seeing doing and knowing a philosophical theory of sense perception apr 2005

SEEING, DOING, AND KNOWING
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Seeing, Doing, and
Knowing
A Philosophical Theory of Sense Perception
Mohan Matthen
CLARENDON PRESS · OXFORD
2005
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Matthen, Mohan.
Seeing, doing, and knowing : a philosophical theory of sense perception / Mohan
Matthen.
p. cm.
Includes index.
1. Senses and sensation. 2. Sense (Philosophy) I. Title.
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FOR MY DAUGHTERS:
ELAINE, SHEILA, AND PREMALA
With Love, Hope, and Confidence
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Acknowledgements

A number of people were kind enough to read and comment on various
parts of this book as it took shape. In particular, I should like to thank my
Philosophy colleagues at UBC: Melinda Hogan, Dom Lopes, Patrick Rysiew,
and Ori Simchen. Colleagues in Psychology and in Linguistics were always
ready to offer information and advice: Jim Enns, Brian Gick, Doug
Pulleyblank, Joe Stemberger, Richard Tees, Janet Werker, and above all,
Vince DiLollo. Ned Block, Richard Heck, and Alison Simmons read parts
of the typescript at various stages of its development and made helpful
suggestions.
Jonathan Cohen, now at the University of California at San Diego, was
special in this regard. Jonathan was ‘my’ Killam post-doctoral fellow at UBC
in 2000–2001, during which we met almost daily to discuss perception. Later,
he read a draft of the whole manuscript carefully and offered many valuable
suggestions and corrections. I thank the Killam Trust for this opportunity.
In 2003, I read yet another draft of the book with a group of graduate
students: Vincent Bergeron, Eric Cyr Desjardins, Martin Godwyn, Selman
Halabi, James Kelleher, Harris Kollias, Nola Semszycyn, and Dustin Stokes.
This was one of the best discussion groups I have ever been a part of:
the criticism, grasp of the whole, and attention to detail were invaluable.
My interactions with Vince and Dustin have extended beyond this seminar:
they have contributed more than they realize to my thinking about matters
of the mind.
At an early stage, I asked Larry Hardin for help. I am always nervous while
somebody with as much knowledge and experience as Larry is looking
through my work. He was mercifully quick in his response, and offered many
corrections and suggestions in the gentlest tone. He also revealed that I was
not the only one to ask his opinion of my manuscript: Oxford University
Press had done so as well. I am grateful that his comments translated into a
favourable report. A second reader for the Press remained anonymous to me
for a while, but turned out to be Jim McGilvray. (Who but a Canadian would

spell ‘colour’ with a ‘u’and print on 8
1
⁄2ϫ 11 paper?) Jim offered many detailed
criticisms and suggestions: in many cases, I have brazenly incorporated his
suggested wording with no further acknowledgement. Two referees on a later
draft also chose not to be anonymous: Jerry Vision and David Hilbert. I
thank them for detailed advice on many points, major and minor. My debt
to David is particularly large: his writings have influenced my thinking on
perception for a long time, and here he not only corrected errors but
forced me to adopt a more flexible perspective on sensory content, especially
in Parts I and II.
Acknowledgementsviii
One debt falls into a special category. Catherine Wilson offered opinions,
listened, made suggestions, read (often at moment’s notice), and corrected.
Her help and influence have been continuous in the five years I have worked
on this project.
Parts of the manuscript were delivered (at various stages of its evolution)
to Green College, the Peter Wall Institute for Advanced Studies, the
Department of Philosophy, and the Vision Group in the Department of
Psychology, all at the University of British Columbia; the Moral Sciences Club
at Cambridge University; the Departments of Philosophy at the Australian
National University, Brown, Cambridge, Macquarie, McGill, Queen’s,
Rutgers, L’Université du Québec à Montréal; the Universities of Adelaide,
Alberta, Calgary, Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Lethbridge, Manitoba,
Queensland, Sydney, Victoria, and Wisconsin (Madison); the South African
Philosophical Association (Johannesburg, 2000), and the Second Bellingham
Summer Philosophy Conference at Western Washington University (2001).
Comments received on these occasions were hugely helpful, often in ways
that became apparent to me only much later. Late in the preparation of the
manuscript, thanks to a Visiting Research Scholarship in July and August

