english grammar for toeic

Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830
Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail:
1
1.02 VERB FORMS 8
1.03 VERB CLASSIFICATION 8
1.03.1 Helping Verbs 8
1.03.1 HELPING VERBS DEFINITION 9
1.03.1. B. Primary helping verbs (3 verbs) 9
1.03.1. A. Modal helping verbs (10 verbs) 9
1.03.2 Main Verbs 10
1.03.2. B. Transitive and intransitive verbs 10
1.03.2. D. Linking verbs 11
1.03.2. E. Dynamic and stative verbs 11
1.03.2. A. Regular and irregular verbs 10
1.03.2. C. REGULAR VERBS 11
1.03.2. F. IRREGULAR VERBS 11
2. NOUNS 12
2.01 What are Nouns? 12
2.02 COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS 14
2.02.1 COUNTABLE NOUNS 14
2.02.2 UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS 15
2.02.3 NOUNS THAT CAN BE COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE 15
2.03 PROPER NOUNS (NAMES) 16
2.04 USING CAPITAL LETTERS WITH PROPER NOUNS 16
2.05 PROPER NOUNS WITHOUT “THE” 16
2.06 PROPER NOUNS WITH “THE” 18
Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830
Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail:
2
2.07 POSSESSIVE’S 19
POSSESSIVE’S 19

3. ADJECTIVES 20
3.01 DETERMINERS 20
3.01.1 DETERMINERS: A, AN OR THE? 21
DETERMINERS: A, AN OR THE? 21
3.01.2 DETERMINERS: EACH, EVERY 22
3.01.3 DETERMINERS: SOME, ANY 23
3.02 ADJECTIVE ORDER 24
3.02.1 ADJECTIVE BEFORE NOUN 24
ADJECTIVE BEFORE NOUN 25
3.02.2 ADJECTIVE AFTER VERB 25
ADJECTIVE AFTER VERB 25
3.03 COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES 26
3.03.1 FORMATION OF COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES 26
FORMATION OF COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES 26
3.03.2 USE OF COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES 27
3.04 SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES 28
SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES 29
3.04.1 FORMATION OF SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES 29
3.04.2 USE OF SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES 31
Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830
Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail:
3
4. ADVERBS 31
4.01 ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY 32
ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY 33
5. ENGLISH PRONOUNS 33
5.01 PERSONAL PRONOUNS 33
6. ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS 34
6.01 ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS LIST 34
ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS LIST 35

6.02 ENGLISH PREPOSITION RULE 36
ENGLISH PREPOSITION RULE 37
6.03 PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE: AT, IN, ON 37
PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE: AT, IN, ON 37
6.04 PREPOSITIONS OF TIME: AT, IN, ON 39
PREPOSITIONS OF TIME: AT, IN, ON 39
7. CONJUNCTIONS 40
7.01 CONJUNCTIONS DEFINITION 40
7.01.2 Form 41
7.01.1 Function 40
7.01.3 Position 41
7.02 COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS 41
7.03 SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS 42
8. INTERJECTIONS 43
Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830
Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail:
4
9.00 Table of English Tenses 45
Before you begin the verb tense lessons, it is extremely important to understand that NOT all English verbs are the same.
English verbs are divided into three groups: 46

10.00 TENSES 48
10.01 Simple Present (Present Simple) – Introduction 50
STRUCTURE Subject +verb(s, es) +object / complement 50
10.01.1 Simple Present - Use 51
10.01.2 Simple Present - Form 52
be 52
have 53
All other verbs 53
10.02 Simple Present - Exceptions in Spelling 54

11.00 Present Progressive - Introduction 54
11.01 Present Progressive - Use 55
11.02 Present Progressive - Form 56
11.03 Present Progressive - Exceptions in Spelling 56
11.04 Present Progressive - Short Forms 57
11.05 Present Progressive - Signal Words 57
12.0 Present Perfect Simple 58
STRUCTURE:- Subject + [HAS / HAVE] + [past participle] + Object / Complement 58
12.01 Form of Present Perfect 58
12.03 Use of Present Perfect 58
12.04 Signal Words of Present Perfect 59
13.00 Present Perfect Progressive 59
STRUCTURE: Subject + [HAS / HAVE] + [BEEN] + [VERB+ing] Object / complement 59
13.01 Form of Present Perfect Progressive 59
13.03 Use of Present Perfect Progressive 60
13.04 Signal Words of Present Perfect Progressive 60
14.00 Simple Past (Past Simple) 60
STRUCTURE: Subject + 2
nd
Form of the Verb + Object / complement. 60
14.01 Form of Simple Past 60
14.03 Use of Simple Past 61
14.04 Signal Words of Simple Past 61
15.00 Past Progressive (Past Continuous) 61
STRUCTURE:- Subject + [WAS / WERE] + [VERB+ing] + Object / complement. 61
15.01 Form 61
15.03 Use of Past Progressive 62
Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830
Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail:
5

