fermented foods and beverages of the world - tamang & kailasapathy

Fermented Foods
and Beverages
of the World
CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
Boca Raton London New York
Fermented Foods
and Beverages
of the World
edited by
Jyoti Prakash Tamang
Kasipathy Kailasapathy
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used
only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Fermented foods and beverages of the world / editors, Jyoti Prakash Tamang and
Kasipathy Kailasapathy.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4200-9495-4 (alk. paper)
1. Fermented foods. 2. Fermented milk. 3. Food Microbiology. 4. Food History. I.
Tamang, Jyoti Prakash. II. Kailasapathy, Kasipathy. III. Title.
TP371.44.F468 2010
664’.024 dc22 2010000992
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

and the CRC Press Web site at

v
Contents
Preface vii
Editors ix
Contributors xi
1 Dietary Cultures and Antiquity ofFermented Foods and Beverages 1
Jyoti Prakash Tamang and Delwen Samuel

2 Diversity of Fermented Foods 41
Jyoti Prakash Tamang
3 Diversity of Fermented Beverages and Alcoholic Drinks 85
Jyoti Prakash Tamang
4 Functional Yeasts and Molds inFermented Foods and Beverages 127
Ko E. Aidoo and M. J. Robert Nout
5 Fermented Vegetable Products 149
Carmen Wacher, Gloria Díaz-Ruiz, and Jyoti Prakash Tamang
6 Fermented Legumes: Soybean and Non-Soybean Products 191
Toshirou Nagai and Jyoti Prakash Tamang
7 Fermented Soybean Pastes Miso and Shoyu with Reference to Aroma 225
Etsuko Sugawara
8 Fermented Cereal Products 247
Jean-Pierre Guyot
9 Fermented Milk Products 263
Baltasar Mayo, Mohammed Salim Ammor, Susana Delgado,
andÁngelAlegría
10 Fermented Fish Products 289
Junus Salampessy, Kasipathy Kailasapathy, and Namrata Thapa
11 Fermented Meat Products 309
Martin Adams
12 Ethnic African Fermented Foods 323
N. A. Olasupo, S. A. Odunfa, and O. S. Obayori
vi Contents
13 Tea, Coffee, and Cacao 353
Ulrich Schillinger, Louis Ban-Kof, and Charles M. A. P. Franz
14 Probiotic
and Prebiotic Fermented Foods 377
Kasipathy Kailasapathy
15 Health

Aspects of Fermented Foods 391
Mariam Farhad, Kasipathy Kailasapathy, and Jyoti Prakash Tamang
16 Packaging
Concepts for Enhancing Preservation of Fermented Foods 415
Kasipathy Kailasapathy
Index 435
vii
Preface
Fermented foods and beverages are one of the indispensable components of the
d
ietary
c
ulture
o
f
e
very
c
ommunity
i
n
t
he
w
orld.
T
raditional
f
ermentation,
a

nd
s
mok-
ing,
d
rying,
a
nd
sa
lting
p
rocesses
w
ere
d
eveloped
b
y
a
ncient
p
eople
t
o
p
reserve
f
oods
f
or

c
onsumption,
a r
emarkable
s
tep
i
n
t
he
f
ood
c
ulture
h
istory
o
f
h
uman
b
eings.
W
ine
w
as
b
elieved
t
o

b
e
m
ade
i
n
t
he
C
aucasus
a
nd
M
esopotamia
a
s
e
arly
a
s
6
000
B
C,
a
nd
t
he
c
olonization

b
y
R
omans
s
pread
w
inemaking
a
ll
o
ver
t
he
M
editerranean.
T
he
a
ntiquity
o
f
C
hinese
f
oods
a
nd
c
uisines

h
as
b
een
do
cumented
b
y
s
everal
h
istorians
a
s
f
ar
b
ack
a
s
4
000
B
C
b
ased
o
n
h
istorical

e
vidence.
T
he
a
ncient
m
onuments
o
f
N
epal
i
ndicate
t
hat
H
imalayan
et
hnic
f
oods
h
ave
b
een
c
onsumed
i
n

t
he
r
egion
f
or
m
ore
t
han
2
500
y
ears.
F
ood
p
repared
b
y
d
ifferent
c
ommunities
is u
nique
a
nd
d
istinct

d
ue
t
o
t
he
g
eographical
l
ocation,
e
nvironmental
f
actors,
f
ood
p
reference,
a
nd
t
he
a
vailability
o
f
p
lant
o
r

a
nimal
sou
rces.
A
pproximately
5
0–400
g p
er
c
apita
o
f
f
ermented
f
oods
a
nd
a
lcoholic
b
everages
a
re
c
onsumed
d
aily

w
orldwide,
r
epresenting
a
bout
5
%–40%
o
f
t
he
t
otal
d
aily
f
ood
i
ntake.
L
ow-cost,
h
igh-value,
a
nd
so
cially
a
nd

c
ulturally
a
ccept-
able
f
ermented
f
oods
a
nd
b
everages
a
re
c
onsumed
a
s
s
taple
f
oods,
c
urrries,
s
tews,
s
ide
d

ishes,
f
ried
f
oods,
c
ooked
f
oods,
p
astes,
s
easonings,
c
ondiments,
p
ickles,
c
on-
fectioneries,
sa
lads,
sou
ps,
d
esserts,
sa
vories,
d
rinks,

c
andied
f
oods,
m
asticators,
c
olorants,
t
astemakers,
a
nd
a
lcoholic
a
nd
n
onalcoholic
b
everages.
A
bout
5
000
v
ari-
eties
o
f
u

nlisted
m
ajor
a
nd
m
inor
f
ermented
f
oods
a
nd
b
everages
a
re
p
repared
a
nd
c
onsumed
b
y
b
illions
o
f
p

eople
b
elonging
t
o
d
ifferent
c
ommunities
a
nd
et
hnicities
a
cross
t
he
w
orld.
Fermented

f
oods
a
nd
b
everages
h
arbor
d

iverse
m
icroorganisms
f
rom
t
he
en
viron-
ment,

w
hich
i
nclude
m
ycelial
m
olds;
y
easts;
a
nd
b
acteria,
m
ostly
l
actic
a

cid
b
acteria,
b
acilli,
a
nd
m
icrococci.
M
icroorganisms
t
ransform
t
he
c
hemical
c
onstituents
o
f
r
aw
m
aterials
d
uring
f
ermentation
a

nd
en
hance
t
he
n
utritive
v
alue
o
f
t
he
p
roducts;
en
rich
b
land
d
iets
w
ith
i
mproved

avor
a
nd
t

exture;
p
reserve
p
erishable
f
oods;
f
ortify
p
rod-
ucts

w
ith
e
ssential
a
mino
a
cids,
h
ealth-promoting
b
ioactive
c
ompounds,
v
itamins,
a

nd
m
inerals;
d
egrade
u
ndesirable
c
ompounds
a
nd
a
ntinutritive
f
actors;
i
mpart
a
nti-
oxidant

a
nd
a
ntimicrobial
p
roperties;
i
mprove
d

igestibility;
a
nd
s
timulate
p
robiotic
f
unctions.
M
ost
o
f
t
he
e
thnic
f
ermented
f
oods
a
nd
b
everages
a
re
p
roduced
b

y
n
atural
f
ermentation,
e
xcept
t
he
a
lcoholic
b
everages
i
n
A
sia,
w
hich
a
re
p
roduced
b
y
u
sing
a

c

onsortium
o
f
m
icroorganisms
i
n
t
he
f
orm
o
f
a

d
ry,
c
ereal-based
s
tarter.
D
iversity
w
ithin
t
he
s
pecies
o

r
s
trains
o
f
s
everal
f
unctional
g
enera
o
f
d
ominant
m
icroorganisms
h
as created ethnic foods with different sensory characteristics.
This

b
ook
h
as
1
6
c
hapters
c

overing
t
he
d
escription
o
f
p
roducts;
c
ulinary
p
ractices;
a
nd
t
he
m
icrobiology,
b
iochemistry,
n
utrition,
a
nd
f
unctional
p
roperties
o

f
d
ifferent
c
ategories
o
f
f
ermented
f
oods
a
nd
b
everages
o
f
t
he
w
orld:
f
ermented
v
egetables,
f
ermented
s
oybeans
a

nd
n
on-soybean
l
egumes,
f
ermented
c
ereals,
f
ermented
m
ilks,
f
ermented/dried/smoked

sh,
f
ermented/dried/smoked
m
eats,
f
ermented
r
oot/tuber
p
roducts,
f
ermented
b

everages
a
nd
a
lcoholic
d
rinks,
a
nd
m
iscellaneous
f
ermented
p
roducts
i
ncluding
v
inegar,
n
ata,
p
idan,
t
ea,
c
offee,
c
acao,
e

tc.
T
hereis
viii Preface
a
c
omplete
c
hapter
d
evoted
t
o
t
he
d
ietary
c
ulture
a
nd
a
ntiquity
o
f
f
ermented
f
oodsand beverages ofthe world.
We

a
ttempted
t
o
u
pdate
a
nd
c
ollate
i
nformation
a
nd
r
esearch
c
arried
o
ut
o
n
v
arious
a
spects
o
f
m

ajor
a
s
w
ell
a
s
m
inor
f
ermented
f
oods
a
nd
b
everages
o
f
t
he
w
orld.
W
e
a
re
g
rateful
t

o
a
ll
t
he
c
ontributing
au
thors
w
ho
a
ccepted
o
ur
i
nvitation
t
o
w
rite
t
his
b
ook.
M
any
a
re
w

ell-recognized
s
cientists
a
nd
r
esearchers
w
ith
v
ast
e
xperience
i
n
t
he

eld
o
f
f
ermented
f
oods
a
nd
b
everages.
W

e
a
re
h
appy
t
o
b
ring
a
ll
o
f
t
hem
o
nto
a

s
ame
p
latform
t
hat
h
elped
i
n
b

ringing
o
ut
t
his
b
ook,
a
nd
t
hanks
t
o
M
artin
A
dams,
J
ean-
Pierre

G
uyot,
M
.J.
R
obert
N
out,
K

o
E
.
A
idoo,
D
elwen
S
amuel,
U
lrich
S
chillinger,
C
harles
M
.A.P.
F
ranz,
C
armen
W
acher,
N
.A.
O
lasupo,
S
.A.
O

dunfa,
T
oshirou
N
agai,
E
tsuko
S
ugawara,
B
altasar
M
ayo,
M
ohammed
S
alim
A
mmor,
J
unus
S
alampessy,
N
amrata
T
hapa,
O
.S.
O

bayori,
L
ouis
B
an-Kof,
M
ariam
F
arhad,
G
loria
D
íaz-Ruiz,
Á
ngel
A
legría,
a
nd
S
usana
D
elgado.
W
e
a
re
a
lso
g

rateful
t
o
T
aylor
&

F
rancis
f
or
p
ublishing
t
his
c
omprehensive
b
ook
o
n
i
mportant
t
opics.
W
e
h
ope
t

his
b
ook
w
ill
b
e
u
tilized
b
y
r
esearchers,
s
tudents,
t
eachers,
f
ood
en
trepreneurs,
a
griculturalists,
g
ov-
ernment

p
olicy
m

akers,
a
nthropologists,
h
istorians,
g
eographers,
e
thnologists,
s
oci-
ologists,

a
nd
m
edia
p
ersons
w
ho
a
re
i
nterested
i
n
f
ermented
f

oods
a
nd
b
everages.
T
hough
t
here
a
re
h
undreds
o
f
r
esearch
a
rticles,
r
eview
p
apers,
a
nd
q
uite
a

f

ew
b
ooks
o
n
f
ermented
f
oods
a
nd
b
everages,
F
ermented Foods and Beverages of the World
i
s
t
he
l
atest
c
ompilation
o
f
v
arious
a
spects
o

f
f
ermented
f
oods
a
nd
b
everages
i
ncluding
m
any
u
ndocumented,
m
inor,
o
r
l
esser-known
e
thnic
f
ermented
p
roducts
o
f
t

he
w
orld.
We

d
edicate
t
his
b
ook
t
o
D
r.
C
.W.
H
esseltine,
P
rof.
K
.H.
S
teinkraus,
P
rof.
M
ichio
K

ozaki,
a
nd
D
r.
S
ayuki
N
ikkuni,
a
ll
d
eceased,
w
hose
c
ontributions
t
o
t
he

eld
o
f
f
ermented
f
oods
a

nd
b
everages
o
f
t
he
w
orld
i
s
i
mmeasurable;
t
heir
m
emories
w
ill
r
emain
i
n
t
his
b
ook
f
orever.
W

e
s
alute
t
hem
f
or
c
reating
a

f
orum
o
f
k
nowledge
a
nd
a

b
ase
f
or
r
esearch
t
o
s

tudy
i
n
d
epth
t
he
c
ulture
a
nd
s
cience
i
nvolved
i
n
t
he
p
roduc-
tion

o
f
f
ermented
f
oods
a

nd
b
everages
a
nd
a
lso
t
o
v
alidate
t
he
w
orthy
k
nowledge
o
f
e
thnic people.
Jyoti Prakash Tamang
Kasipathy
Kailasapathy
ix
Editors
Dr. Jyoti Prakash Tamang has been one of lead-
ing
r
esearchers

o
n
f
ermented
f
oods
a
nd
b
everages
f
or
t
he
p
ast
2
3
y
ears.
H
e
o
btained
h
is
P
hD
f
rom