2003, I had the opportunity to exchange ideas with Macquarie University
philosophers, especially Tim Bayne, Jordi Fernandes, and John Sutton, and
with Max Coltheart and his colleagues at the Macquarie Centre for Cognitive
Science. I benefited greatly from this learning opportunity.
I am honoured to acknowledge the financial support of the Social Sciences
and Humanities Research Council of Canada.
Paula Wirth prepared the figures for publication.
Contents
Prelude: The New Philosophy of Vision 1
Part I: Classification
1. The Sensory Classification Thesis 13
2. Sensory Classification: The View from Psychology 36
3. Sensory Concepts 61
Afterword to Part I: A Look Ahead: Pluralistic Realism 90
Part II: Similarity
4. The Sensory Ordering Thesis 95
5. The Sources of Sensory Similarity 123
Afterword to Part II: The Stages of the Sensory Process 146
Part III: Specialization
6. Perceptual Specialization and the Definition of Colour 153
7. The Disunity of Colour 177
8. Pluralistic Realism 188
Part IV: Content
9. Sensing and Doing 213
10. Sense Experience 235
11. The Semantic Theory of Colour Experience 246
Part V: Reference
12. Visual Objects 271
13. Visual Reference 293
Conclusion 325

List of Definitions and Named Theses 328
Literature Consulted 336
Index 351
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Analytic Table Of Contents
Acknowledgements vii
Prelude: The New Philosophy Of Vision 1
I. Perceptual Content and Information 1
Influenced by scepticism, the classic philosophical tradition treats sensation
as a projection of the state of our sensory receptors.
II. The Outward-Oriented Phenomenology of Sensing 3
There are reasons to be suspicious of this tradition: it misrepresents sensory
phenomenology and neglects the function of perception, which is to deal with
real objects beyond ourselves.
III. Problems to Be Tackled 5
Contemporary sensory psychology has largely reconceptualized the senses to
accommodate their outward orientation, but philosophical problems remain.
Centrally: How are we to identify the content of perceptual states in a way
that preserves the epistemic innocence and egocentric perspective of the naïve
perceiver while also recognizing their epistemic significance?
IV. The Appeal to Action 8
We use perception to help us move around the world and to gain knowledge
about things in it: this is the central theoretical springboard from which we
attempt to address these problems.
Part I. Classification
Chapter 1. The Sensory Classification Thesis 13
I. Sensory Classification 13
1. The Sensory Classification Thesis: Sensory systems are automatic sorting
machines which assign external sensed objects (distal stimuli) to classes.
2. The results of a system’s sorting activities are made available to the

perceiver in the form of a conscious sensory state, which can be held in
memory and later recalled.
3. The Sensory Classification Thesis was first articulated by F. A. Hayek,
who strongly emphasized the active nature of sensory processing:
sensory classes are constructed on the basis of commonalities found or
imposed by the system, not passively received.
4. Hayek adopted an extreme nominalism towards sensory classes, but
this neglects evolutionary constraints: not just any classificatory scheme
is useful to an organism.
Analytic Table of Contentsxii
5. The Sensory Classification Thesis is strongly realistic in one sense: it
takes distal stimuli to be the targets of classification. A sensory state
attributes a sense feature to such a stimulus.
6. The Sensory Classification Thesis is a simplification. In fact, sensory
systems order stimuli in relations of graded similarity. This important
complication is suppressed in this book, except in Part II.
7. By contrast with the phenomenalistic tradition, the Sensory
Classification Thesis accommodates perceptual error.
II. Classification and Sensory Consciousness 22
1. Sensory experience signals the results of sensory classification: I
know that my colour vision has classified something as red because
I am in a certain experiential state, namely the state of the thing’s looking
red to me.
2. Thus, sensory experience follows sensory classification; it is not
the basis thereof. Sensory qualities cannot be defined in terms of sen-
sory experience. Evidence for a dissociation between classification and
sensation is presented.
3. We are directly aware not of our sensations, but of stimuli. However,
the qualitative character of sensation is not exhausted by its representa-
tional content; there is more to a sensory state than what it tells us about