15.04 Signal Words of Past Progressive 62
15.05 Form of Past Perfect Simple 62
15.07 Use of Past Perfect 63
15.08 Signal Words 63
16.00 Past Perfect Progressive (Past Perfect Continuous) 63
Structure: Subject + Had + Been + Verb ing + Object 63
16.01 Form 63
16.02 Use 63
16.02 signal words 64
17.00 Future I Simple will 64
17.01 Form of will Future 64
17.02 Use of will Future 64
17.03 Signal Words 64
17.04 Future I Simple going to 64
17.04.1 Form of going to Future 64
17.04.2 Use of going to Future 65
17.05 Signal Words 65
18.00 Future I Progressive (Future I Continuous) 65
18.01 Form 65
18.02 Use 65
18.03 Signal Words 65
18.04. Future II Simple 65
18.04.1 Form 65
18.04.02 Use 66
18.04.03 Signal Words 66
19.00 Future II Progressive (Future II Continuous) 66
19.01 Form 66
19.02 Use 66
19.03 Signal Words 66
20.01 PRESENT CONDITIONAL: 66

21.00 PAST CONDITIONAL: 68










Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830
Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail:
6
Thursday, July 27, 2006

1.00 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE TODAY: -

1.01. IMPORTANCE: -

English is generally acknowledged to be the world’s most important language. It is perhaps worth (value)
glancing / take a quick look briefly at the basis for that evaluation. There are, after all, thousands of different
languages in the world, and each will seem uniquely important to those who speak it as their native
language, the language they acquired / obtain at their mother’s knee. But there are more objective standards
of relative importance.
1. One criterion
(principle) is the number of speakers of the language.
2. The second is the extent (degree / size) to which a language is geographically dispersed: (discrete
/ isolated) in how many continents and countries is it used or is knowledge of it necessary?
3. The third one is its functional load: how extensive (wide) is the range of purposes for which it is

used?
4. In particular, to what extent is it the medium for highly valued cultural manifestations (sign /
appearance) such as a science or a literature?
5. The fifth one is the economic and political influence (power / effect) of the native speakers of the
language.

1.02. THE USE OF ENGLISH: -
As we know that English is the worlds most widely used language. A distinction (difference) is often made
that depends on how the language is learned: as a native language (or mother tongue), acquired when that
speaker is a young child (generally in the home), or as a non-native language, acquired at some subsequent
period. (following periods). Overlapping with this distinction is that between its use as a first language, the
primary (first, basic) language of the speaker, and as an additional language.

1.03. THE INTERNATIONAL CHARACTER OF ENGLISH: -
English is pre-eminently (most excellent) the most international of languages. Though the name of the
language may at once remind us of England, or we may associate (connect / unite) the language with the
united states, one of the world’s superpowers, English caries less implications of political or cultural
specificity than any other living tongue, such as Spanish and French being also notable in this respect.

1.04. THE FUTURE OF ENGLISH: -

A single international language has long been thought to be the ideal for international communication.
Artificially (unnaturally) constructed languages have never acquired sufficiently large numbers of
supporters, although in principle such languages have the clear advantage that they put all learners on the
same footing (all are non native speakers), thereby not giving an advantage to speakers of any particular
language. During the last few decades English has come closest to being the single international language,
having achieved a greater world spread than any other language in recorded history. Yet in recent years
doubts have arisen whether it will ever reach the ideal of the single international language or, indeed,
whether its use as an international language will continue at the present time.
Grammar