N
orth
B
engal
U
niversity,
a
nd
c
ompleted
h
is
p
ost-
doctoral
r
esearch
w
ith
t
he
N
ational
F
ood
R
esearch
I
nstitute
(

Japan)
a
nd
t
he
I
nstitute
o
f
H
ygiene
a
nd
T
oxicology
(
Germany).
D
r.
T
amang
w
on
t
he
N
ational
B
ioscience
A

ward
o
f
t
he
D
epartment
o
f
B
iotechnology,
M
inistry
o
f
S
cience
a
nd
T
echnology,
G
overnment
o
f
I
ndia,
i
n
2

005,
o
ne
o
f
t
he
p
resti-
gious
a
wards,
a
nd
b
ecame
a f
ellow
o
f
t
he
B
iotech
R
esearch
S
ociety
o
f

I
ndia
i
n
2
006.
H
e
ha
s
p
ublished
m
ore
t
han
9
0
r
esearch
p
apers
i
n
p
eer-reviewed
i
nternational
a
nd

n
ational
j
ournals,

led
a p
atent,
a
nd
g
uided
se
veral
P
hD
s
tudents.
H
e
ha
s
p
resented
h
is
w
ork
i
n

d
ifferent
c
ountries
a
nd
i
s
a m
ember
o
f
m
any
p
restigious
n
ational
a
nd
i
nternational
a
cademic
a
nd
sc
ientic

o
rganizations.
H
e
i
s
a r
egular
r
eviewer
o
f
m
any
p
eer-reviewed
i
nterna-
tional
sc
ientic
j
ournals
i
n
m
icrobiology
a
nd
f

ood
sc
iences,
a
nd
o
f
b
ooks.
D
r.
T
amang
r
ecently
a
uthored
H
imalayan Fermented Foods: Microbiology,
N
utrition,
a
nd Ethnic
Values published
b
y
C
RC
P
ress,

T
aylor
& F
rancis.
P
rof.
T
amang
i
s
a H
ead
o
f
F
ood
M
icrobiology
L
aboratory
a
nd
w
as
t
he

rst
a
cademic

c
oordinator
o
f
S
ikkim
U
niversity
a
t
G
angtok,
I
ndia.
Dr.

K
asipathy
K
ailasapathy
i
s
a
n
a
ssociate
p
ro-
fessor

i
n
t
he
S
chool
o
f
N
atural
S
ciences,
U
niversity
o
f
W
estern
S
ydney,
H
awkesbury,
N
ew
S
outh
W
ales,
A
ustralia.

H
e
h
as
a

b
achelor’s
d
egree
i
n
a
gricul-
tural

s
cience
f
rom
t
he
U
niversity
o
f
P
eradeniya,
P
eradeniya,

S
ri
L
anka,
a
nd
g
raduate
d
egrees
f
rom
O
bihiro
C
hickusan
U
niversity,
O
bihiro,
J
apan
(
MSc
i
n
a
gricultural
s
cience),

P
enn
S
tate
U
niversity,
U
niversity
P
ark,
P
ennsylvania
(
PhD
i
n
f
ood
s
ci-
ence),

a
nd
U
niversity
o
f
W
estern

S
ydney,
A
ustralia
(
MBA).
H
e
i
s
t
he
r
esearch
l
eader
f
or
t
he
P
robiotics
a
nd
E
ncapsulated
F
oods
U
nit

a
t
t
he
C
entre
f
or
P
lant
a
nd
F
ood
S
cience,
U
niversity
o
f
W
estern
S
ydney,
A
ustralia.
H
is
r
esearch

h
as
f
ocused
o
n
d
airy
f
ermented
f
oods
i
ncorporating
p
robiotic
b
acteria
a
nd
p
rebiotic
s
ubstances,
h
ealth
b
enets,
m
icroencapsulation,

i
mmobilization
o
f
en
zymes,
a
ctive
p
ackaging,
a
nd
b
ioactive
p
eptides,
a
mong
ot
hers.
I
n
t
he
p
ast
1
0
y
ears,

h
e
h
as
au
thored
a
nd
c
oau-
thored

m
ore
t
han
7
5
p
apers
i
n
s
cientic
j
ournals,
s
everal
c
hapters

i
n
b
ooks,
h
as
s
uper-
vised

o
ver
2
0
h
igher
d
egree
s
tudents,
a
nd
h
as
g
iven
m
ore
t
han

5
0
p
resentations
i
n
n
ational and international conferences.
xi
Contributors
Martin Adams
Division of Microbial Sciences
Faculty
of Health and Medical
S
ciences
University
of Surrey
Guildford,
United Kingdom
Ko
E. Aidoo
Department
of Biological and
B
iomedical Sciences
Glasgow
Caledonian University
Glasgow,
United Kingdom

Ángel Alegría
Department
of Microbiology and
B
iochemistry
Asturian
Dairy Research
Institute
Villaviciosa,
Spain
Mohammed Salim Ammor
Centrale
Laitiere—Danone
C
asablanca, Morocco
Louis Ban-Kof
Technological
Research Station
National
Agronomie Research
Centre
Abidjan,
Ivory Coast
Susana Delgado
Department
of Microbiology and
B
iochemistry
Asturian
Dairy Research

Institute
Villaviciosa,
Spain
Gloria
Díaz-Ruiz
Departamento
de Alimentos y
B
iotecnología
Facultad
de Química
Universidad
Nacional Autónoma de
M
éxico
Mexico
City, Mexico
Mariam
Farhad
Centre
for Plant and Food Science
University
of Western Sydney
Sydney,
New South Wales, Australia
Charles
M. A. P. Franz
Max
Rubner-Institut
Bundesforschungsinstitut

für Ernährung
u
nd Lebensmittel
Karlsruhe,
Germany
Jean-Pierre
Guyot
Centre
de Montpellier
Institut
de Recherche pour le
D
éveloppement
Montpellier,
France
Kasipathy
Kailasapathy
School
of Natural Sciences
University
of Western Sydney
Sydney,
New South Wales, Australia
Baltasar
Mayo
Department
of Microbiology and
B
iochemistry
Asturian

Dairy Research
Institute
Villaviciosa,
Spain
xii Contributors
Toshirou Nagai
Genebank
National
Institute of Agrobiological
S
ciences
Tsukuba,
Japan
M.
J. Robert Nout
Laboratory
of Food Microbiology
Wageningen
University
Wageningen,
the Netherlands
O.
S. Obayori
Department
of Microbiology
Faculty
of Science
Lagos
State University
Ojo,

Nigeria
S.
A. Odunfa
Department
o
f
B
otany
a
nd
M
icrobiology
Faculty
of Science
University
of Ibadan
Ibadan,
Nigeria
N.
A. Olasupo
Department
of Microbiology
Faculty
of Science
Lagos
State University
Ojo,
Nigeria
Junus
Salampessy

Centre
for Plant and Food Science
University
of Western Sydney
Sydney,
New South Wales, Australia
Delwen Samuel
Division
of Nutritional Sciences
Kings
College London
London,
United Kingdom
Ulrich Schillinger
Max
Rubner-Institut
Bundesforschungsinstitut
für Ernährung
u
nd Lebensmittel
Karlsruhe,
Germany
Etsuko Sugawara
Faculty
of Education
Iwate
University
Morioka,
Japan
Jyoti Prakash Tamang

Food
Microbiology Laboratory
Sikkim
Government College
Sikkim
University
Gangtok,
Sikkim, India
Namrata Thapa
Department
of Zoology
Sikkim
Government College
Sikkim
University
Gangtok,
Sikkim, India
Carmen Wacher
Facultad
de Química
Departamento
de Alimentos y
B
iotecnología
Universidad
Nacional Autónoma de
M
éxico
Mexico
City, Mexico

1
1
Dietary Cultures and Antiquity
ofFermented Foods and Beverages
Jyoti Prakash Tamang and Delwen Samuel
1.1 Cultural Foods
Each and every community has a distinct food culture or dietary culture that sym-
bolizes its heritage and the sociocultural aspects of its ethnicity. Food prepared by
different communities is unique and distinct due to the geographical location, envi-
ronmental factors, food preference, and the availability of plant or animal sources.
Religions, dietary laws, customary beliefs, and social groupings are some of the char-
acteristics contributing to the description of a culture, while ethnicity is the afliation
with a race, people, or cultural group (McWilliams 2007). Religions and beliefs exert
a strong inuence on dietary habits, particularly through dietary laws such as taboos
imposed on the consumption of certain food items. Fermented foods and beverages
CONTENTS
1.1 Cultural Foods 1
1.1.1 Hindu Foods 2
1.1.2 Buddhist Foods 2
1.1.3 Christian Foods 3
1.1.4 Muslim Foods 4
1.2 World Dietary Culture 4
1.2.1 Use of Hands 5
1.2.2 Use of Chopsticks 5
1.2.3 Use of Cutlery 6
1.2.4 Evolution of Dietary Culture 6
1.3 Antiquity and Cultural Aspects 7
1.3.1 Fermented Vegetables 8
1.3.2 Fermented Soybeans and Non-Soybean Legumes 11
1.3.3 Fermented Cereals 13

1.3.4 Fermented Milks 16
1.3.5 Fermented Fish 18
1.3.6 Fermented Meats 21
1.3.7 Fermented Beverages and Alcoholic Drinks 22
1.4 Conclusion 30
References 31
2 Fermented Foods and Beverages of the World
are
o
ne
o
f
t
he
i
ntegral
c
omponents
o
f
c
ultural
f
oods.
S
ome
c
ultural
f
oods

h
ave
b
een
m
entioned
i
n
h
oly
b
ooks
s
uch
a
s
t
he
B
hagavad
G
ita,
t
he
B
ible,
a
nd
t
he

K
oran,
a
nd
a
s
a
result, most of the traditional or ethnic foods are inuenced by religion and taboo.
1.1.1  Hindu Foods
In the Bhagavad Gita, the sacred book of the Hindus, foods are classied into three
d
ifferent
t
ypes
b
ased
o
n
p
roperty,
q
uality,
a
nd
s
anctity:
t
hese
a
re

s
attvika,
r
aajasika,
a
nd

taamasika.

The

sattvika

food

denotes

food

for

prosperity,

longevity,

intelligence,
s
trength,
he
alth,

a
nd
h
appiness.
T
his
t
ype
i
ncludes
f
ruits,
v
egetables,
l
egumes,
c
ere-
als,
a
nd
s
weets.
T
he
r
aajasika
f
ood
s

ignies
a
ctivity,
p
assion,
a
nd
r
estlessness,
a
nd
t
his
t
ype
i
ncludes
h
ot,
s
our,
s
picy,
a
nd
s
alty
f
oods.
T

he
t
aamasika
f
ood
i
s
i
ntoxicating
a
nd
u
nhealthy,
w
hich
g
enerally
ca
uses
d
ullness
a
nd
i
nertia.
H
indu
f
oods
f

ollow
t
he
c
oncept
o
f
p
urity
a
nd
p
ollution
t
hat
d
etermines
i
nterpersonal
a
nd
i
ntercaste
r
elation-
ships
(
Kilara
a
nd

I
ya
1
992).
T
he
k
itchens
o
f
t
he
B
rahmin
H
indu
p
roduce
t
wo
t
ypes
o
f
me
als:
k
accha
me
aning

u
ncooked
a
nd
u
nripe
me
als,
a
nd
p
akka
me
aning
r
ipe
a
nd
c
ooked
me
als.
K
accha
f
oods
a
re
h
ighly

v
ulnerable
t
o
c
ontamination
a
nd,
t
herefore,
t
here
a
re
s
trict
c
odes
f
or
c
ooking,
s
erving,
a
nd
e
ating
t
hese

f
oods.
P
akka
f
oods
a
re
f
ried,
t
herefore
n
ot
v
ulnerable
t
o
c
ontamination
(
Misra
1
986).
H
indus
a
re
t
radition-

ally
v
egetarians,
b
ut
m
any
n
on-Brahmins
a
re
n
onvegetarians.
S
ince
t
he
c
ow
i
s
c
onsid-
ered
t
o
b
e
s
acred,

b
eef
i
s
n
ot
e
aten
b
y
H
indus.
F
ish
s
eem
t
o
b
e
m
ore
a
cceptable
t
han
o
ther

esh

f
oods.
B
rahmin
H
indus
d
o
n
ot
e
at
g
arlic,
o
nion,
n
or
c
onsume
i
ntoxicants.
F
oods
a
re
o
ffered
at s
hrines/temples

f
or
w
orshipping
g
ods,
t
o
f
ree
o
neself
f
rom
t
he
p
ossession
o
f
s
pirits,
a
nd
f
eeding
d
omestic
a
nd

s
ome
w
ild
a
nimals
i
ncluding
b
irds
o
n
r
eligious
o
ccasions.
E
thnic
f
oods
h
ave
s
ocial
i
mportance
f
or
c
elebrations

p
articularly
d
uring
f
estivals
a
nd
o
ther
s
ocial
o
ccasions.
C
ooking
i
s
us
ually
d
one
b
y
d
aughter-in-
laws,
d
aughters,
o

r
m
others.
T
he
V
edic
I
ndians
t
ook
t
heir
me
als
i
n
t
he
s
itting
p
os-
ture
(
Prakash
1
987).
T
raditionally

o
rthodox
H
indu
me
n
a
void
t
aking
me
als
w
ith
t
heir
w
ives.
W
omen
g
enerally
t
ake
t
heir
me
als
i
n

a
bsence
o
f
m
ale
me
mbers.
A c
ustom
o
f
s
erving
me
als

rst
t
o
t
he
e
lder
m
ale
me
mbers
i
n

t
he
f
amily
i
s
p
revalent
i
n
t
he
H
indu
f
ood
c
ulture.
T
raditionally,
H
indu
f
emale
f
amily
me
mbers
e
atafterward.