a stimulus.
4. Appearance follows classification as the record thereof; it follows
that differences of classification lead to differences of appearance. Two
stimuli that have been assigned to the very same sensory classes will
appear the same even though there may be a difference in the quality of
our experiences of them.
5. That appearance follows classification shows that dispositionalist
theories of sensory qualities have things backwards. These theories do
not satisfactorily distinguish between variations in classificatory schemes
and variations in the semantic relation between experience and sensory
class.
Chapter 2. Sensory Classification: The View from Psychology 36
I. Descartes and the Discovery of Transduction 36
Descartes realized that the retinal image would have to be transformed before
it could become material for sensory or mental operations: he discovered
what today is called ‘transduction’. However, he did not recognize the
existence of sensory classification; this is shown by the close correspondence
he posits between retinal image and the transduced sensory presentation.
II. How Can Sensation Function without Classification? 39
Quine argued that when an animal responds similarly to similar stimuli, it is
using an innate ‘similarity space’, i.e. a scheme of sensory classification. The
Analytic Table of Contents xiii
Cartesian tradition attributes similarity of response not to any such active
process but to the objective similarity of stimuli and the consequent similarity,
albeit occasionally degraded, of the sensory processes they evoke. In this
tradition, an animal depends for information on fidelity of transmission from
receptor to sensation.
III. Visual Processing 44
This Cartesian account neglects the plethora of similarities available between
any two stimuli: relevant similarities have to be selected, not just preserved.

The contemporary neurocomputational paradigm in cognitive science sees
sensory systems as searching the environment for the occurrence of spe-
cific types of events or conditions and discarding all information irrelevant
to these.
IV. Feature Maps and Feature Integration 54
The results of feature-extraction is recorded in the brain by a series of maps,
one for each type of feature. There is a colour map, a shape map, and so
on, and in order to see something as having a particular shape as well
as a particular colour, the relevant features from the different maps have to
be bound together. This act of binding is done by an operation known as
‘attention’.
V. Classification and Realism 57
A sensory neuron responds when a particular feature, its ‘response condi-
tion’, is present. Response conditions can be specified in terms of character-
istics of the retinal image. They can often be specified in terms of objective
characteristics of external things. This opens the door to realism with respect
to sensory classification.
Chapter 3. Sensory Concepts 61
I. Analogue vs. Digital 61
Fred Dretske has argued that sensation is analogue while perceptual belief is
digital. The central idea he means to convey is that information must be
extracted from sensation before the latter can be of any use. Thus, he implies
that sensation itself contains no information that is already at the disposal
of the organism. This contradicts the Sensory Classification Thesis.
II. The Phenomenology of Concreteness in a Digital Medium 67
Dretske puts weight on the fact that one cannot visually scrutinize something
to determine whether it is F without simultaneously receiving other infor-
mation about it. He concludes that the information about F has to be
extracted from the visual state. This is a mistake: according to feature
integration theory, sensory classifications are first extracted, stored separately,