Grammar is the study and description of the inflexions and other formal features of a language by which one
communicates the relationships between spoken or written words. Alternatively, it is a theory specifying
Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830
Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail:
7
how to construct sentences of a language in preferred or prescribed forms, or the constructions themselves.
In simple terms, grammar is the study of a language's syntax and inflexions.
The use of grammar enables a person to control his or her subjects and predicates, verbs, clauses, and
phrases sufficiently to be intelligible to those to whom he is speaking or writing. The use of grammar helps
us to communicate to each other.
However, grammar does not lead or precede a language. Instead, it follows a language. As a result, the
grammar of a living language is in a state of constant change as it adapts to the changes in the common use
of the language by educated citizens. Only the grammar of a dead language, such as Latin, is fixed and
unchanging. Two examples serve to illustrate this point. During the Shakespearian period, the double
comparative or superlative ("the most unhappiest day" of the year) was correct, although it is unacceptable
today. Similarly, the use of "you wasn't' was considered to be correct a century later, although it would be
associated with illiteracy or ignorance today.
It is noun. According to the dictionary meaning, the word grammar means, the book that teaches rules for
the use of words.
In other words we can define the word grammar as follows: -
The rules that say how words are combined arranged and changed to show different meanings.
Its adjective form is GRAMMATICAL. It means correct according to the rules of grammar.

PARTS OF SPEECH


The 8 English Parts of Speech:

There are the words that you use to make a sentence. There are only 8 types of word and the most important
is the verb!
Verbs
be, have, do, work

Nouns

man, town, music

Adjectives

a, the, 69, big

Adverbs

loudly, well, often

Pronouns
you, ours, some

Prepositions
at, in, on, from

Conjunctions
and, but, though

Interjections
ah, dear, er, um

Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830

Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail:
8

1. Verb
1.01 What are Verbs?

The verb is king in English. The shortest sentence contains a verb. You can make a one-word sentence with
a verb, for example: "Stop!" You cannot make a one-word sentence with any other type of word.
Verbs are sometimes described as "action words". This is partly true. Many verbs give the idea of action, of
"doing" something. For example, words like run, fight, do and works all convey action.
But some verbs do not give the idea of action; they give the idea of existence, of state, of "being". For
example, verbs like be, exist, seem and belong all convey state.
A verb always has a subject. (In the sentence "Zarak speaks English", Zarak is the subject and speaks is the
verb.) In simple terms, therefore, we can say that verbs are words that tell us what a subject does or is; they
describe:

Examples:

Action (Ahmad plays football.)
State (Naveed seems kind.)


1.02 Verb Forms
English verbs come in several forms. For example, the verb to sing can be: to sing, sing, sang, sung,
singing or sings. This is a total of 6 forms. Not many, considering that some languages (French, for
example) have more than 30 forms for an individual verb. English tenses may be quite complicated, but the
forms that we use to make the tenses are actually very simple! With the exception of the verb to be, English
main verbs have only 4, 5 or 6 forms. To be has 9 forms. Do not confuse verb forms with tenses. We use the
different verb forms to make the tenses, but they are not the same thing.

1.03 Verb Classification
We divide verbs into two broad classifications:
HELPING VERBS MAIN VERBS
1.03.1 Helping Verbs
Imagine that a stranger walks into your room and says:
• I can.
• People must.
• The Earth will.
Do you understand anything? Has this person communicated anything to you? Probably not! That's because
these verbs are helping verbs and have no meaning on their own. They are necessary for the grammatical
Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830
Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail:
9
structure of the sentence, but they do not tell us very much alone. We usually use helping verbs with main
verbs. They "help" the main verb. (The sentences in the above examples are therefore incomplete. They
need at least a main verb to complete them.) There are only about 15 helping verbs.
1.03.1 Helping Verbs
Definition
Helping verbs have no meaning on their own.
They are necessary for the grammatical structure
of a sentence, but they do not tell us very much
alone. We usually use helping verbs with main
verbs. They "help" the main verb (which has the
real meaning). There are only about 15 helping
verbs in English, and we divide them into two
basic groups:

1.03.1. B. Primary helping verbs
(3 verbs)
These are the verbs be, do, and have. Note that

we can use these three verbs as helping verbs or
as main verbs. On this page we talk about them
as helping verbs. We use them in the following
cases:
• be
o to make continuous tenses (He is
watching TV.)
o to make the passive (Small fish
are eaten by big fish.)

• have
o to make perfect tenses (I have
finished my homework.)

• do
o to make negatives (I do not like
you.)
o to ask questions (Do you want
some coffee?)
1.03.1. A. Modal helping verbs
(10 verbs)
We use modal helping verbs to "modify" the meaning
of the main verb in some way. A modal helping verb
expresses necessity or possibility, and changes the
main verb in that sense. These are the modal verbs:
• can, could
• may, might
• will, would,
• shall, should
• must

• ought to
Here are examples using modal verbs:
• I can't speak Chinese.
• Ahmad may arrive late.
• Would you like a cup of coffee?
• You should see a doctor.
• I really must go now.

Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830
Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail:
10
some coffee?)
o to show emphasis (I do want you
to pass your exam.)
o to stand for a main verb in some
constructions (He speaks faster
than she does.)

1.03.2 Main Verbs
Now imagine that the same stranger walks into your room and says:
• I teach.
• People eat.
• The Earth rotates.
Do you understand something? Has this person communicated something to you? Probably yes! Not a lot,
but something. That's because these verbs are main verbs and have meaning on their own. They tell us
something. Of course, there are thousands of main verbs.
Main verbs have meaning on their own.
There are thousands of main verbs, and
we can classify them in several ways:
1.03.2. B. Transitive and

intransitive verbs
A transitive verb takes a direct object:
Somebody killed the President. An
intransitive verb does not have a direct
object: He died. Many verbs, like speak,
can be transitive or intransitive. Look at
these examples:
transitive:
• I saw an elephant.
• We are watching TV.
• He speaks English.
intransitive:
• H
e
h
as

a
rri
ved
.

1.03.2. A. Regular and irregular verbs
This is more a question of vocabulary than of grammar. The
only real difference between regular and irregular verbs is that
they have different endings for their past tense and past
participle forms. For regular verbs, the past tense ending and
past participle ending is always the same: -ed. For irregular
verbs, the past tense ending and the past participle ending is
variable, so it is necessary to learn them by heart.

regular verbs: base, past tense, past participle
• look, looked, looked
• work, worked, worked
irregular verbs: base, past tense, past participle
• buy, bought, bought
• cut, cut, cut
• do, did, done
Here are lists of regular verbs and irregular verbs.
Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830
Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail:
11
intransitive:
• He has arrived.
• John goes to school.
• She speaks fast.
1.03.2. D. Linking verbs
A linking verb does not have much
meaning in itself. It "links" the subject to
what is said about the subject. Usually, a
linking verb shows equality (=) or a
change to a different state or place (>).
Linking verbs are always intransitive (but
not all intransitive verbs are linking
verbs).
• Ahmad is a teacher. (Ahmad =
teacher)
• Tara is beautiful. (tara = beautiful)
• That sounds interesting. (that =
interesting)
• The sky became dark. (the sky >

dark)
• The bread has gone bad. (bread >
bad)
1.03.2. E. Dynamic and
stative verbs
Some verbs describe action. They are
called "dynamic", and can be used with
continuous tenses. Other verbs describe
state (non-action, a situation). They are
called "stative", and cannot normally be
used with continuous tenses (though
some of them can be used with
continuous tenses with a change in
meaning).
dynamic verbs (examples):
• hit, explode, fight, run, go
stative verbs (examples):
• be
Here are lists of regular verbs and irregular verbs.
1.03.2. C. Regular Verbs
English regular verbs change their form very little (unlike
irregular verbs). The past tense and past participle of regular
verbs end in -ed, for example:
work, worked, worked
But you should note the following points:
1. Some verbs can be both regular and irregular, for example:
learn, learned, learned
learn, learnt, learnt
2. Some verbs change their meaning depending on whether
they are regular or irregular, for example "to hang":

regular
hang, hanged, hanged
to kill or die, by
dropping with a rope
around the neck
irregular
hang, hung, hung
to fix something (for
example, a picture) at
the top so that the lower
part is free
3. The present tense of some regular verbs is the same as the
past tense of some irregular verbs:
regular
found, founded, founded
irregular
find, found, found


1.03.2. F. Irregular Verbs
Irregular verbs are an important feature of English. We use irregular
verbs a lot when s
p
eakin
g
, less when writin
g
. Of course, the most
Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830
Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail:

12
• be
• like, love, prefer, wish
• impress, please, surprise
• hear, see, sound
• belong to, consist of, contain,
include, need
• appear, resemble, seem
Often the above divisions can be mixed.
For example, one verb could be irregular,
transitive and dynamic; another verb
could be regular, transitive and stative.

famous English verb of all, the verb "to be", is irregular.
What is the difference between regular verbs and irregular verbs?