1.1.2  Buddhist Foods
Strict Buddhists avoid eating meat and sh out of respect for living things (Hinnells
1
997).
H
owever,
n
onvegetarian
f
oods
a
re
n
ot
s
trictly
f
orbidden.
A
ccording
t
o
t
he
B
uddhist
r
eligious
d
ietary

c
ode,
i
f
a
nimal

esh
i
s
e
aten,
t
he
a
nimal
s
hould
b
e
k
illed
b
y
n
on-Buddhists.
M
onks
a
re

l
ikely
t
o
b
e
m
ore
r
estricted
i
n
t
heir
d
ietary
p
ractices
t
han
l
ay
B
uddhists,
a
nd
t
hey
m
ay

a
void
e
ating
m
eats
a
nd

sh.
M
onks
d
o
n
ot
e
at
a
nything
s
olid
i
n
t
he
a
fternoon.
F
asting

f
or
t
he
en
tire
d
ay
i
s
e
xpected
o
n
t
he
n
ew
m
oon
a
nd
t
he
f
ull
m
oon
e
ach

m
onth.
B
uddhists
u
sually
e
at
t
ogether
a
t
h
ome
w
ith
t
heir
f
amilies.
T
ibetan
B
uddhists
u
sually
e
at
n
oodles

i
n
s
oup,
s
kiu
o
r
m
omo
(
small
d
umplings
o
f
w
heat

our
w
ith
m
eats),
b
aked
p
otatoes,
t
sampa

(
ground
r
oasted
b
arley
g
rains),
c
hhurpi
(
cottage
c
heese),
k
argyong
(
sausage),
a
nd
c
hyang
(
alcoholic
b
ever-
age)

(
Tamang

2
010).
T
ibetan
B
uddhism
d
oes
n
ot
r
estrict
t
he
c
onsumption
o
f
a
nimal

esh
a
nd
a
lcoholic
b
everages.
I
n

T
ibet,
b
y
v
irtue
o
f
i
ts
l
ocation
i
n
h
igh
a
ltitudes
a
nd
c
old
c
limate,
v
egetables
a
nd
p
lant

s
ources
a
re
n
ot
a
bundant;
p
eople
h
ave
t
o
d
epend
o
n
m
eat.
T
ibetans
d
o
n
ot
e
at
s
mall

a
nimals
s
uch
a
s
c
hickens,
d
ucks,
g
oats,
a
nd
p
igs;
Dietary Cultures and Antiquity ofFermented Foods and Beverages 3
they
b
elieve
t
aking
t
he
l
ives
o
f
m
any

s
mall
a
nimals
i
s
m
ore
s
inful
t
han
k
illing
a

s
ingle
l
arge
a
nimal
(
yak,
c
ow),
w
hich
i
s

m
ore
p
ractical.
F
ish
e
ating
i
s
u
ncommon
a
mong
t
he
T
ibetan
B
uddhists,
s
ince
t
hey
w
orship

sh
f
or

l
ongevity
a
nd
p
rosperity.
N
epali
B
uddhists
a
lso
d
o
n
ot
f
ollow
t
he
d
ietary
r
ules
o
f
B
uddhism.
E
xcept

t
he
T
amang
a
nd
t
he
S
herpa,
ot
her
N
epali
c
ommunities
d
o
n
ot
e
at
b
eef
a
nd
y
ak.
N
epali

B
uddhism
i
s
t
he
f
usion
o
f
T
ibetan
B
uddhism
a
nd
H
induism
w
ith
a

b
lend
o
f
n
ature
a
nd

a
ncestor
w
orship. Buddhists in Southeast Asia eat sh and soybean products.
Buddhist

i
nuence
i
n
t
raditional
J
apan
l
ed
t
o
v
arious
r
estrictions
o
n
t
he
c
onsump-
tion

o
f
a
nimal
p
roducts
ot
her
t
han

sh.
T
he
i
ntroduction
o
f
s
oybean
a
s
a

f
ood
a
long
w
ith

i
ts
f
ermented
p
roducts
i
nto
J
apanese
c
uisine
w
as
d
ue
t
o
t
he
i
ntroduction
o
f
B
uddhism
i
n
t
he

A
D
s
ixth
c
entury
(
Hamamo
2
001).
T
he
i
ntroduction
o
f
B
uddhism
t
o
t
he
K
orean
p
eninsula
i
n
t
he

K
oguryo
K
ingdom
i
n
A
D
3
72
a
nd
i
n
t
he
S
illa
K
ingdom
i
n
A
D
5
28,
r
espectively,
c
hanged

t
he
f
ood
c
ulture
f
rom
a
nimal-based
f
oods
t
o
v
eg-
etable-based

f
oods
(
Lee
a
nd
K
won
2
005).
T
he

p
eople
o
f
t
he
u
nied
S
illa
K
ingdom
o
f
K
orea
d
uring
t
he
K
oryo
d
ynasty
(
AD
9
18–1392)
w
ere

o
rthodox
B
uddhists
w
ho
p
rohibited meat consumption, and vegetables were preferred (Park and Rhee 2005).
The

r
eligion
i
n
C
hina
f
or
t
he
m
ajority
o
f
p
eople
i
s
a

b
lend
o
f
C
onfucianism,
T
aoism,
a
nd
B
uddhism
(
Hinnells
1
997).
C
onfucianism
u
nderlines
t
he
m
orality
a
nd
b
ehavior
o
f

p
eople,
i
ncluding
r
ites
o
f
p
assage,
a
nd
T
aoism
p
rovides
f
or
t
he
n
eeds
a
nd
h
ealing
o
f
t
he

s
ick
a
nd
i
s
a

b
asis
f
or
r
egulating
f
estivals.
T
hough
C
onfucianism
a
nd
T
aoism
d
o
n
ot
p
rovide

g
uidelines
f
or
d
aily
d
iet,
t
he
a
ncient
f
ood
c
ulture
i
n
C
hina
w
as
m
ostly
v
egetarian
d
iets.
T
he

Lu
nar
N
ew
Y
ear
(
festival
o
f
s
pring)
i
s
c
elebrated
b
y
a

b
ig
g
ath-
ering

o
f
f
amily

a
nd
r
elatives
w
here
t
hey
s
hare
a

b
anquet.
B
efore
e
ating,
t
he
C
hinese
c
elebrate
t
he
f
amily’s
a
ncestors

b
y
o
ffering
s
ets
o
f
c
hopsticks,
c
ooked
r
ice
i
n
b
owls,
a
lcoholic
d
rinks,
a
nd
t
ea,
w
hich
a
re

p
laced
a
t
t
he
f
amily
a
ltar.
T
his
c
ombination
o
f
C
onfucianism
a
nd
T
aoism
i
nuences
t
he
C
hinese
d
ietary

c
ulture.
S
hintoism
i
s
t
he
r
eligion
o
f
e
arly
J
apan
a
nd
i
s
s
till
i
n
p
ractice
t
oday,
a

b
lend
o
f
b
oth
S
hintoism
a
nd
B
uddhism.
I
n
S
hintoism,
t
he
a
ncestors
a
re
r
evered.
S
ome
J
apanese
h
omes

s
till
m
ain-
tain

t
wo
a
ltars,
a

k
ami
(
ancestor)
a
ltar
f
or
l
ife
a
nd
i
ts
a
ctivities,
a
nd

a

B
uddha
a
ltar
f
or
d
eath
a
nd
a
ncestral
w
orship.
B
oth
a
ltars
a
re
p
rovided
w
ith
f
resh
f
oods

a
nd
s
aké
b
y
t
he
J
apanese for a good beginning of the day.
1.1.3  Christian Foods
Certain foods are symbolically used at the Eucharist or communion by Christians.
A

w
afer
o
r
b
read
i
s
p
laced
o
n
t
he
t
ongue

(
or
i
n
t
he
h
and)
t
o
r
epresent
t
he
b
ody
o
f
J
esus,
a
nd
w
ine
i
s
d
runk
s
ymbolizing

H
is
b
lood
(
Hinnells
1
997).
T
he
ap
ostle
P
aul
i
s
c
redited
w
ith
f
reeing
C
hristian
l
aws
f
rom
t
he

d
iet
l
aws
p
racticed
b
y
t
he
J
ews,
w
hich
t
hus
s
erved
a
s
a

m
eans
o
f
d
istancing
t
he

n
ew
C
hristian
r
eligion
f
rom
J
ewish
o
rigins.
I
n
f
act,
t
he
s
ymbolic
d
rinking
o
f
w
ine
a
s
a

r
epresentation
o
f
t
he
b
lood
o
f
C
hrist
w
as
a

s
ignicant
d
eparture
f
rom
t
he
s
trong
a
voidance
o
f

b
lood,
w
hich
w
as
p
roscribed
i
n
t
he
J
ewish
d
ietary
l
aws.
P
aska
i
s
a

s
pecial
E
aster
b
read

t
hat
i
s
p
rominent
i
n
E
astern
O
rthodox
C
hurch
c
elebrations.
T
he
n
ame
o
f
t
his
b
read
r
eects
t
he

f
act
t
hat
J
esus
w
as
c
rucied
d
uring
t
he
J
ewish
P
assover.
P
aska
i
s
a

s
weet,
y
east-leavened
b
read

q
uite
d
ifferent
f
rom
t
he
u
nleavened
m
atzo
e
aten
d
uring
t
he
J
ewish
P
assover
t
hat
s
ymbol-
izes

t
he

e
xodus
f
rom
E
gypt
(
Hinnells
1
997).
I
n
E
astern
E
urope,
w
omen
b
ring
t
heir
b
askets
c
ontaining
f
oods
t
o

c
hurch
f
or
t
he
E
aster
d
inner
s
o
t
hat
p
riests
c
an
b
less
t
hem.
E
ggs
a
re
c
onsidered
t
o

b
e
s
ymbolic
o
f
t
he
R
esurrection
o
f
C
hrist,
a
nd
a
re
u
sually
4 Fermented Foods and Beverages of the World
decorated and featured by Christians throughout North America and Northern Europe
(
McWilliams
2
007).
I
n
C
hristian

f
ood
c
ulture,
a
ll
f
amily
m
embers
s
it
t
ogether
a
t
t
he
t
able
a
nd
e
at
t
ogether
a
fter
f
amily

p
rayers.
V
arieties
o
f
e
thnic
f
oods
s
uch
a
s
l
oaf,
c
heese,
a
nd
s
ausage
c
onstitute
t
he
c
ultural
f
oods

o
f
t
he
m
ajority
o
f
C
hristians,
m
ostly
i
n Europe, America, and Australia.
1.1.4  Muslim Foods
Consumption of foods is governed by the strict dietary laws for Muslims developed
b
y
M
uhammad
(
Hussaini
1
993).
F
ood
p
rohibition
i
ncludes

a
voiding
e
ating
s
wine,
t
he

esh
o
f
c
arrion
(
dead
a
nimals),
b
lood
i
n
a
ny
f
orm,
f
ood
p
reviously

o
ffered
t
o
g
ods,
a
nd
a
lcohol
a
nd
ot
her
i
ntoxicants.
A
s
p
er
t
he
d
ietary
l
aws,
M
uslims
f
oods

a
re
p
repared
a
ccordingly
w
ithout
a
ny
a
lcoholic
b
everages.
T
raditionally,
M
uslim
w
omen
a
nd
c
hildren
m
ay
e
at
s
eparately