and only then reassembled by ‘attention’.
Analytic Table of Contentsxiv
III. Analogue Conversion and Quantitative Information-Extraction 70
Receptor activity at the ‘front end’ of a sensory system is always analogue;
it is, however, wrong to think that analogue content is always inherited from
receptor activity. It may result from numerical data extraction, as well as from
how extracted and digitized information is deployed.
IV. Discrete Colours 75
Sometimes, what seems to be a single sensation integrates several digitized
messages: colour sensation, for instance, contains both information about
shades of colour and information about gross colour categories. This makes
colour sensation analogue by Dretske’s definition, but colour information is
processed and extracted information nonetheless. Dretske is wrong to treat
analogue form as a sign of unprocessed information.
V. Is Sensation ‘Conceptual’? 77
Some philosophers argue that sensation has no combinatorial structure. In
fact, it possesses something parallel to syntactic structure. Other philosophers
argue, on the contrary, that sensation must be conceptually articulated, but
insist that such articulation must be ‘spontaneous’, and cannot ‘well up’ from
the underlying sub-personal sensory system. It is shown that some degree of
spontaneity is indeed found in sub-personally generated sensory concepts.
VI. Describing Sense-Features 85
Richard Heck argues that there are too many sense-features and too many
fine distinctions amongst them to pack into a conceptual vocabulary. It is
shown that, on the contrary, sensory representation provides us with a means
by which to construct such a vocabulary.
AFTERWORD TO PART I
A Look Ahead: Pluralistic Realism
90
The Sensory Classification perspective is congruent with the idea, found

in cognitive ethology, that each type of organism seeks out environmental
features that are relevant to its peculiar ecological niche. The resultant dif-
ferences between sensory representations should not be taken as evidence of
subjectivism: on the contrary, they argue for Pluralistic Realism.
Part II. Similarity
Part II is an examination of sensory similarity, a more complicated basis for
the construction of sense features than the two-valued, in-out classification
assumed in Part I.
Chapter 4. The Sensory Ordering Thesis 95
I. Generative Hierarchies 96
Sense-features ‘generate’ their subclasses in an interesting sense noticed by
W. E. Johnson: the perceptual grasp of inclusive features such as red is based
Analytic Table of Contents xv
on a grasp of graded similarity relations among the subclasses thereof.
This characteristic of sense-features explains some aspects of their abstract
structure.
II. Sensory Similarity Spaces 105
Sensory similarity is quantitatively measured by methods pioneered by the
great psychophysicists of the nineteenth century. Similarity measures can be
graphically represented in a multidimensional spatial model. These methods
give empirical support to Johnson’s idea of generability.
III. Representational Invariance in Graphical Representations 112
Not all the relationships found in a graphical representation of similarity find
counterparts in empirical measurements of similarity; some are merely
artefacts of how such graphs are drawn. Relationships found in all graphical
representations call for explanation: what is the source of the invariance?
‘Overall’ similarity with respect to several sensory parameters is variable
across different graphical representations. This shows that overall similarity
is an artefact.
IV. Representational Invariances in Sensory Similarity Spaces 117

Variation with respect to a single sensory parameter such as colour is
invariable in a number of significant ways. Thus, such variation within a single
sensory parameter presents a contrast with ‘overall’ similarity. This calls for
explanation.
Chapter 5. The Sources of Sensory Similarity 123
I. Explaining Sensory Similarity 124
In the Cartesian paradigm, similarity of sensation is explained by the similarity
of receptor state (though the latter can be degraded further downstream). This
is a mistake, as empirical studies show. Some suggest that not just receptors
but the whole sensory process has to be invoked. It is doubtful that this would
explain anything. Additional principles are required.
II. Similarity and Its Woes 129
Explanations of similarity are vitiated by vagaries in the logic of similarity,
which show that this concept is perspective-dependent. This imposes a
constraint on explaining sensory similarity, namely, that it must be accom-
modated in a manner that relativizes it to the perspective and interests of the
organism.
III. The Internal Origins of Sensory Similarity 133
How do sensory systems represent similarity? A suggestion, due to
C. R. Gallistel, is that sensory similarity is literally a measure of closeness in
a neural map. The system constructs such maps because it needs to resolve
imprecision in neural representations and to determine a precise response to
the situations represented.
Analytic Table of Contentsxvi
IV. Sensory Similarity and Correspondence Realism 141
The internal origins of sensory similarity do not preclude realism. Sense-
features are physically specifiable. In addition, they serve some purpose in the
organism by signalling similarities of functional relevance. These considera-
tions imply that it is possible for an organism to be wrong about similarity,
which prefigures a form of realism to be explored further later.