Base
Form
Past
Simple
Past
Participle
With regular verbs, the rule is simple
finish finished finished
stop stopped stopped
The past simple and past
participle always end in -ed:
work worked worked
But with irregular verbs, there is no rule
Sometimes the verb changes

completely:
sing sang sung
Sometimes there is "half" a
change:
buy bought bought
Sometimes there is no
change:
cut cut cut
One good way to learn irregular verbs is to try sorting them into
groups, as above.


2. Nouns
It's not easy to describe a noun. In simple terms, nouns are "things" (and verbs are "actions"). Like food.
Food (noun) is something you eat (verb). Or happiness. Happiness (noun) is something you want (verb). Or
human being. A human being (noun) is something you are (verb).
2.01 What are Nouns?
The simple definition is: a person, place or thing. Here are some examples:
• person: man, woman, teacher, Waleed, Naveed.
• place: home, office, town, countryside, America
• thing: table, car, banana, money, music, love, dog, monkey
The problem with this definition is that it does not explain why "love" is a noun but can also be a verb.
Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830
Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail:
13
Another (more complicated) way of recognizing a noun is by its:
1. Ending
2. Position
3. Function
1. Noun Ending

There are certain word endings that show that a word is a noun, for example:
• -ity > nationality
• -ment > appointment
• -ness > happiness
• -ation > relation
• -hood > childhood
But this is not is not true for the word endings of all nouns. For example, the noun "spoonful" ends in -ful,
but the adjective "careful" also ends in -ful.
2. Position in Sentence
We can often recognize a noun by its position in the sentence.
Nouns often come after a determiner (a determiner is a word like a, an, the, this, my, such):
• a relief
• an afternoon
• the doctor
• this word
• my house
• such stupidity
Nouns often come after one or more adjectives:
• a great relief
• a peaceful afternoon
• the tall, Indian doctor
• this difficult word
• my brown and white house
• such crass stupidity
3. Function in a Sentence
Nouns have certain functions (jobs) in a sentence, for example:
• Subject of verb: Doctors work hard.
• Object of verb: He likes coffee.
• Subject and object of verb: Teachers teach students.
Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830

Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail:
14
But the subject or object of a sentence is not always a noun. It could be a pronoun or a phrase. In the
sentence "My doctor works hard", the noun is "doctor" but the subject is "My doctor".
2.02 Countable and Uncountable Nouns
English nouns are often described as "countable" or "uncountable".
2.02.1 Countable
Nouns
Countable nouns are easy to recognize. They
are things that we can count. For example:
"pen". We can count pens. We can have one,
two, three or more pens. Here are some more
countable nouns:
• dog, cat, animal, man, person
• bottle, box, litre
• coin, note, dollar
• cup, plate, fork
• table, chair, suitcase, bag
Countable nouns can be singular or plural:
• My dog is playing.
• My dogs are hungry.
We can use the indefinite article a/an with
countable nouns:
• A dog is an animal.
When a countable noun is singular, we must
use a word like a/the/my/this with it:
• I want an orange. (not I want orange.)
• Where is my bottle? (not Where is
bottle?)

When a countable noun is plural, we can use it
alone:
• I like oranges.
• Bottles can break.
We can use some and any with countable
nouns:
• I've got some dollars.
• Have you got any pens?
We can use a few and many with countable
nouns:
• I've got a few dollars.
• I haven't got many pens.


Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830
Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail:
15
2.02.2 Uncountable
Nouns
Uncountable nouns are substances, concepts
etc that we cannot divide into separate
elements. We cannot "count" them. For
example, we cannot count "milk". We can
count "bottles of milk" or "litres of milk", but
we cannot count "milk" itself. Here are some
more uncountable nouns:
• music, art, love, happiness
• advice, information, news
• furniture, luggage
• rice, sugar, butter, water

• electricity, gas, power
• money, currency
We usually treat uncountable nouns as
singular. We use a singular verb. For example:
• This news is very important.
• Your luggage looks heavy.
We do not usually use the indefinite article
a/an with uncountable nouns. We cannot say
"an information" or "a music". But we can say
a something of:
• a piece of news
• a bottle of water
• a grain of rice

We can use some and any with uncountable
nouns:
• I've got some money.
• Have you got any rice?
We can use a little and much with
uncountable nouns:
• I've got a little money.
• I haven't got much rice.