a
fter
t
he
m
ale
m
embers

nish
t
heir
m
eals.
D
uring
R
amadan,
a

m
onth-long
f
asting,
f
amily
m
embers,
f
riends,

a
nd
r
elatives
s
hare
c
om-
mon

m
eals
a
fter
s
unset.
I
n
S
udan,
t
raditionally
a
t
t
he
t
ime
o
f

R
amadan,
h
ulu mur,
a

t
raditional
f
ermented
s
orghum
b
read
d
rink,
i
s
m
ade
b
y
s
oaking
t
he
s
heets
o
f

l
eavened
b
read
i
n
a

g
lass
o
f
w
ater
(
Bärwald
1
994).
T
he
d
rink
i
s
f
reshly
p
repared
a
nd

d
runk
w
ithin
1

h

s
o
t
hat
n
o
m
easurable
a
mounts
o
f
e
thanol
c
an
b
e
p
roduced,
m
aking

t
he
p
roduct nonalcoholic, which is permitted during Ramadan (Agab 1985).
1.2 World Dietary Culture
World dietary culture has three distinct traditional food habits based on staple cereal
d
iets:
(
1)
c
ooked-rice
e
aters
o
f
E
astern
f
ood
c
ulture,
(
2)
w
heat/barley-based
b
reads/
loaves
o

f
W
estern
a
nd
A
ustralian
f
ood
c
ulture,
a
nd
(
3)
s
orghum/maize
p
orridges
o
f
A
frican
a
nd
S
outh
A
merican
f

ood
c
ulture.
R
ice
i
s
a s
taple
f
ood
f
or
m
illions
o
f
p
eople
i
n
C
hina,
J
apan,
K
orea,
T
aiwan,
P

hilippines,
M
alaysia,
S
ingapore,
T
hailand,
L
aos,
C
ambodia,
M
yanmar,
B
angladesh,
B
hutan,
N
epal,
M
ongolia,
e
ast
a
nd
s
outh
I
ndia,
a

nd
S
ri
L
anka;
w
hereas
w
heat
o
r
b
arley
i
s
a s
taple
f
ood
i
n
n
orth
a
nd
w
est
I
ndia,
P

akistan,
A
fghanistan,
I
ran,
I
raq,
a
nd
a
ll
o
f
m
id-Asia,
E
urope,
N
orth
A
merica,
a
nd
A
ustralia;
w
hile
s
orghum,
m

aize,
m
illets,
a
nd
ca
ssava
a
re
t
he
s
taple
c
rops
o
f
A
frica,
m
aize
i
s
t
he
s
taple
f
ood
i

n
S
outh
A
merica.
A t
ypical
d
iet
o
f
t
he
E
astern
W
orld
c
onsists
o
f
b
oiled
r
ice
w
ith
m
any
s

ide
d
ishes
c
ontaining
f
ermented
a
nd
n
onfermented
s
oy-
bean
p
roducts,
v
egetables,
p
ickles,

sh,
me
at,
a
nd
a
lcoholic
b
everages.

T
he
W
estern
i
ncluding
A
ustralian
f
ood
c
ulture
h
as
w
heat
o
r
b
arley
a
s
t
he
s
taple
f
ood,
f
ollowed

b
y
m
ilk
a
nd
f
ermented
m
ilks
(
cheese,
y
oghurt,
c
urd),
me
at
a
nd
me
at
p
roducts
(
sausages,
h
ams),
a
nd

w
ine.
T
he
A
frican
d
ietary
c
ulture
i
ncludes
b
oth
f
ermented
a
nd
n
onfer-
mented
s
orghum,
m
aize,
m
illets,
ca
ssava
p

roducts,
w
ild
l
egume
s
eeds,
t
ubers,
me
at,
m
ilk
p
roducts,
a
nd
a
lcoholic
b
everages.
T
he
S
outh
A
merican
d
ietary
c

ulture
i
ncludes
b
oth
f
ermented
a
nd
n
onfermented
m
aize
p
roducts,
me
at,
m
ilk
p
roducts,
a
nd
a
lcoholic
b
everages.
I
n
E

urope,
A
merica,
a
nd
A
ustralia,
f
ruits,
m
ostly
g
rapes,
a
re
f
ermented
i
nto
w
ine,
w
hereas
i
n
A
sia
a
nd
A

frica
g
rapes
a
re
e
aten
f
resh
w
ithout
p
rocessing
i
nto
w
ine.
I
nterestingly,
t
he
H
imalayan
d
ietary
c
ulture
h
as
b

oth
r
ice
a
nd
w
heat
o
r
b
arley
o
r
m
aize
a
s
t
he
s
taple
f
ood
a
long
w
ith
v
arieties
o

f
e
thnic,
f
ermented
a
nd
n
onfermented
f
oods
p
repared
f
rom
s
oybeans,
v
egetables,
b
amboo,
m
ilk,
me
at,

sh,
a
lcoholic
b

ev-
erages,
a
nd
w
ild
e
dible
p
lants
(
Tamang
2
010).
D
rinking
a
nimal
m
ilk
i
s
n
ot
p
art
o
f
Dietary Cultures and Antiquity ofFermented Foods and Beverages 5
the

f
ood
c
ulture
o
f
e
thnic
C
hinese,
K
oreans,
J
apanese,
a
nd
m
any
M
ongolian-origin
r
aces
d
espite
a
n
a
bundance
o
f

c
ows
i
n
t
heir
r
egions,
w
hereas,
t
he
I
ndians,
E
uropeans,
S
emites,
a
nd
t
he
n
omadic
t
ribesmen
o
f
N
orth

C
entral
A
sia
a
re
t
raditionally
m
ilk
d
rink-
ers
(
Laufer
1
914–1915).
I
n
F
ar
E
ast
A
sia,
t
he
s
oybean,
ca

lled
a
s
t
he
“
cow
o
f
C
hina”
(
Hymowitz
1
970),
i
s
p
rocessed
t
o
m
ake
s
oy
m
ilk,
t
ofu
(

soya
c
urd),
a
nd
f
ermented
i
nto
a n
umber
o
f
e
thnic,
f
ermented
s
oybean
p
roducts
s
uch
a
s
m
iso,
s
hoyu,
n

atto,
k
inema,
t
hua nau,
d
ouchi,
c
hungkokjang,
te
mpe,
a
nd
s
ufu.
T
he
H
imalayan
d
ietary
c
ulture
i
s
a f
usion
o
f
t

he
H
indu–Aryan
c
ulture
a
nd
t
he
T
ibetan–Mongolian
c
ulture
i
nuenced
b
y
a
ncient
C
hinese
c
uisines
w
ith
m
odications
b
ased
o

n
e
thnical
a
nd
s
ensory
p
refer-
ences
o
ver
a p
eriod
o
f
t
ime
(
Tamang
2
010).
C
ountries
b
ordering
o
ther
c
ountries

h
ave
c
losed
c
ultural
a
fnities,
w
hich
h
as
i
nuenced
t
he
d
ietary
c
ultures
o
f
m
any
r
egions.
Indian

f
ood

i
s
s
picy,
a
nd
s
alt
i
s
a
dded
d
irectly
w
hile
c
ooking;
s
easonings
s
uch
a
s
s
oy
s
auce
a
nd

m
onosodium
g
lutamate
(
MSG)
a
re
n
ever
u
sed.
C
hinese,
K
orean,
a
nd
J
apanese
f
oods
a
re
n
ot
s
picy,
a
nd

u
se
s
oy
s
auce
f
or
s
easoning
a
nd
ot
her
t
aste
en
hanc-
ers

s
uch
a
s
M
SG.
E
uropean
a
nd

A
merican
f
oods
a
re
g
rilled,
f
ried,
r
oasted,
o
r
b
aked.
I
n
N
orth
A
merica,
s
weet
t
omato-based
k
etchup
i
s

w
idely
u
sed
a
s
a

c
ondiment,
w
hile
p
ickled
v
egetables
s
uch
a
s
c
ucumbers
a
nd
o
nions,
a
nd
r
elishes

b
ased
o
n
f
ruits,
a
re
c
ommon
E
uropean
a
ccompaniments.
A
frican
f
oods
a
re
a
lso
g
rilled
o
r
s
teamed,
a
nd

h
ot.
E
astern
f
oods
a
re
m
ore
s
alty,
s
picy,
a
nd
h
otter
t
han
W
estern
f
oods,
w
hich
a
re
l
ess

s
alty, more sweet, oily, nonspicy, and crispy.
People
h
ave
d
eveloped
d
ifferent
m
ethods
o
f
e
ating
f
oods
i
n
t
he
c
ourse
o
f
t
he


h

istory
o
f
d
ietary
c
ultures.
T
he
t
hree
ma
jor
m
ethods
o
f
e
ating
f
oods
a
re
u
sing
h
ands/ngers,
c
hopsticks,
a

nd
c
utlery,
w
hich
h
ave
r
emained
t
he
t
radition
a
mong
c
onsumers
w
orldwide.
1.2.1  Use of Hands
The use of hands for eating must have existed since ancient times. Using hands to
e
at
r
emains
a

t
radition
o

f
H
indu
a
nd
M
uslim
d
ietary
c
ultures,
a
nd
i
s
a
lso
p
racticed
b
y
m
any
B
uddhists
o
f
S
outheast
A

sia.
A
sians
o
f
t
he
I
ndian
s
ubcontinent
a
nd
n
on-
C
hinese
p
eople
o
f
S
outheast
A
sia
a
nd
m
id-Asia
u

se
h
ands
f
or
e
ating.
T
he
p
ractice
o
f
w
ashing
h
ands
a
nd
m
ouths
b
efore
a
nd
a
fter
e
ating
m

eals
w
as
c
ommon
d
uring
t
he
V
edic
p
eriod
(
1500–800
B
C)
(
Prakash
1
987),
w
hich
i
s
a

p
art
a

nd
p
arcel
o
f
d
ietary
r
ules
a
nd
e
tiquette
o
f
t
he
H
indus.
E
ating
f
oods
w
ith
h
ands
h
as
b

een
m
entioned
i
n
N
epalese
h
istory
d
uring
t
he
L
ichchhavi
d
ynasty
i
n
A
D
1
00–880
(
Bajracharya
a
nd
S
hrestha
1

973).
T
here
i
s
n
o
m
ention
o
f
u
se
o
f
c
utlery
o
r
c
hopsticks
i
n
t
he
a
ncient
d
ietary culture of the Hindus. Traditionally, Africans also use hands for eating.
1.2.2  Use of Chopsticks

Oriental Asians, mostly Chinese, Tibetans, Mongolians, Koreans, and Japanese, use
c
hopsticks
f
or
e
ating.
T
hough
t
he
e
xact
d
ate
o
f
t
he
o
rigin
o
f
c
hopsticks
h
as
n
ot
b

een
r
ecorded,
a
rchaeological
e
vidence
o
f
c
hopsticks
u
nearthed
a
t
Y
in
X
u,
t
he
c
apital
o
f
C
hina’s
S
hang
d

ynasty
(
1300–1046
B
C),
i
ndicated
t
hat
t
hey
w
ere
a
t
l
east
3
400
y
ears
o
ld
(
Warrant
a
nd
H
onten
2

008).
B
esides
t
heir
u
se
a
s
f
eeding
t
ools,
c
hopsticks
w
ere
a
lso
u
sed
a
s
a

t
ool
i
n
r

ituals
f
or
m
aking
o
fferings
o
f
f
ood
i
tems
t
o
t
he
s
pirits
o
f
a
nces-
tors.