AFTERWORD TO PART II 146
The Stages of the Sensory Process 146
The relationship between a sensation, a sense-feature, and a stimulus is
analogous to that between a descriptive word, the attribute it designates, and
the individuals that possess this attribute.
Summary of the Argument 149
Part III. Specialization
Chapter 6. Perceptual Specialization and the Definition of Colour 153
Because of perceptual specialization, colour cannot be defined in terms of
either the physical properties that human colour vision captures or the sense
experiences that it produces in humans.
I. Colour Appearance: Some Preliminaries 154
Some data-processing determinants of colour vision are outlined: opponent
processing, metamerism, colour contrast, and colour constancy.
II. Narrow Anthropocentrism 160
Narrowly anthropocentric theories of colour define particular colour properties
(for example, red ) in terms of the associated colour experiences. These theories
produce odd results when applied to species or individuals that possess colour
vision systems with different specifications. Defining the general category of
colour in these terms undermines comparative studies of colour vision.
III. Flexible Anthropocentrism and Colour Experience 164
David Hilbert and Evan Thompson argue that if colour is not defined in
terms of conscious experience, non-representational systems will be included.
Their worry is addressed by means of a ‘meta-response’ schema for sensory
representation. This paves the way for a functional definition in terms of how
colour vision processes wavelength-sensitive data. One alternative, invoking
resemblance to human colour experience, inadequately responds to problems
posed by perceptual specialization.
IV. Anthropocentric Realism 171
Can colour be defined by resemblance to the real properties detected by

human colour vision? Successively weaker versions of this idea are explored
Analytic Table of Contents xvii
and found to be incompatible (a) with the ecological variation shown by
colour vision systems of different species, and (b) the fact that similarity
spaces are generated by sensory systems.
Chapter 7. The Disunity of Colour 177
I. The Multiple Emergence of Colour Vision 177
Colour vision has evolved independently in a variety of species. It is widely
assumed that this is a case of convergence, of the same function appearing in
separated phylogenetic paths. It is much more likely to be an instance of
Darwin’s Principle of Divergence, of a specialized function that enables a
species to exploit an environmental resource unavailable to its ancestor. On
this account, colour vision has a different function in different occurrences.
II. Specialization in Primate Colour Vision 180
It seems that primate colour vision evolved in order to pick out a particular
class of vegetation at a distance. It provides the ability to discriminate these
fruits in fine detail against a background of green. This tends to explain
why colour-blind humans are functionally disabled only with respect to the
discrimination of colours in a ‘dappled and brindled’ background. We use
black and white information a lot more than we think.
III. Questioning the Colourist Intuition 183
Intuitively, a person with colour vision experiences a visual image that pixel
by pixel is different from that of a colour-blind individual. This intuition is
questioned. The visual image of a colour-sighted primate has more in
common with that of a colour-blind primate than with that of a colour-
sighted insect. The Sensory Classification Thesis makes sense of this; the
traditional paradigm does not.
Chapter 8. Pluralistic Realism 188
I. Hardin’s Catalogue 188
A catalogue of mismatches between experienced colour and the physical

counterparts of colour is presented. Does it show that colour is not real?
II. Three Irrealist Positions 191
1. Hardin’s Catalogue from the Sensory Classification Perspective 191
Different colour vision systems utilize different classificatory schemes.
Hardin’s catalogue poses a concern about the ontological status of these
schemes.
2. Burden Shifting: Colour as an Attribute of Sensations 192
Some argue, on the basis of the idiosyncrasy of colour classification,
that colour is an attribute of sensations. This mistakenly shifts the topic
of investigation from the ontological status of colour classes to the
Analytic Table of Contentsxviii
identification of which objects bear colour. It has no bearing on the
problem posed by Hardin.
3. Interrogating the Messenger: Error Theory 194
Error Theory suggests that colour vision delivers a false message. By
comparison with the case of visual illusions, it is shown that this is
methodologically dubious.
4. The Failure of Reductivism: Colour as a Non-Physical Property 197
Colours do not correspond to the quantities that figure in the laws of
physics. Some argue that they are therefore unreal. This is a mistake:
colours are specifiable in the language of physics.
III. Enter Pluralism 200
David Lewis suggests that experienced relations among colours are objective
merely in virtue of the fact that they are so experienced. The problem is that
organisms of different species experience colours in incompatible ways. How
should we accommodate such variation?
IV. Standards of Correctness 202
It is proposed that a physically specifiable sense-feature is real in the
action-relative sense if there is some innate activity that would be disrupted
by inconsistent classification. This permits different species to have cross-