2.02.3 Nouns that can be
Countable and Uncountable
Sometimes, the same noun can be countable and
uncountable, often with a change of meaning.
Countable

Uncountable

There are two hairs
in my coffee!
hair
I don't have much
hair.
There are two
lights in our
bedroom.
light
Close the curtain.
There's too much
light!
Shhhhh! I thought I
heard a noise.
noise
It's difficult to work
when there is too
much noise.
Have you got a
paper to read? (=
newspaper)
paper
I want to draw a
picture. Have you
got some paper?
Our house has
seven rooms.
room
Is there room for
me to sit here?

We had a great
time at the party.
time
Have you got time
for a coffee?
Macbeth is one of
Shakespeare's
work
I have no money. I
need ork!
Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830
Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail:
16
Shakespeare's
greatest works.
need work!

2.03 Proper Nouns (Names)
A proper noun is the special word (or name) that we use for a person, place or organization, like John,
Marie, London, France or Sony. A name is a noun, but a very special noun—a proper noun. Proper nouns
have special rules.
common noun proper noun
man, boy Ahmad
woman, girl Nadia
country, town England, London
company Ford, Sony
shop, restaurant Maceys, McDonalds
month, day of the week January, Sunday
book, film War & Peace, Titanic
2.04 Using Capital Letters with Proper Nouns

We always use a Capital Letter for the first letter of a proper noun (name). This includes names of people,
places, companies, days of the week and months. For example:
• They like Zarak. (not *They like john.)
• I live in England.
• She works for Sony.
• The last day in January is a Monday.
• We saw Titanic in the Odeon Cinema
2.05 Proper Nouns without “THE”
Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830
Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail:
17
We do not use “the” with names of people. For example:
Bill (not *the Bill)
first names
Ahmad
Alam
surnames
Zarak
full names Ahmad Alam (Zarak)
We do not normally use “the” with names of companies. For
example:
• Renault, Ford, Sony, EnglishCLUB.net
• General Motors, Air France, British Airways
• Naveed Brothers, Said & Son Ltd
We do not normally use “the” for shops, banks, hotels etc
named after a founder or other person (with -’s or -s). For
example:
shops Harrods, Marks & Spencer, Maceys
banks Barclays Bank
hotels, restaurants Steve’s Hotel, Cheif, McDonalds

churches,
cathedrals
St John’s Church, St Peter’s
Cathedral
We do not normally use “the” with names of places. For
example:
towns
Washington (not *the Washington),
Paris, Tokyo
states, regions Texas, Kent, Eastern Europe
countries England, Italy, Afghanistan.
continents Asia, Europe, North America
islands Corsica
mountains
Everes
t
We do not use “the” with
“President/Doctor/Mr etc + Name”:
the president,
the king
President Karzai (not
*the President Karzai)
the captain,
the detective
Captain Kirk,
Detective Colombo
the doctor,
the professor
Doctor Well, Dr Well,
Professor Dolittle

my uncle,
your aunt
Uncle Khan, Aunt
Sania

Mr Naveed (not *the
Mr Naveed), Mrs
Karzai, Miss Sadia
Look at these example sentences:
• I wanted to speak to the doctor.
• I wanted to speak to Doctor
Brown.
• Who was the president before
President Kennedy?
We do not use “the” with “Lake/Mount +
Name”:
the lake Lake Victoria
the mount Mount Everest
Look at this example sentence:
• We live beside Lake Victoria.
We have a fantastic view across
the lake.
We do not normally use “the” for roads,
streets, squares, parks etc:
streets
etc
Oxford Street, Trenholme
Road, Fifth Avenue
Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830
Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail:

18
mountains Everest
Exception! If a country name includes “States”, “Kingdom”,
“Republic” etc, we use “the”:
states
the United States, the US, the United States of
America, the USA
kingdom the United Kingdom, the UK
republic the French Republic



streets
etc
Oxford Street, Trenholme
Road, Fifth Avenue
squares
etc
Trafalgar Square, Oundle
Place, Piccadilly Circus
parks etc Central Park, Kew Gardens
Many big, important buildings have
names made of two words (for example,
Kennedy Airport). If the first word is the
name of a person or place, we do not
normally use “the”:
people
Kennedy Airport, Alexander
Palace, St Paul’s Cathedral
places