P
robably
t
he
u

se
o
f
c
hopsticks
a
s
a

m
ore
h
ygienic
w
ay
o
f
e
ating
a
nd
a

c
onve-
nient

w
ay
o

f
h
andling
h
ot
f
oods
m
ight
h
ave
p
rompted
t
he
i
nvention
o
f
c
hopsticks.
T
he
o
rigin
o
f
c
hopsticks
i

s
d
escribed
i
n
t
he
C
lassic of Rites,
o
ne
o
f
t
he

ve
c
lassics
6 Fermented Foods and Beverages of the World
in the Confucian canon, that mentions the social forms, ancient rituals, and court
ceremonies of the Zhou dynasty (1122–256 BC) (Warrant and Honten 2008). In the
beginning, chopsticks were used by royal and aristocratic families during feasts, until
around 100 BC during the Han dynasty (206 BC–AD 9) when chopsticks were used
by commoners, and has remained a part of the food culture of many Orientals.
1.2.3  Use of Cutlery
One attribute of Western cultural cuisine is the use of cutlery to cut food on the plate
and to transfer food from the plate to the mouth (Young 1999). This culture has diversi-
ed over time so that the manipulation of knives and forks differs in Europe and the
United States (Childe 1956:113). The English word “cutlery” is derived from “cutler,” a

craftsman skilled in the art of making knives. This reects the central importance of the
knife in ancient British culture. In the pre-Christian era, burials of wealthy and power-
ful people included their knives, showing the signicance and value of this tool (Moore
1999). Spoons have been in use since ancient times, especially to manipulate food during
preparation, and to feed those less able to assist themselves, such as babies and the sick.
The fork as a widespread tool for eating is a much more recent development (Elias
1994). Perhaps the earliest known forks date to ancient China, where they were
mainly made of bone. Artistic depictions show them associated with dining scenes,
so forks may have been used for eating in ancient China, despite their later absence
(Huang 2000). Examples of Western forks are known from Roman archaeology, and
there is a ne example of a fork as part of a Roman multi-use tool in the Fitzwilliam
Museum, Cambridge, United Kingdom (Vassilika 1998, and see www.tzmuseum.
cam.ac.uk/opac/search/search.html, then enter “GR.1.1991”). These metal utensils are
rare. Since forks of worked bone or wood are unlikely to survive, and metal was gen-
erally recycled in the ancient world, it is hard to know just how early and widespread
the fork may have been, and how it was used.
The rst documented use of the fork in Europe comes from about AD 1060, when
a Byzantine princess married the heir to the Doge of Venice and brought a case of
forks with her (Giblin 1987). Although this “new” technology was greeted with sus-
picion and distrust, and even as late as the seventeenth century Louis XIV of France
(1638–1715) refused to use a fork, eventually its use spread from Italy and throughout
Europe. By the early seventeenth century, the fork had arrived in Britain, but was
in far from common use over the next hundred years. As the cuisine of the upper
classes became more elaborate through the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, forks
together with spoons and knives became widely differentiated for use with different
courses and types of food. In modern times, these protracted and complex meals have
largely disappeared, and cutlery has simplied. Specic types, such as the sh knife
and fork, still persist amongst some diners. Today, a set of table cutlery is convenient
for eating across the world regardless of ethnic origins.
1.2.4  Evolution of Dietary Culture

Dietary culture has evolved as a result of traditional knowledge and experiences of
generations over time. Cuisine is based on a wide range of factors, including environ-
ment, availability of edible substrates, sensory properties, ethnic preferences, custom-
ary beliefs, religions, socioeconomy, regional politics, cultural practices, and dietary
Dietary Cultures and Antiquity ofFermented Foods and Beverages 7
laws. Though the food cultures of the Western and the Eastern worlds are not parallel,
f
requent
m
ovement
a
s
w
ell
a
s
m
igration
o
f
p
eople
c
arrying
t
heir
d
ietary
c
ultures

a
nd
f
ood
h
abits
a
long
w
ith
t
heir
e
thnic
c
uisines
f
rom
o
ne
r
egion
t
o
ot
her
r
egions
w
ithin

t
he
s
ame
o
r
d
ifferent
c
ountries
m
ight
h
ave
i
nuenced
t
he
s
ettlers,
a
nd
t
hus
r
esulted
i
n
t
he

a
malgamation
o
r
f
usion
o
f
d
ietary
c
ultures
o
ver
t
ime.
T
he
e
thnic
f
ood
c
ulture
o
f
m
any
i
ndigenous

p
eople
i
s
b
eing
l
ost
d
ue
t
o
c
hanges
i
n
c
limate,
g
lobal
e
conomy,
t
he
p
rocess
o
f
r
apid

u
rbanization
a
nd
d
evelopment,
a
nd
t
he
i
ncreasing
a
vailability
o
f
c
ommercial
r
eady-to-eat
f
ast
f
oods
i
n
t
he
m
arkets.

T
oday,
t
here
i
s
a

r
apid
t
ransforma-
tion
in food habits due to health consciousness and also due to rising prices.
1.3 Antiquity and Cultural Aspects
Dietary culture carries the cultural history of ethnic communities (Tamang 2001a).
T
raditional
f
ermentation,
s
moking,
d
rying,
a
nd
s
alting
p
rocesses

w
ere
d
eveloped
b
y
a
ncient
p
eople
t
o
p
reserve
f
oods
f
or
c
onsumption
a
nd
t
o
i
mprove
t
heir
n
utritional

v
alue,
a r
emarkable
s
tep
i
n
t
he
f
ood
cu
lture
h
istory
o
f
h
uman
b
eings.
F
ermented
f
oods
a
nd
b
everages

a
re
s
ocially
a
nd
cu
lturally
w
idely
a
cceptable
f
ood
i
tems
i
n
l
ocal
cu
isines.
R
ecords
o
f
h
istorical
f
ood

cu
ltural
p
ractices
i
n
m
any
p
arts
o
f
t
he
w
orld
c
an
b
e
r
ich
a
nd
d
etailed.
D
ocumentary
s
ources

a
re
p
atchy,
ho
wever,
l
eaving
v
ast
r
egions
a
nd
h
istorical
p
eriods
u
nknown.
Our

k
nowledge
o
f
m
ore
a
ncient

t
imes
i
s
e
ven
m
ore
f
ragmentary.
A
rchaeology
i
s
o
ur
o
nly
s
ource
o
f
i
nformation,
a
nd
m
any
a
reas

h
ave
y
et
t
o
b
e
s
tudied
i
n
a
ny
d
etail.
A
rchaeological
r
ecovery
r
elies
o
n
t
he
s
urvival
o
f

m
aterial
a
rtifacts.
M
aterials
i
mper-
vious

t
o
d
ecay,
s
uch
a
s
p
ottery
f
ragments,
s
tone
t
ools,
a
nd
s
tone

h
earths
p
rovide
i
nsights
i
nto
t
he
t
ools
u
sed
t
o
p
repare
f
ood.
F
ood
i
tself,
t
hough,
i
s
h
ighly

t
ransient
a
nd
e
phemeral
i
n
n
ature.
D
espite
t
his,
a
ncient
r
emains
o
f
f
ood
i
ngredients
a
re
o
ften
p
reserved

b
y
v
irtue
o
f
t
heir
r
obust
s
tructure,
s
uch
a
s
b
ones
a
nd
t
eeth,
o
r
b
y
t
ransfor-
mation

p
rocesses
t
hat
r
ender
t
hem
r
esistant
t
o
d
ecay.
A
rchaeobotany,
t
he
s
tudy
o
f
a
ncient
m
acroremains
s
uch
a
s

s
eeds
a
nd
c
haff,
l
argely
r
elies
o
n
t
he
f
act
t
hat
p
lant
m
aterial
c
harred
t
hrough
c
ontact
w
ith


re
i
s
i
nert
t
o
b
iological
p
rocesses.
W
hen
a
ncient
c
ooking
m
ethods
e
xposed
d
ense
f
ood
i
tems
t
o

b
urning,
p
lant
r
emains
c
an
b
e
a
bundant.
S
appy,
l
eafy,
a
nd
w
ater-rich
p
lant
f
oods
a
re
r
arely
r
ecovered

a
rchaeologi-
cally.

W
here
a
rchaeological
r
esearch
h
as
i
ncorporated
t
he
s
tudy
o
f
a
ncient
p
lant
a
nd
a
nimal
r
emains,

f
ood
r
esources
a
re
o
ften
w
ell
u
nderstood.
M
ore
c
hallenging
b
y
f
ar
i
s
t
he
r
ecovery,
r
ecognition,
a
nd

a
nalysis
o
f
p
repared
f
oods.
E
ven
h
ere,
i
mproved
a
wareness
a
nd
t
he
d
evelopment
o
f
n
ew
t
echniques
h
ave

a
llowed
a
rchaeologists
t
o
i
nvestigate food preparation, including ancient fermentation.
The

a
ntiquity
o
f
C
hinese
f
oods
a
nd
c
uisines
h
as
b
een
d
ocumented
b
y

s
everal
h
is-
torians

s
ince
4
000
B
C
b
ased
o
n
h
istorical
e
vidence
(
Lee
1
984,
Y
oon
1
993,
H
uang

2
000).
I
ndian
f
oods
h
ave
b
een
w
ell
d
ocumented
f
rom
b
efore
3
000
B
C
b
ased
o
n
h
istorical
d
ocuments

a
nd
a
rchaeological
e
vidence
(
Yegna
N
arayan
A
iyar
1
953,
P
rajapati
a
nd
N
air
2
003).
T
he
a
ncient
h
istorical
m
onuments

o
f
N
epal
i
ndicate
t
hat
t
he
H
imalayan
e
thnic
f
oods
h
ave
b
een
c
onsumed
i
n
t
he
r
egion
f
or

m
ore
t
han
2
500
y
ears
(
Tamang
2
010).
A
ncient
C
hinese
b
ooks
s
uch
a
s
J
eijeon
w
ritten
b
y
Y
angseu

a
nd
D
ongijeon
w
ritten
b
y
N
amsa
d
escribed
h
ow
t
he
K
okurye
p
eople,
t
he
K
oreans’
a
ncestors
(
37
B
C–AD

6
68),
d
eveloped
v
arious
f
ermented
f
oods
s
uch
a
s
f
ermented
s
oybeans, vegetables, sh, and alcoholic beverages (Kim 1997).
8 Fermented Foods and Beverages of the World
In
t
he
a
ncient
N
ear
E
ast,
t
he

e
arliest
h
istorical
S
umerians
a
nd
E
gyptian
c
ultures
g
enerally
d
id
n
ot
r
ecord
c
ooking
m
ethods,
b
ut
s
ome
c
lues

c
an
b
e
g
leaned
f
rom
w
rit-
ten

r
ecords.
I
n
s
ome
c
ases,
a
rchaeology
i
s
a
ble
t
o
p
rovide

n
ew
d
ata
a
bout
a
ncient
f
ood
p
ractices.
E
uropean
h
istorical
d
ocuments
p
ertaining
t
o
f
ood
p
ractices
g
enerally
s
tart

w
ith
t
he
R
omans.
A
s
a

r
esult,
w
riters
s
uch
a
s
P
liny
c
an
b
e
h
eavily
a
nd
p
erhaps

i
nappropriately
r
elied
u
pon
f
or
i
nsights,
w
hen
t
he
c
ultural
p
ractices
o
f
i
nterest
w
ere
n
ot
r
elated
t
o

t
he
R
oman
w
orld.
P
ast
f
ood
c
ultural
p
ractices
i
n
r
egions
s
uch
a
s
A
frica
a
nd
S
outh
A
merica

a
re
p
oorly
d
ocumented
o
r
h
ave
o
nly
r
ecently
b
een
r
ecorded.
F
or
e
xample,
n
orthern
a
nd
w
estern
A
frican

t
raditions
w
ere
r
ecorded
f
rom
t
he
e
ighth
c
en-
tury

o
nward
b
y
A
rab
t
ravelers,
w
hen
f
ermented
f
oods

w
ere
s
taples
i
n
t
he
A
frican
d
iet,
b
ut
e
lsewhere
t
raditions
w
ere
n
ot
r
ecorded
u
ntil
m
uch
l
ater

(
Odunfa
1
988).
T
hese
r
egions
r
etain
a

r
ich
t
raditional
c
uisine
u
p
t
o
t
he
p
resent
d
ay,
p
articularly

i
n
m
ore
r
ural
a
reas,
w
here
d
omestic
f
ermented
a
nd
ot
her
f
oods
a
re
o
ften
p
repared
a
s
t
hey

h
ave
a
lways
b
een.
T
he
r
ich
d
ietary
c
ulture
a
nd
t
he
h
istory
o
f
d
iverse
e
thnic,
f
ermented
f
oods

a
nd
b
everages
o
f
t
he
H
imalayas
h
ave
b
een
r
ecently
d
ocumented
b
y
T
amang
(
2010);
ot
herwise
s
uch
i
mportant

i
nformation
w
as
u
nknown
t
o
r
est
o
f
t
he
w
orld.
T
he
n
ative
s
kills
o
f
f
ood
f
ermentation
h
ave

b
een
p
assed
f
rom
m
others
t
o
d
aughters,
a
nd
f
athers
t
o
s
ons
t
hrough
t
he
t
raditional
k
nowledge
o
f

e
lders;
w
hich
i
nclude
g
randmothers/grandfathers,
m
others/fathers,
a
nd
v
illage
e
lders;
s
elf
p
ractice,
f
amily;
c
ommunity;
a
nd
n
eighbors.
A
lthough

t
his
c
hapter
i
s
n
ot
c
omprehensive,
i
t
a
ims
t
o
d
ocument
a

g
lobal
o
verview
o
f
a
ncient
a
nd

t
raditional
c
ultural
a
spects
o
f
e
thnic, fermented foods and beverages.
1.3.1  Fermented Vegetables
Traditional techniques of fermentation or pickling vegetables seem to have developed
i
ndependently,
f
or
e
xample,
i
n
A
sia
(
Pederson
1
979),
t
he
M
editerranean

(
Hulse
2
004),
a
nd
p
ossibly
i
n
E
urope.
T
he
p
roduct
w
e
k
now
t
oday
a
s
s
auerkraut
i
s
a