cutting sensory classifications.
Part IV. Content
Chapter 9. Sensing and Doing 213
The Universalist paradigm casts sensation as a projection of the states of
sensory receptors. This implies that, imperfection of transmission aside,
sensation is the same across species. Pluralistic Realism claims, by contrast,
that sensation is of features and objects in the world beyond the receptors—
different features and objects for different species.
I. The Motor Theory of Speech Perception 214
Human speech perception is a particularly clear example of a sensory system
attuned to features beyond the proximal image, serving a species-specific
activity: it is specialized for the detection and differentiation of sounds that
in nature emanate only from the human articulatory tract.
II. What Are Sensory Systems for? 222
Sensory systems do not evolve by adding new items from a preset menu
of proximately available sense-features. According to the Coevolution Thesis
propounded here, they incrementally evolve discriminatory abilities to serve
action-modes emerging in parallel. Sensory systems present the world to the
perceiver in action-related terms.
Analytic Table of Contents xix
III. Epistemic Action 229
Sense perception does not merely serve bodily action. A proper general
understanding takes account of the epistemic uses of sense perception. The
‘effector organs’ that are important for the coevolution of sense perception
are units that analyse and store information.
IV. Sensory Content 232
While the primary content or meaning of a sensory state is specified in terms
of epistemic action, its secondary content or extension may be specified
in physical terms. It is secondary content that is the focus of laboratory
psychophysicists and of physicalist theories of sense features.

Chapter 10. Sense Experience 235
This chapter examines the role and character of conscious sensory experience.
I. Coercive Content 235
Sensory classification can lead to action by means of direct manipulation of
the effector system. In this case, the output of the sensory system must be
causally apt to coerce the effector system.
II. Non-Coercive Content 237
However, either when a sensory system feeds into many effector systems, or
when many sensory systems feed in to a single effector, it is simpler for the
sensory systems to be non-coercive. Their output will simply indicate that
a particular situation obtains, and the effector system will be left to do what
is appropriate.
III. Convention 239
In the case of non-coercive content, the system will need as many signals as
there are response-demanding situations. It is a matter of indifference what
signal is linked with which action: in the sense developed by David Lewis, these
signals are conventional. The conventionality of sensory signals is overlooked
by philosophers who allege an ‘explanatory gap’ with regard to sensory qualia.
IV. Sensations as Conventional Signals 241
Sensory signals are indications that a certain situation obtains; it is left to
effector systems to determine the correct action. Such effector systems are
typically epistemic in character. Some philosophers sympathetic to the gen-
eral approach recommended here fall into error by overlooking epistemic
action and assuming that action must involve movement of the limbs.
V. Action-Relevant Categories and Teleosemantics: A Retrospective
Assessment 243
The present theory is assessed in the context of recent ‘teleosemantic’ theories
of perceptual content.
Analytic Table of Contentsxx
Chapter 11. The Semantic Theory of Colour Experience 246