Kabul Airport, Public
Station, Edinburgh Castle


2.06 Proper Nouns with
“THE”
We normally use "the" for country names that
include “States”, “Kingdom”, “Republic” etc:
States
the United States of America/the
USA
Kingdom the United Kingdom/the UK
Republic the French Republic
We normally use “the” for names of canals,
rivers, seas and oceans:
canals
theSuezCanal
We normally use “the” with the following sorts of
names:
hotels,
restaurants
the Roze Hotel, the Cheif Restaurant
banks The Kabul Bank
cinemas,
theatres
the Royal Theatre, the ABC Cinema
museums
the Kabul Museum, the National
Gallery
buildings the White House, the Crystal Palace

newspapers The Kabul Time, the Sunday Post
organizations
the United Nations, the BBC, the
Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830
Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail:
19
canals the Suez Canal
rivers The Kabul River, the Nile
seas
the Mediterranean Sea, the
Mediterranean
oceans the Pacific Ocean, the Pacific
We normally use “the” for plural names of
people and places:
people (families,
for example)
the Clintons
countries
the Afghanistan, the
United States
island groups
the Virgin Islands, the
British Isles
mountain ranges
the Himalayas, the
Alps
Look at these sentences:
• I saw the Clintons today. It was Bill’s
birthday.
• Trinidad is the largest island in the

West Indies.
• Mount Everest is in the Himalayas.


organizations
the United Nations, the BBC, the
European Union
We normally use “the” for names made with “…of…”:
• the Tower of London
• the Gulf of Siam
• the Tropic of Cancer
• the London School of Economics
• the Bank of France
• the Statue of Liberty


2.07 Possessive’s
Possessive’s
When we want to show that something belongs
Proper Nouns (Names)
We very often use possessive
's
with names:
Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830
Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail:
20
When we want to show that something belongs
to somebody or something, we usually add 's
to a singular noun and an apostrophe ' to a
plural noun, for example:

• the boy's ball (one boy)
• the boys' ball (two or more boys)
Notice that the number of balls does not
matter. The structure is influenced by the
possessor and not the possessed.

one ball
more than one
ball
one boy

the boy's ball

the boy's balls
more
than one
boy

the boys' ball

the boys' balls
The structure can be used for a whole phrase:
• the man next door's mother (the mother
of the man next door)
• the President of the USA's secretary
(the secretary of the President of the
USA)

We very often use possessive 's with names:
• This is Ahmad's car.

• Where is Zarak's telephone?
• Who took Naveed's pen?
• I like Tara's hair.
When a name ends in s, we usually treat it like
any other singular noun, and add 's:
• This is Maryam's chair.
But it is possible (especially with older,
classical names) to just add the apostrophe ':
• Who was Rehans' father?
Irregular Plurals
Some nouns have irregular plural forms
without s (man > men). To show possession,
we usually add 's to the plural form of these
nouns:
singular noun plural noun
my child's Room my children's Room
the man's work the men's work
the mouse's cage the mice's cage
a person's clothes people's clothes



3. Adjectives
An adjective is a word that tells us more about a noun. (By "noun" we include pronouns and noun phrases.)
An adjective "qualifies" or "modifies" a noun (a modern car). Adjectives can be used before a noun (I like
Afghani food) or after certain verbs (It is hard). We can often use two or more adjectives together (a
beautiful young Afghan lady).
3.01 Determiners
Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830
Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail:

21
Determiners are words like the, an, my, some. They are grammatically similar. They all come at the
beginning of noun phrases, and usually we cannot use more than one determiner in the same noun phrase.
Articles:
• a, an, the
Possessives:
• my, your, his, her, our, their
Other determiners:
• each, every
• either, neither
• any, some, no
• much, many; more, most
• little, less, least
• few, fewer, fewest
• what, whatever; which, whichever
• both, half, all
• several
• enough
3.01.1 Determiners: A, An or The?
Determiners: A, An or
The?
When do we say "the Cat" and when do
we say "a cat"? (On this page we talk
only about singular, countable nouns.)
The and a/an are called "articles". We
divide them into "definite" and
"indefinite" like this:
Articles
Definite Indefinite
the a, an

We use "definite" to mean sure, certain.
"Definite" is particular.
Look at these examples:
the a, an
• The capital of
Afghanistan is
Kabul.
• I have found the
book that I lost.
• Have you cleaned
the car?
• There are six eggs
in the fridge.
• Please switch off
the TV when you
finish.
• I was born in a
town.
• Zarak had an
omelette for
lunch.
• Naveed ordered
a drink.
• We want to buy
an umbrella.
• Have you got a
pen?
Of course, often we can use the or a/an for the same
word. It depends on the situation. Look at these
Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830

Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail:
22
"Definite" is particular.
We use "indefinite" to mean not sure,
not certain. "Indefinite" is general.
When we are talking about one thing in
particular, we use the. When we are
talking about one thing in general, we
use a or an.
Think of the sky at night. In the sky
there is 1 moon and millions of stars.
So normally we could say:
• I saw the moon last night.
• I saw a star last night.

word. It depends on the situation. Look at these
examples:
• We want to buy an umbrella. (Any umbrella,
not a particular umbrella.)
• Where is the umbrella? (We already have an
umbrella. We are looking for our umbrella, a
particular umbrella.)