E
uropean
f
ood-
stuff

m
ade
f
rom
d
ry,
s
alted
c
abbage.
T
he
p
rocess
e
volved
o
ver
t
ime,
a
nd
w
as

n
ot
f
ully
d
eveloped
i
n
i
ts
p
resent
f
orm
u
ntil
t
he
s
eventeenth
c
entury.
S
auerkraut
o
r
s
auerkohl
i
s

a

G
erman
w
ord
m
eaning
s
our
c
abbage,
w
hich
i
s
g
enerally
p
repared
f
rom
s
hred-
ded

w
hite
c
abbage

t
hrough
s
pontaneous
l
actobacilli
f
ermentation
(
Steinkraus
1
983).
I
t
c
an
b
e
m
arkedly
a
cidic
i
f
t
he
s
alt
c
oncentration

o
r
t
he
f
ermentation
t
emperature
i
s
h
igher
t
han
u
sual
(
Pederson
a
nd
A
lbury
1
969).
A
lthough
s
auerkraut
f
ermentation

i
s
g
enerally
t
hought
t
o
h
ave
s
tarted
i
n
G
ermany
o
r
N
orth
E
urope,
o
ne
h
istorian
s
ug-
gests

t
his
m
ethod
o
f
p
reserving
v
egetables
o
riginated
i
n
C
hina
a
nd
w
as
b
rought
i
nto
E
astern Europe by the Tartars (Toomre 1992).
The


rst

d
escription
o
f
a

n
aturally
a
cidied
p
roduct,
s
auerkraut,
o
r
c
houcroute
i
n
F
rench,
c
an
b
e
f
ound
i
n

L
e Tresor de santi
(
1607),
w
hich
d
escribes
i
t
a
s
a

G
erman
p
roduct
(
Davidson
1
999).
S
auerkraut
w
as
t
raditionally
v
ery

p
opular
i
n
P
oland
a
nd
r
emains
s
o
t
oday
(
Kowalska-Lewicka
1
988).
V
alued
n
ot
o
nly
f
or
p
reserving
f
resh

v
egetables,
t
his
f
ermentation
t
echnique
w
as
i
mportant
a
s
i
t
p
rovided
a
n
i
ntense

avor
t
o
a

l
argely

b
land
d
iet.
L
arge-scale
p
roduction
w
as
c
arried
o
ut
i
n
s
pecial
p
its
l
ined
w
ith
w
ooden
p
lanks,
o
r

i
n
b
arrels.
T
he

avor
c
ould
b
e
v
aried
t
hrough
v
arious
a
ddi-
tives.

F
or
e
xample,
ot
herwise
i
nedible

ap
ples,
o
r
s
ometimes
p
ears,
w
ere
i
ncluded,
o
r
h
erbs
s
uch
a
s
c
araway
s
eeds
o
r
d
ill
w
ere

l
ayered
w
ith
t
he
c
abbage.
E
ven
o
ak
o
r
c
herry
l
eaves
w
ere
s
ometimes
u
sed.
O
ther
v
egetables
a
re

a
lso
t
raditionally
f
ermented
i
n
E
urope,
i
ncluding
o
nions,
c
ucumbers,
a
nd
b
eets.
I
n
t
he
p
ast,
e
dible
m
ushrooms

w
ere
Dietary Cultures and Antiquity ofFermented Foods and Beverages 9
very
c
ommonly
p
ickled
a
nd
w
ere
e
steemed
i
n
P
oland.
I
n
p
ast
c
enturies,
b
arrelsful
w
ere
p
repared

by

villagers

for

their

landlords.

This

food

is

now

rare

because

wild
m
ushrooms have become scarce (Kowalska-Lewicka 1988).
Olives

a
re

n
ative
t
o
t
he
e
astern
M
editerranean.
T
he
p
recise
d
ate
a
nd
p
lace
o
f
o
live
d
omestication
i
s
u
nknown,

b
ut
e
arly
t
o
l
ate
f
ourth
m
illennium
s
ites
e
xcavated
i
n
t
he
J
ordan
V
alley
s
how
e
vidence
o
f

o
live
u
se.
T
he
b
eginnings
o
f
o
live
f
ruit
p
reservation
a
re
u
nknown,
a
nd
m
ay
b
e
d
ifcult
t
o

e
stablish.
C
ertainly,
b
y
R
oman
t
imes,
o
lives
w
ere
p
reserved
b
y
v
arious
m
ethods,
a
s
d
escribed
b
y
C
olumella

a
nd
ot
her
R
oman
au
thors
(
Sealey
a
nd
T
yers
1
989).
T
hat
o
lives
w
ere
w
idely
t
raded
i
s
a
ttested

b
y
t
he
o
ccasional

nds
o
f
p
ottery
j
ars

lled
w
ith
o
live
s
tones
f
ound
o
n
R
oman
s
hipwrecks,

a
nd,
u
nusually,
f
rom
a

R
oman-period
S
panish
j
ar
d
ated
b
etween
A
D
5
0
a
nd
1
50
d
redged
u
p

f
rom
a

s
and
b
ank
o
n
t
he
T
hames
e
stuary
(
Sealey
a
nd
T
yers
1
989).
N
ot
a
ll
o
live

f
ruits
a
re
p
reserved
b
y
f
ermentation,
b
ut
o
lives
r
equire
s
ome
f
orm
o
f
p
rocessing
b
ecause the bitter glucoside, oleuropein, renders the raw fruit inedible.
In

S
pain,

o
lives
w
ere
w
idely
p
rocessed
b
y
h
and
f
or
h
ome
u
se,
u
sing
m
ethods
a
nd
i
ngredients
t
ypical
f
or

e
ach
r
egion
(
March
a
nd
R
ios
1
988).
T
his
t
raditional
k
nowl-
edge

i
ncludes
s
easoning
i
ngredients,
p
recise
t
imings

f
or
e
ach
s
tage
o
f
t
he
p
rocessing,
a
nd
u
sing
s
pecic
c
ontainers.
O
nly
g
reen
o
lives
a
re
f
ermented.

T
he
o
ptimum
s
alt
c
oncentration
i
s
d
etermined
b
y
d
issolving
c
oarse
s
alt
i
n
w
ater
a
nd
p
lacing
a
n

e
gg
i
n
t
he
b
rine.
W
hen
t
he
n
arrow
en
d
o
f
t
he
e
gg

oats
u
ppermost,
t
he
s
alt

c
oncentration
i
s
c
orrect.
D
uring
t
he
t
ime
t
he
o
lives
a
re
f
ermented
i
n
t
he
b
rine,

avoring
a
gents

s
uch
a
s
h
erbs,
l
emon,
a
nd
g
arlic
a
re
a
dded,
a
ccording
t
o
t
raditional
r
egional
a
nd
f
amily
r
ecipes.

T
he
o
lives
m
ay
b
e
r
eady
i
n
a
s
l
ittle
a
s
1
0
d
ays
o
r
t
ake
a
s
l
ong

a
s
9

m
onths
t
o
m
ature.
O
lives
a
re
a

s
ymbol
o
f
h
ospitality
i
n
S
pain
a
nd
i
n

r
ural
a
reas
a
re
o
ffered
t
o
g
uests upon their arrival.
In

C
hina,
t
he
l
aborers
en
gaged
i
n
t
he
c
onstruction
o
f

t
he
G
reat
W
all
i
n
t
he
t
hird
c
entury
B
C
a
te
a
cid-fermented
m
ixed
v
egetables
(
Pederson
1
979).
O
ne

o
f
t
he
m
ost
i
mportant
e
arly
s
ources
o
f
i
nformation
a
bout
a
ncient
C
hinese
a
griculture
a
nd
c
ook-
ing

i
s
t
he
t
ext
C
hhi Min Yao Shu
(
Essential
A
rts
f
or
t
he
P
eople’s
W
elfare)
(
Sabban
1
988,
H
uang
2
000).
I
t

w
as
w
ritten
b
etween
A
D
5
33
a
nd
54
4
b
y
C
hia
S
su-Hsieh,
a

m
iddle-ranking
o
fcial
i
n
n
orthern

C
hina,
a
nd
c
ontains
s
ome
o
f
t
he
m
ost
c
omprehen-
sive

a
nd
d
etailed
d
escriptions
o
f
c
ulinary
p
rocesses.

T
his
t
ext
d
etails
i
ngredients
a
nd
p
rovides
4
1
r
ecipes
f
or
t
he
p
reparation
o
f
v
egetables
p
ickled
i
n

s
alt,
o
r
s
alt
a
nd
v
in-
egar.

A
mongst
t
he
v
egetables
p
reserved
i
n
t
his
w
ay
w
ere
C
hinese

c
abbage,
m
allow,
a
nd
m
ustard
g
reens.
S
ome
f
ruits
w
ere
a
lso
p
ickled,
s
uch
a
s
m
elons
a
nd
p
ears.

B
y
t
he
t
ime
o
f
t
he
S
ong
d
ynasty
(
960–1279),
s
ophisticated
t
echniques
f
or
p
ickling
v
egetables
w
ere well established and have remained more or less the same to the present day.
Salted

a
nd
p
reserved
v
egetables
h
ave
b
een
c
onsumed
i
n
K
orea
s
ince
2
000
y
ears
(
Kim
1
997).
T
he
a
ntiquity

o
f
k
imchi
p
rocessing
i
n
K
orea
c
an
b
e
t
raced
b
ack
t
o
A
D
3
–4
(
Chang
1
975).
T
he

w
ord
k
imchi
o
riginated
f
rom
c
himchae,
m
eaning
p
ickled
v
egetables
w
ith
s
alt
i
n
C
hinese
(
Park
a
nd
R
hee

2
005).
O
ne
o
f
t
he
h
istorical
d
ocu-
ments

f
rom
K
orea,
S
amkuksaki
(
published
i
n
A
D
1
145),
i
ndicated

t
hat
f
ermented
v
egetables
w
ere
p
repared
u
sing
s
tone
p
ickle
j
ars
i
n
t
he
B
upju
t
emple
a
t
M
t.

S
okri
d
uring
t
he
S
hinla
d
ynasty
(
AD
7
20)
(
Cheigh
2
002).
T
he
d
escription
o
f
k
imchi
p
repa-
ration

f
rom
t
urnip
b
y
a
dding
s
alt
w
as
f
ound
i
n
a
n
a
ncient
K
orean
h
istorical
d
ocu-
ment,

D
ongkukisangkukjip,

w
ritten
b
y
L
ee
K
yubo
d
uring
A
D
1
168–1241
(
Cheigh
2
002).
U
se
o
f
g
arlic,
C
hinese
p
epper,
g
inger,

a
nd
t
angerine
p
eels
d
uring
t
he
p
repa-
ration

o
f
k
imchi
i
s
m
entioned
i
n
t
his
h
istorical
d
ocument.

O
ne
o
f
t
he
o
ldest
K
orean
10 Fermented Foods and Beverages of the World
cookbooks,
U
msikdimibang,
w
ritten
b
y
C
hang
(
AD
1
598–1680),
d
escribed
t
he
p
rocess-

ing
m
ethods
o
f
s
even
t
ypes
o
f
v
egetable
p
ickles.
T
he
m
ost
i
mportant
c
lassic
l
iterature
c
oncerning
k
imchi
p

rocessing
i
s
I
mwonsibyukji,
w
ritten
b
y
S
uh
Y
u-Geo
(
1764–1845).
K
yuhapchongseo
w
ritten
b
y
L
ee
(
1759–1829)
d
escribed
i
n
d

etail
t
he
p
rocessing
m
eth-
ods

o
f
t
hree
t
ypes
o
f
k
imchi
i
ncluding
s
ukbakji.
B
aechu
(
Chinese
c
abbage)
a

nd
w
hite
r
adish
b
ecame
t
he
m
ain
i
ngredients
o
f
k
imchi
a
fter
A
D
1
600
d
uring
t
he
m
id-Chosun
d

ynasty.
J
ibongyusol
(
AD
1
613)
s
howed
t
he

rst
r
ecords
o
f
r
ed
p
eppers,
a
nd
t
heir
u
se
i
n
k

imchi
p
reparation
w
as
r
ecorded
i
n
S
allimkyongje
i
n
A
D
1
715
(
Cheigh
2
002).
R
ed
p
epper
w
as
i
ntroduced
t

o
K
orea
i
n
t
he
A
D
s
eventeenth
c
entury
w
hen
t
he
s
alt
s
tocks
w
ere
i
n
s
hort
s
upply
(