The senses seem to give us categorical information about distal stimuli with
no self-referential element. This chapter attempts to reconstruct this message
in a way that respects the Thesis of Primary Sensory Content.
I. A Problem Concerning the Ontology of Colour 247
If sensory categories are subjective, how can they be useful for constructing
a record of the objective world? If they are objective, how can we possess
instinctual knowledge of them? The dilemma has special bite in the case of
colour.
II. Two Approaches to Defining the Colours 252
A standard philosophical approach to defining colour identifies it with a
‘colour look’ in standard circumstances. This violates the condition that we
should possess instinctive knowledge of colour. A more promising approach
is a ‘semantic’ specification of the meaning of colour experiences, elaborated
along the lines of Tarski’s semantic theory of truth.
III. How Colour Looks Function as Symbols 258
Sensory systems are likened to measuring instruments, which present the user
with measurements calibrated in an independently defined scale such as
pounds per square inch. Sensory systems provide measurements in an ‘auto-
calibrated’ scale: in terms, that is, of something like a reidentifiable pointer
position that is not specified by reference to an independently defined scale.
IV. Colour-Properties 263
Two things are the same in colour when they should be treated in exactly the
same way with respect to the epistemic practices associated with colour.
Colour is a superficial property of things; it indicates hidden properties of
things, but corresponds to no manipulable characteristic. The superficiality
of colour is the key for understanding how colour vision can be useful despite
its mismatch with physical colour.
Part V. Reference
Chapter 12. Visual Objects 271
Vision presents features as located in environmental things. In this chapter,

the structure of this feature-locating scheme is investigated.
I. Visual Places 272
There is a difference between the visual presentation of location and that of
features like colour and texture. The character of the former can be traced
in large part to what Kant called a formal element in visual representation.
Analytic Table of Contents xxi
II. Seeing Objects 277
Austen Clark argues, correctly, that conjunctions of features have to be
separated into separate groups according to the subjects to which they
are attributed. Clark thinks that these subjects are regions of space: it is
argued that they are material objects capable of motion, not mere regions
of space.
III. The Peculiarities of Visual Location 282
Vision presents the world in object-feature terms. Other modalities employ
different structures.
IV. On Sensory Idiosyncrasy 289
The differences among sense modalities with regard to their representations
of space and their attributions of features argues that a purely a priori or
functional treatment will miss philosophically important characteristics of
sensation. Empirical science matters to how you understand representation;
functionalism is moot.
Chapter 13. Visual Reference 293
I. Motion-Guiding Vision 293
Bodily action is hierarchically organized; conscious volition specifies goals
but is not involved in fine motor control. The visual system that guides fine
motor control does not contribute to the conscious descriptive sensory
classification that we have been dealing with in Parts I–IV.
II. Seeing Objects Non-Descriptively 300
Three phases of executing a physical action are identified: information about
the descriptive sensory features of the target is required for the first two. Since

‘motion-guiding vision’ is in charge of the third phase, this must be executable
without descriptive information. We show how.
III. Vision and the Feeling of Presence 304
When one looks at a real scene, one generally has a ‘feeling of presence’
that differentiates real vision from mere visual imaging. This feeling of pres-
ence is similar in effect to an assertion operator placed in front of a sen-
tence: in vision it comes from deixis, which serves here as an assertion
operator.
IV. What is it Like to View an Object Non-Referentially? 306
When we look at a picture, we see the picture itself and also the thing that is
depicted. Our visual experience of the latter can be very similar in descriptive
terms to that of seeing the object in real life. However, motion-guiding vision
is not engaged by things depicted in the picture.
Analytic Table of Contentsxxii
V. Locating Pictured Objects 313
Because motion-guiding vision is absent with respect to depicted objects, one
cannot tell where they are relative to oneself. Yet, one can tell where they are
relative to each other. There is a space in the picture, but it is disconnected
from one’s own. Thus, the deictic element is missing.
VI. Seeing Individuals 319
The impossibility of pictorial deixis makes identification of particular
individuals in pictures visually impossible. The exception is where descriptive
features are identity-regarding, as one’s visual recognition of human faces is.
VII. Features and Their Locations 322
The visual representation of space is assembled from descriptive and motion-
guiding vision. Objects nearby are represented by both kinds of vision.
Distant objects are seen only descriptively, and would be seen much as
depicted objects are, were it not for visual cues regarding the relationships
between nearby and distant objects.
Conclusion 325