3.01.2
Determiners:
Each, Every
Each and every have
similar but not always
identical meanings.
Each = every one

separately
Every = each, all

Sometimes, each and
every have the same
meaning:
• Prices go up
each year.
• Prices go up
every year.

But often they are not
exactly the same.
Each can be used in front of the verb:
• The soldiers each received a medal.
Each can be followed by 'of':
• The President spoke to each of the soldiers.
• He gave a medal to each of them.

Every cannot be used for 2 things. For 2 things,
each can be used:
• He was carrying a suitcase in each hand.
Every is used to say how often something happens:
• There is a plane to Kabul every day.
• The bus leaves every hour.

Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830
Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail:
23
exactly the same.

Each expresses the idea
of 'one by one'. It
emphasizes
individuality.
Every is half-way
between each and all. It
sees things or people as
singular, but in a group
or in general.
Consider the following:
• Every artist is
sensitive.
• Each artist sees
things
differently.
• Every soldier
saluted as the
President
arrived.
• The President
gave each
soldier a medal.



3.01.3 Determiners:
Some, Any
Some = a little, a few or a small number or
amount
Any = one, some or all

Usually, we use some in positive (+) sentences
and any in negative (-) and question (?)
sentences.
some
any
example
Look at these examples:
• He needs some stamps.
• I must go. I have some homework to
do.
• I'm thirsty. I want something to drink.
• I can see somebody coming.
• He doesn't need any stamps.
• I can stay. I don't have any homework
to do.
• I'm not thirsty. I don't want anything to
drink.
• I can't see anybody coming.
Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830
Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail:
24

some any example
+
I have
some
money.
I have $10.
-

I don't
have any
money.
I don't have $1
and I don't have
$10 and I don't
have $1,000,000.
I have $0.
?

Do you
have any
money?
Do you have $1
or $10 or
$1,000,000?


• I can't see anybody coming.
• Does he need any stamps?
• Do you have any homework to do?
• Do you want anything to drink?
• Can you see anybody coming?
We use any in a positive sentence when the
real sense is negative.
• I refused to give them any money. (I
did not give them any money)
• She finished the test without any
difficulty. (she did not have any
difficulty)

Sometimes we use some in a question, when
we expect a positive YES answer. (We could
say that it is not a real question, because we
think we know the answer already.)
• Would you like some more tea?
• Could I have some sugar, please


3.02 Adjective Order
There are 2 basic positions for adjectives:
1. before the noun
2. after certain verbs (be, become, get, seem, look, feel, sound, smell, taste)

adj. noun verb adj.
1 I like big cars.
2 My car is big.
3.02.1 Adjective Before Noun
Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830
Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail:
25
Adjective Before Noun
We sometimes use more than one adjective
before the noun:
• I like big black dogs.
• She was wearing a beautiful long red
dress.
What is the correct order for two or more
adjectives?
1. The general order is: opinion, fact:
• a nice Japani car (not a Japani nice car)

("Opinion" is what you think about something.
"Fact" is what is definitely true about
something.)
2. The normal order for fact adjectives is size,
age, shape, color, material, origin:
• a big, old, square, black, wooden
Chinese table
3. Determiners usually come first, even though
they are fact adjectives:
• articles (a, the)
• Possessives (my, your )
• Demonstratives (this, that )
• Quantifiers (some, any, few, many )
• numbers (one, two, three)

Here is an example with opinion and fact
adjectives:
adjectives
fact
deter-
miner

opinion
age shape color
noun
two nice old round red candles
When we want to use two color adjectives, we
join them with "and":
• Newspapers are usually black and
white.

• She was wearing a long, blue and
yellow dress.

3.02.2 Adjective after Verb
Adjective after Verb
We can use an adjective after certain verbs. Even though
the adjective comes after the verb, it does not describe the
verb. It describes the subject of the verb (usually a noun or
pronoun)
subject verb adjective
• Ram is English.
• Because she had to wait, she became
impatient.
• Is it getting dark?