Park
a
nd
R
hee
2
005).
T
he
a
ddition
o
f
r
ed
p
epper
d
ur-
ing

k
imchi
p
reparation
p
rovided
a

h

armonious
t
aste,
g
ood
c
olor,
a
nd
a
ntimicrobial
a
ctivity
(
Cheigh
a
nd
P
ark
1
994).
K
oreans
b
elieve
t
hat
r
ed
c

olor
d
ue
t
o
t
he
a
ddition
o
f
r
ed
p
epper
c
ould
p
rotect
t
hem
f
rom
e
vil
s
pirits
(
Lee
a

nd
K
won
2
005).
R
adish
a
nd
c
ucumber
w
ere
t
he
m
ost
i
mportant
i
ngredients
f
or
k
imchi
m
aking
u
ntil
t

he
n
ineteenth
c
entury,
s
ince
K
orean
c
abbage
w
as
n
ot
a
vailable
t
hen
(
Lee
1
994).
T
he
n
umber
o
f
k

imchi
v
arieties
i
ncreased
r
emarkably
f
rom
1
1
t
o
3
6,
i
n
t
he
c
ourse
o
f
i
ts
2
00
y
ear
e

volution
(
Lee
1
994).
I
n
m
odern
K
orea,
b
aechu-kimchi,
m
ade
f
rom
K
orean
c
abbage,
i
s
t
he
m
ost
i
mportant
v

ariety,
f
ollowed
b
y
k
kakdugi
a
nd
d
ongchimi kimchi,
m
ade
f
rom
r
adish
(
Yu
a
nd
C
hung
1
974,
P
ark
a
nd
R

hee
2
005).
K
imchi
h
as
a

u
nique
s
our
a
nd
c
arbonated taste and is traditionally served cold (Mheen et al. 1981).
In

t
he
H
imalayas,
f
ermented
v
egetables
s
uch
a

s
g
undruk,
s
inki,
a
nd
g
oyang
h
ave
c
ultural
s
ignicance
f
or
N
epalis.
A
n
o
ral
h
istory
o
n
t
he
i

nvention
o
f
g
undruk
a
nd
s
inki
h
as
b
een
d
ocumented
i
n
d
etail
b
y
T
amang
(
2010).
I
n
a
ncient
N

epal,
f
armers
w
ere
f
orced
t
o

ee
v
illages
d
ue
t
o
w
ar,
l
eaving
t
heir
a
gricultural
l
ands
c
ultivated
w

ith
p
lenty
o
f
l
eafy
v
egetables,
r
adish,
a
nd
p
addy.
H
owever,
a

w
ise
k
ing
a
t
t
hat
t
ime
t

hought
o
f
p
reserving
f
ood
s
tocks
f
or
h
is
s
oldiers
a
nd
f
armers
o
n
r
eturn
a
nd
o
f
d
epriv-
ing

f
ood
t
o
t
he
en
emy.
T
he
k
ing
o
rdered
h
is
s
ubjects
t
o
c
ut
r
ipening
p
addy
a
nd
u

proot
r
adish
c
rop
f
rom
t
he

elds
a
nd
d
irected
t
hem
t
o
d
ig
p
its,
m
ake
b
eds
o
f
h

ay,
a
nd
b
ury
t
he
p
rematurely
h
arvested
c
rops
i
n
s
eparate
p
its
b
y
c
overing
t
hem
w
ith
h
ay
a

nd
m
ud.
T
he
f
armers
a
nd
s
oldiers
d
ug
t
he
p
its
a
nd
b
uried
a
ll
t
he
a
gricultural
p
roducts
i

ncluding
r
adish,
l
eafy
v
egetables,
a
nd
p
addy
a
nd
w
hatever
t
hey
c
ould
h
ide
f
rom
t
he
a
ttackers.
T
he
k

ing
a
nd
h
is
s
ubjects
r
eturned
t
o
t
heir
h
omes
a
fter
a

f
ew
m
onths,
a
nd
d
ug
o
ut
t

he
p
its
w
here
p
addy
w
as
b
uried;
h
owever,
t
he
r
ice
o
btained
f
rom
t
he
p
addy
w
as
s
tinky
w

hile
t
he
r
adish
a
nd
l
eafy
v
egetables
h
ad
d
eveloped
a

a
cidic
a
nd
s
our
t
aste,
w
hich
w
as
d

ifferent
f
rom
t
hat
o
f
f
resh
v
egetables.
L
arge
a
mounts
o
f
a
cidied
v
egetables,
a
fter
t
heir
r
emoval
f
rom
t

he
p
its,
l
ay
o
n
t
he

elds
i
n
t
he
o
pen.
S
omehow
a
fter
a

f
ew
d
ays,
t
he
f

reshly
f
ermented
v
egetables
w
ere
s
un
d
ried
a
nd
w
ere
f
ully
p
re-
served.

P
eople
l
iked
t
he
a
cidic
t

aste
a
nd

avor
a
nd
t
ermed
t
hese
p
roducts
a
s
g
undruk
(
leafy
v
egetables)
a
nd
s
inki
(
radish
t
ap
r

oots).
T
hey
m
ade
t
he
p
roducts
i
nto
s
oups
a
nd
p
ickles
u
sing
t
heir
c
ulinary
s
kills.
T
he
w
ord
g

undruk
m
ight
h
ave
o
riginated
f
rom
t
he
N
ewar
(
one
o
f
t
he
m
ajor
e
thnic
g
roups
o
f
N
epal)
w

ord
g
unnu,
m
eaning
d
ried
t
aro
s
talk
(
Tamang
2
010).
T
he
i
nvention
o
f
t
he
p
it
f
ermentation
m
ethod
f

or
t
he
a
cidica-
tion

a
nd
p
reservation
o
f
p
erishable
v
egetables
i
s
u
nique
t
o
t
he
H
imalayas.
U
nlike
t

he
K
orean
k
imchi,
t
he
C
hinese
s
uan cai,
t
he
J
apanese
s
unki,
t
he
I
ndonesian
s
ayur
asin,

a
nd
t
he
G

erman
s
auerkraut,
g
undruk
a
nd
s
inki
a
re
d
ried
a
cidied
p
roducts.
F
resh,
w
et
f
ermented
v
egetables
a
re
r
arely
o

r
n
ot
e
aten
b
y
N
epalis.
S
un
d
rying
o
f
f
reshly
p
repared
g
undruk
a
nd
s
inki
i
s
a

t

raditional
p
reservation
m
ethod
b
y
w
hich
t
he
s
helf
l
ife
o
f
t
he
p
roducts
i
s
p
rolonged.
D
ry,
f
ermented
v

egetables
a
re
c
omparatively
Dietary Cultures and Antiquity ofFermented Foods and Beverages 11
lighter
t
han
f
resh substrates
a
nd
c
an,
t
herefore,
b
e
c
arried
e
asily while
t
raveling long
d
istances
i
n
t

he
d
ifcult
t
errains
o
f
t
he
H
imalayas.
T
he
m
ountain
p
eople
o
f
N
epal
m
ight
h
ave
i
ncluded
t
he
e

xtra
t
echnique
o
f
s
un
d
rying
e
ven
a
fter
t
he
c
ompletion
o
f
t
he
f
ermentation
o
f
p
erishable
v
egetables
s

o
t
hat
t
hey
c
ould
f
eed
t
hemselves
d
uring
t
he
s
carcity of vegetables during long monsoons (rainy season) in the Himalayas.
Pickled
v
egetables
a
re
a
lso
c
onsumed
i
n
o
ther

p
arts
o
f
t
he
w
orld.
F
or
e
xample,
M
alaysians
p
ickle
f
oods
s
uch
a
s
c
ucumbers,
g
inger,
l
eeks,
c
hillies,

a
nd
b
amboo
s
hoots,
a
s
w
ell
a
s
u
nripe
f
ruits
i
ncluding
m
angoes,
p
apaya,
a
nd
l
ime
(
Merican
1
983).

I
n
t
he
N
ear
E
ast,
g
rape
l
eaves
a
re
p
reserved
b
y
p
ickling
i
n
b
rine.
T
he
s
alt
c
oncentration

i
s
a
djusted
i
n
t
he
s
ame
w
ay
a
s
t
he
b
rine
m
ade
f
or
o
live
m
aking
i
n
S
pain:

b
y

oating
a
n
e
gg
i
n
t
he
s
alt
s
olution
(
Dagher
1
991).
P
ickled
v
egetables
a
re
v
ery
p
opular

i
n
E
gypt,
w
here
l
arge
a
mounts
o
f
p
ickled
c
arrots,
c
ucumber,
t
urnips,
c
auliowers,
a
nd
o
ther
v
egetables
a
re

c
onsumed
(
Mahmoud
e
t
a
l.
1
972).
I
t
i
s
p
robable
t
hat
t
he
p
ractice
o
f
p
ickling
i
n
t
hese

c
ountries
w
as
i
mported
f
rom
e
arlier
t
imes.
T
he
A
frican
p
ractice
o
f
p
ickling
s
eeds
i
s
l
ikely
a
n

i
ndigenous
p
ractice.
S
ome
e
xamples
o
f
p
ickled
W
est
A
frican
s
eeds
i
nclude
t
he
l
ocust
b
ean
(P
arkia biglobosa),
t
he

o
il
b
ean
(P
entacletha macrophylla),
a
nd
t
he
p
oi-
sonous
c
astor
o
il
s
eed
(R
icinus communis)
(
Odunfa
1
985).
T
he
l
atter
l

oses
i
ts
t
oxicity
d
uring
f
ermentation.
A v
ariety
o
f
l
ittle-known
v
egetable
f
ermentations
a
re
p
repared
b
y
d
ifferent
p
eoples
o

f
S
udan,
o
ften
a
s
a
ccompaniments,
f
amine
f
oods,
o
r
a
s
m
eat
s
ubsti-
tutes
f
or
t
he
v
ery
p
oor

(
Dirar
1
993).
Because

o
f
t
he
a
cidic
t
aste,
g
undruk,
s
inki,
k
imchi,
a
nd
s
auerkraut
h
ave
b
een
k
nown

f
rom
a
ncient
t
imes
a
s
g
ood
ap
petizers,
a
nd
p
eople
u
se
t
hese
f
oods
a
s
a

r
emedy
f
or

i
ndigestion.
G
undruk
a
nd
s
inki
s
ignify
t
he
f
ood
c
ulture
o
f
e
very
N
epali
a
cross
t
he
w
orld.
K
imchi

i
s
e
aten
o
n
e
very
s
ocial
a
nd
r
eligious
o
ccasion
b
y
K
oreans,
w
hich
s
ig-
nies

i
ts
i
mportance

a
s
a

c
ultural
o
r
h
eritage
f
ood.
A

C
hinese
m
eal
m
ay
b
e
i
ncomplete
w
ithout
s
uan cai
a
s

a

s
ide
d
ish,
a
nd
i
s
c
onsumed
o
n
a
ll
s
ocial
o
ccasions
a
s
a

c
ultural
f
ood.
S
everal

e
thnic,
f
ermented
b
amboo
s
hoot
p
roducts
a
re
p
referred
d
uring
s
ocial
a
nd
r
eligious
c
eremonies
b
y
e
thnic
I
ndian

p
eople
s
uch
a
s
t
he
M
eitis
o
f
M
anipur,
t
he
N
agas
o
f
N
agland,
t
he
A
patanis
o
f
A
runachal

P
radesh,
a
nd
a
lso
b
y
T
hais
a
nd
M
alays.
1.3.2  Fermented Soybeans and Non-Soybean Legumes
Wild soybeans may have rst been domesticated in the eastern half of North China
a
round
e
leventh
c
entury
B
C
d
uring
t
he
S
hang

d
ynasty
(
ca.
1
700–1100
B
C),
o
r
p
er-
haps

e
arlier
(
Singh
a
nd
H
ymowitz
1
999).
T
his
a
rea
i
s

g
enerally
c
onsidered
t
he
p
ri-
mary

s
oybean
g
ene
p
ool
(
Hymowitz
1
970).
T
he
s
pread
o
f
s
oybeans
f
rom

t
he
p
rimary
g
ene
p
ool
t
o
c
entral
a
nd
s
outh
C
hina
a
nd
p
eninsular
K
orea
p
erhaps
t
ook
p
lace

d
ur-
ing

t
he
e
xpansion
o
f
t
he
Z
hou
d
ynasty
(
rst
m
illennium
B
C),
a
nd
h
ad
h
appened
b
y

t
he
A
D

rst
c
entury.
S
oybean
t
hen
s
pread
t
o
J
apan,
a
nd
t
hroughout
S
outheast
A
sia
a
nd
n
orthern

I
ndia
o
ver
t
he
c
ourse
o
f
t
he
s
ucceeding
c
enturies.
I
n
t
hese
n
ew
a
reas,
l
andraces
w
ere
e
stablished,

w
hich
c
reated
a

s
econdary
c
enter
o
f
d
iversication
f
or
s
oybeans
(
Hymowitz
1
990).
T
he
t
ransformation
o
f
s
oybean

c
uisines
f
rom
C
hina
w
as
m
ostly
b
ecause
o
f
t
he
m
igration
o
f
s
ome
e
thnic
C
hinese
t
o
ot
her

c
ountries
a
nd
t
he
r
apid
a
cceptance
o
f
s
oybeans
a
s
a

c
ultural
f
ood
b
y
n
on-Chinese
c
ommunities.
N
ew

e
vidence
h
as
v
ery
r
ecently
e
merged
s
uggesting
m
ore
c
omplex
s
oybean
o
rigins,
b
ut
t
his has yet to be fully published.
In
C
hina,
c
hi
(s

hi)
a
nd
j
iang
(c
hiang),
t
he
t
wo
ma
jor
t
ypes
o
f
f
ermented
p
rotein-
based
f
oods,
h
ave
b
een
p
opular

s
ince
2
000
(
Bo
1
982a,
1
984a).
C
hi
r
efers
t
o
12 Fermented Foods and Beverages of the World
exclusively
s
oybean-based
f
oods
c
ultured
w
ith
m
icroorganisms,
w
hile

j
iang
r
efers
t
o
p
roteinaceous
p
lant
o
r
a
nimal
f
oods
m
ixed
w
ith
m
old-cultured
c
ereals
o
r
c
hu
a
nd

s
alt
(
Bo
1
982b,
1
984b,
S
abban
1
988).
T
he
m
ost
p
opular
s
easoning
w
as
c
hi,
k
nown
a
s
d
ouchi,

w
hich
w
as
n
ext
t
o
s
alt
u
se
i
n
C
hina
a
nd
w
hich
w
as
m
entioned
i
n
a
n
a
ncient