Prelude: The New Philosophy of Vision
Vision informs us of located features. It tells us of certain qualities—sense-
features such as red, square, moving. And it tells us where these features occur:
in which places—red there, movement to the left, and in which objects—that
sphere receding, that face flushed. The aim of this book is to examine the
nature of these features, and how they and their locations are represented.
The examination of visual features will occur in the context of a general
treatment of sense-features. The discussion of location will be more specific
to vision, for as we shall see different modalities use different systems of
feature-location.
I. Perceptual Content and Information
That vision informs us of located features is a central axiom of classic
theories of perception by Descartes, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume, and the
psychological theories of a host of nineteenth-century scientists including,
most prominently, Hermann von Helmholtz and Ewald Hering. This claim
received its most elaborate and logically sophisticated treatment in the
twentieth-century works of Bertrand Russell, Rudolf Carnap, and Nelson
Goodman. However, the attitude taken by these classic thinkers is very
different from that presupposed by the framework for visual information
proposed in this book. Their attitude is shaped by the philosophical reaction
to scepticism. By contrast, the framework that will be presented in this book
is motivated by considerations about how animals, including humans, use
perception.
What are the features of which vision informs us? What is the nature of
the space in which they are seen to be located? The classic theories assumed
that sensation is innocent, that is, untainted by assumptions about the world.
In Descartes and Locke, this assumption came ultimately from reflections on
scepticism. From Pyrrho to Sextus Empiricus, the ancient sceptics held that
even when I, a normally sighted person, am looking directly at a physical
object like a coffee cup in good light, I am able to entertain the thought that

the cup is delusional or unreal despite the visual sensations I experience. The
cup may not be the colour or shape it looks; indeed, what I am looking at
may not even be a cup, but simply a trick of the light, or a hallucination
Prelude
2
generated by my own derangement. That I can thus be in a sensory state while
at the same time entertaining the possibility that it is false shows that ordinary
perceptual beliefs are not logically compelled by sensation. It follows, so the
great philosophers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries argued, that
sensation does not directly tell us anything about the external world.
Their conclusion is motivated by thinking of the content of sensation in
terms of what we now call information (Dretske 1981, ch.1). The information
carried by something—an event, a signal, the condition of a thing—is what
you can deduce from it. Ordinarily, this notion is construed generously. From
the mud on a car, you can infer that it has been driven off-road. Thus, the mud
carries information about where the car has been. The sceptic points out, how-
ever, that it is possible to entertain the possibility that the mud had been put
on the car deliberately, perhaps to prepare it for a movie shoot. The sceptic
treats inference as logical deduction, and excludes from the information that
something carries anything which cannot be logically deduced from it. This is
why he holds that sensation does not inform us about the external world.
What then is the content of sensation, if it is not directly the source of
commitment to any propositional belief about distal objects? Many of the
classic philosophers concluded that it was a mistake to think in such terms.
Sensation does not tell us anything at all, they urged: it consists merely of
being consciously aware of a subjective image from which we extract beliefs
about the external world. As David Lewis (1999/1966) has written:
Those in the traditions of British empiricism and introspectionist psychology hold
that the content of visual experience is a sensuously given mosaic of color spots,
together with a mass of interpretive judgment injected by the subject. (359)

The thesis is that we segment this colour mosaic into discrete objects and
attribute sense-features to these objects on the basis of ‘interpretive judge-
ments’ that we make by instinct or on the basis of past experience—but,
crucially, that we are always directly aware of this image as the background
and basis of our added judgements.
What is the source of the sensory image? In a very long tradition stretching
from Descartes to the present day, the central philosophical paradigm proposes
that sensation corresponds in some way to the physical energy pattern incident
upon our outer sensory receptors, that our awareness of visual features, for
example, reflects the constantly changing projection of light from the external
world focused by the lens of the eye on the retina. As W. V. O. Quine (1960)
put it, ‘Physical things generally, however remote, become known to us only
through the effects which they help to induce at our sensory surfaces’ (1)—they
are known ‘only through impacts at our nerve endings’ (2), or ‘surface irrita-
tions’ (26). Quine does not explicitly say, but many philosophers implicitly hold,
that sensation is a point by point transformation of these nerve-end impacts
into the contents of sensory consciousness, usually called sensations, or qualia.