lack human characteristics. It is possible to

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characterize an animal, an object, or an idea as having human behaviors or

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feelings. Another example of personification is presented in the following:

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Because I could not stop for Death

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He kindly stopped for me

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The Carriage held but just Ourselves

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And Immortality.

( Kovecses, 2002)

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In this poem, “Death” is personified as a person driving a carriage.

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Within the confines of this poem, Death may in fact be a person; but
Dickinson isn‟t writing about a literal event that happened to her. She‟s using

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her relationship with Death figuratively, illustrating how Death goes about its

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2.1.2.1.4. Apostrophe

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business with little regard for humanity‟s work and leisure.
It is a figure of speech in which someone absent, deceased, or

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and could respond (Perrine, 1987).

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something non-human is addressed as if that person or object were present

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According to Kennedy and Gioia (2007), a direct address to someone or
something, such as an inanimate item, a deceased or absent person, an
abstract thing, or a spirit, is denoted with an apostrophe. For example, in the
sentence Bright star, would I were steadfast as thou art (John Keats, “Bright
Star” - cited in Kennedy and Gioia, 2007), the speaker addresses the “bright
star” that is unable to respond to the speaker's remark. The use of an

apostrophe informs the readers that there will be no answers.
Personification and apostrophe are both ways of giving feeling and

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immediacy to the speaker‟s language. Apostrophe, on the other hand, does not

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require any more creative ability to explain it. It is used to communicate a

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speaker's notion to someone who is absent, deceased, non-human, or abstract.

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2.1.2.2.1. Metonymy

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2.1.2.2. Figures of speech by association

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Perrine (1987) defines metonymy is a figure of speech in which

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something nearly related is used to represent what is truly meant.

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In line with Perrine, Kövecses (2010) believes that “There are two

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elements or entities that are closely related to each other in conceptual space

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in metonymy.” Kövecses (2010) also states that metonymy is the use of one

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entity or item to represent or offer mental access to another one. For example,

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in the sentence Joe‟s new ride was expensive, the speaker refers to the object
“ride” is metonymy for car. This is also an example of metonymy:
There is a mountain of work on my desk.

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“Mountain” is used here as a word that would be related to “pile”.

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with one another.

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Though the word “mountain” is different than “pile”, they are both associated

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Metonymy employed in language-in-action is real metonymy and

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indicates an unexpected replacement of one term for another, or one idea for

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another, based on some strong impression generated by a random
characteristic of the item, such as:
Then they came in. Two of them, a man with long fair moustaches and a
silent dark man... Definitely, the moustache and I had nothing in common.
(Doris Lessing, Retreat to Innocence- cited in Kennedy and Gioia, 2007)
Another aspect of a guy that stands out is his facial appearance: the
moustache reflects the individual himself. The metonymy serves to indicate
that the speaker is unfamiliar with the guy in question, and there is a strong

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implication that this is the speaker's first meeting with him.

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2.1.2.2.2. Symbol

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Perrine (1987) defines a symbol as something that implies more than
Kennedy and Gioia (2007) say that “symbol is a person, place, or thing

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what it is.

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in a narrative that suggests meanings beyond its literal sense.”

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Symbol is a word that indicates to or symbolizes more meaning than its

literal meaning (Gill, 2004). A symbol usually uses a word or phrase which is

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acquainted with people. For example, the sentence Ah Sunflower, weary of

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time, Who countest the steps of the sun; Seeking after that sweet golden clime

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Where the traveler‟s journey is done (William Blake, Ah Sunflower), The

is presented in the following:

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word “sunflower” is a symbol for the life cycle. Another example of symbol

Two roads diverged in a yellow wood,

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And be one traveller, long I stood

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To where it bent in the undergrowth;

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And looked down one as far as I could

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And sorry I could not travel both

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The Road Not Taken (Perrine, 1987)

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This poem is about a man walking through the woods and coming
across two paths that he must choose between. “Roads” here is a symbol for
choices in life.
2.1.2.2.3. Synecdoche
Kövecses (2010) implies that synecdoche is another metonymic
variation in which a part of a thing is used to represent the whole thing.
Synecdoche simplifies what is being said by mentioning only essential details.
A whole can also represent a component in a synecdoche.

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Synecdoche refers to the practice of using a part of something to stand

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in for the whole thing. In the sentence “She showed off her new wheels”, two

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common examples from slang are the use of wheels to refer to an automobile

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or threads to refer to clothing.
It is synecdoche when you use of the term hands to mean “workers” (as

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in all hands on deck), or the noun sails to mean “ships.” This is another

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example of synecdoche: Today, I hit my job peak. “Peak” is used here to

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indicate the highest point of the speaker‟s career experience. The “peak” is

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part of the whole.

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Synecdoche, which is related to metaphor and metonymy, produces

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wordplay by referring to something with an analogous idea. For example, in

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the sentence Each head should contribute money with the nominal
predetermined, the word “head” is a synecdoche which represents a person.
2.1.2.2.4. Allegory

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(Perrine, 1987) says that allegory is not as common in current literature
as it was in medieval literature. Allegory is a narrative or description that has

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a hidden meaning underneath the surface. Allegory can be found in a tale, a

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drama, a poem, a painting, or other works in which the characters and events

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reflect certain traits or concepts such as morality, religion, or politics. For

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example, the allegory used in William Wordsworth‟s poem “A Farewell” can
be seen as follow:
We go for one to whom ye will be dear
and she will prize this bower, this indian shed,
our own contrivance, building without peer!
(Perrine, 1987)
The lines of poetry above contains allegory, because poet write the line
one to whom ye shall be dear as a stored meaning to substitute the actual

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meaning of his future bride who will take care of the garden.

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2.1.2.3. Figures of speech by contrast

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2.1.2.3.1. Paradox

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McArthur (1996: 348) states that “Paradox is a term in rhetoric for a

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situation that seems self- contradictory and even absurd, but may contain an

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insight into life”. Generally, paradox may be either a situation or a statement

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(Perrine, 1987). For example, the sentences Your enemy is sometimes your
close friend. Your friend is sometimes your real enemy contain paradox

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because sometimes people are unable to distinguish between what is said to

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make sense.

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be a friend and what is referred to as an adversary. Semantically, the phrases

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Another example is the words in Gormenghast “there are days when the
living have no substance and the dead are active” (Leech and Short,
2007:114). This is a paradox since it involves two diametrically opposing

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concepts: life and death. Its meaning shifts with each other.
People who comprehend paradox well will see that something that

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appears to be impossible is, in fact, feasible and contains truth. Paradox may

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be seen of as a type of irony that reminds individuals of the illogical character

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of the world they live in.

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