C
hinese
h
istorical
d
ocument
c
alled
S
hi-ji
w
ritten
b
y
S
i-Ma-Qian
i
n
s
econd
c
entury
B
C
(
Wang
a
nd
S
uang

1
986).
T
he
p
reparation
o
f
3

d
ifferent
t
ypes
o
f
c
hi
a
nd
1
4
j
iang
r
ecipes
i
s
d
escribed

i
n
d
etail
i
n
a

A
D
s
ixth
c
entury
b
ook
C
hii Min Yao Shu
(
Sabban
1
988,
Y
okotsuka
1
991a).
T
oday,
s
oy

s
auce
i
s
a
n
i
ntegral
p
art
o
f
C
hinese
c
ooking,
b
ut
i
t
w
as
n
ot
a
n
a
ncient
a
nd

d
eliberate
p
reparation.
I
t
d
eveloped
a
s
a

b
y-product
o
f
s
ome
j
iang
r
elishes,
a
nd
d
id
n
ot
b
ecome

o
f
c
ulinary
i
mportance
u
ntil
t
he
S
ung
d
ynasty
(
960–1279) (Sabban 1988).
Although

J
apanese
c
uisine
w
as
h
eavily
i
nuenced
b
y

C
hinese
c
ultural
i
nter-
changes,

t
he
p
reparation
o
f
f
ermented
s
avory
s
auces
m
ade
f
rom
p
ickled

sh,
s
hellsh,

a
nd
m
eat
(h
ishio)
w
as
p
robably
a
n
e
arlier,
i
ndependent
J
apanese
d
evelopment
(
Huang
2
000).
T
he
T
aiho
L
aws

o
f
J
apan,
en
forced
i
n
A
D
7
01,
m
ention
a
n
I
mperial
c
ourt
t
hat
d
ealt
w
ith
s
everal
f
ermented

s
oybean
f
oods
i
ncluding
d
ouchi,
m
iso,
a
nd
j
iang
o
r
h
ishio
(
Yokotsuka
1
991b).
A
ccording
t
o
t
he
b
ook

E
ngishiki
(
AD
9
06),
3
60mL
o
f
d
oujiang
a
nd
1
80
m
L
o
f
d
ouchi
c
onstituted
a

p
art
o
f

t
he
m
onthly
a
llowance
s
up-
plied

t
o
g
overnment
o
fcials
a
long
w
ith
r
ice,
s
oybeans,
a
nd
r
ed
b
eans,

a
mong
ot
hers
(
Yokotsuka
1
991b).
S
alted
d
ouchi
h
as
i
ts
o
rigins
i
n
c
entral
J
apan
a
nd
i
s
k
nown

b
y
d
ifferent
n
ames
s
uch
a
s
h
ama-natto
a
nd
d
aitokuji-natto;
i
n
T
aiwan
i
t
i
s
k
nown
a
s
i
n-si (Yokotsuka 1991b).

Many

h
istorians
c
laim
t
hat
t
he
e
thnic,
f
ermented
s
oybean
f
oods
o
f
A
sia
m
ight
h
ave
o
riginated
f
rom

d
ouchi
o
r
t
au-shi,
o
ne
o
f
t
he
o
ldest
e
thnic,
f
ermented
s
oybean
f
oods
o
f
C
hina
d
uring
t
he

H
an
d
ynasty
i
n
s
outhern
C
hina
a
round
2
06
B
C
(
Bo
1
984b,
Z
hang
a
nd
L
iu
2
000).
P
roduction

a
nd
c
onsumption
o
f
d
ouchi
e
xpanded
n
orthward
t
o
n
orth-
ern

C
hina,
w
estward
t
o
e
astern
N
epal,
s
outhward

t
o
I
ndonesia,
a
nd
e
astward
t
o
J
apan
d
uring
t
he
H
an
d
ynasty
(
Yoshida
1
993).
F
ermentation
o
f
s
oybeans

i
nto
v
arious
f
ood
p
roducts
m
ight
h
ave
o
riginated
o
nly
a
fter
e
leventh
c
entury
B
C.
N
atto,
a

f
ermented,

s
ticky
s
oybean,
w
as
i
ntroduced
t
o
J
apan
f
rom
C
hina
b
y
B
uddhist
p
riests
d
uring
t
he
N
ara period around AD 710–794 (Ito et al. 1996, Kiuchi 2001).
The

p
roduction
o
f
s
hoyu
a
nd
m
iso
i
n
C
hina
w
as
r
ecorded
a
round
1
000
B
C,
w
ith
t
he
t
ransfer

o
f
t
he
i
ndigenous
k
nowledge
t
o
J
apan
h
appening
a
t
a
round
A
D
6
00
(
Yokotsuka
1
985).
T
he
k
anji

s
cript
c
ombination
u
sed
f
or
t
he
w
ord
s
hoyu
(
soy
s
auce)
i
s
s
aid
t
o
h
ave

rst
ap
peared

i
n
J
apan
d
uring
t
he
m
id-Muromachi
p
eriod
(
AD
1
336–1573);
h
owever,
t
he
m
ethod
o
f
p
reparation
o
f
s
hoyu

u
sing
s
oybeans
a
nd
w
heat
w
as
i
ntroduced
o
nly
d
uring
t
he
E
do
p
eriod
(
AD
1
603–1867)
(
Hamamo
2
001).

T
empe
m
ade
i
n
p
resent
d
ay
I
ndonesia
w
as
o
riginally
i
ntroduced
b
y
t
he
e
thnic
C
hinese
c
enturies
a
go

d
uring
t
he
r
apid
e
xpansion
o
f
t
rade
a
nd
a
lso
b
y
t
he
m
igration
o
f
p
eople
f
rom
m
ainland

C
hina.
T
he
e
arliest
r
ecord
o
f
t
he
w
ord
t
empe
c
an
b
e
f
ound
i
n
S
erat
Centini

(
around

A
D
1
815),
w
hich
i
ndicated
t
hat
t
empe
h
ad
b
een
p
roduced
i
n
e
arly
s
eventeenth
c
entury
i
n
I
ndonesia

(
Astuli
1
999).
K
inema,
a

f
ermented,
s
ticky
s
oybean
p
repared
b
y
K
irat
N
epalis,
m
ight
h
ave
o
riginated
i
n

e
ast
N
epal
a
round
6
00
B
C–AD
1
00
d
uring
t
he
K
irat
d
ynasty
(
Tamang
2
001b).
T
he
w
ord
k
inema

w
as
d
erived
f
rom
t
he
w
ord
k
inamba
o
f
t
he
L
imboo
l
anguage
o
f
t
he
K
irat
r
ace,
k
i

m
eaning
“
fermented”
a
nd namba meaning “avor” (Tamang 2010).
The

p
lasmid
f
rom
t
he
B
acillus subtilis
(n
atto)
s
train
r
esembles
t
hat
o
f
B
. subtilis
i
solated

f
rom
t
hua-nao
a
nd
k
inema
(
Hara
e
t
a
l.
1
995).
O
n
t
he
b
asis
o
f
p
hylogenetic
Dietary Cultures and Antiquity ofFermented Foods and Beverages 13
analysis,
s
imilarity

a
mong
s
trains
o
f
B
. subtilis
i
solated
f
rom
c
ommon
s
ticky,
f
er-
mented

s
oybean
f
oods
o
f
A
sia
(k
inema,

n
atto,
a
nd
c
hungkokjang)
w
as
o
bserved
i
ndicating
t
hat
B
. subtilis
s
trains
m
ight
h
ave
o
riginated
f
rom
a c
ommon
s
tock

o
f
f
ermented
s
oybeans
(
Tamang
e
t
a
l.
2
002).
I
f
h
ypothetical
l
ines
a
re
d
rawn
o
n
a

m
ap,

t
he
l
ines
j
oin
i
n
t
he
f
orm
o
f
a

t
riangle,
t
he
l
ines
s
tarting
f
rom
J
apan
(n
atto);

t
ouch-
ing

K
orea
(c
hungkokjang);
S
outh
C
hina
(d
ouchi);
e
astern
N
epal,
D
arjeeling
h
ills,
S
ikkim,
a
nd
S
outh
B
hutan

(k
inema);
N
ortheast
I
ndia
(t
ungrymbai,
h
awaijar,
b
ekang,
a
akhone,
p
eruyaan);
M
yanmar
(p
epok);
n
orthern
T
hailand
(t
hua-nau);
a
nd
C
ambodia

(s
ieng).
T
amang
(
2010)
c
alls
t
his
h
ypothetical
t
riangle
a
s
t
he
“k
inema-natto-thua nao
t
riangle”
(
KNT
t
riangle)
b
ased
o
n

t
he
o
riginal
c
oncept
o
f
t
he
“n
atto
t
riangle”
p
ro-
posed

b
y
N
akao
(
1972).
W
ithin
t
he
p
roposed

K
NT-triangle-bound
c
ountries,
a

v
ariety
o
f
B
acillus-fermented
s
ticky
a
nd
n
onsalty
s
oybean
f
oods
a
re
c
onsumed
b
y
t
he

d
if-
ferent

e
thnic
t
ribes
i
n
J
apan,
K
orea,
s
outh
C
hina,
C
ambodia,
L
aos,
V
ietnam,
n
orth
T
hailand,
M
yanmar,

N
ortheast
I
ndia
a
nd
t
he
D
arjeeling
h
ills
i
n
I
ndia,
B
hutan,
a
nd
e
ast
N
epal).
T
he
p
roposed
K
NT

t
riangle
d
oes
n
ot
i
nclude
n
onsticky
a
nd
n
on-bacilli
f
ermented soybean products such as tempe, miso, sufu, shoyu, etc.
Fermented

s
ticky
s
oybean
c
ould
a
lso
h
ave
b
een

a
n
a
ccidental
d
iscovery.
C
ooked
s
oybeans
c
ould
h
ave
b
een
l
eftover
a
fter
a

m
eal
a
nd
t
he
n
ext

m
orning
v
iscous
s
tringy
t
hreads
t
hat
e
manated
a

t
ypical

avor
w
ere
n
oticed
o
n
t
he
c
ooked
b
eans.

P
eople
m
ight
h
ave
t
asted
t
his
p
roduct
a
nd
s
tarted
l
iking
i
ts

avor
a
nd
s
ticky
t
exture,
a
nd

n
amed
t
he
p
roduct
a
ccordingly.
Fu
rther
i
mprovements
t
o
t
he
p
roduction
a
nd
c
ulinary
p
ractices
o
ccurred
o
ver
a

p
eriod
o
f
t
ime,
d
epending
o
n
c
onsumers’
p
references.
I
t
h
as
b
een
o
bserved
t
hat
m
ildly
a
lkaline

avored

s
ticky
f
ermented
s
oybean
f
oods
a
re
p
opu-
lar

a
mong
t
he
M
ongolian-origin
r
aces.
T
his
m
ay
b
e
d
ue

t
o
d
evelopment
o
f
a

t
ypical

avor
c
alled
u
mami
(
Kawamura
a
nd
K
ara
1
987)
d
uring
t
he
p
roteolysis

o
f
s
oybean
p
roteins
t
o
a
mino
a
cids
d
uring
f
ermentation,
w
hich
en
riches
t
he
s
ensory
p
roperty
o
f
t
he

p
roduct.
U
mami-avored
p
roducts
a
re
p
opular
w
ith
t
he
M
ongolian
r
aces
a
ll
o
ver
t
he
w
orld.
N
on-Mongoloid-origin
I
ndians

d
o
n
ot
p
refer
s
oy
m
ilk
d
ue
t
o
i
ts
b
ean

avor
a
nd
a
lso
d
ue
t
o
c
ultural

a
cceptance
o
f
c
onsuming
a
nimal
m
ilk.
D
ue
t
o
t
he
p
ractice
o
f
u
sing
s
alt
a
nd
s
pices
w
hile

c
ooking,
s
easonings
l
ike
s
oy
s
auce
a
nd
M
SG
d
o
n
ot

nd
a

p
lace in Indian, Pakistani, Sri Lankan, Bengali, and Nepali cuisines.
Fermented

s
oybeans
a
re

p
repared
a
nd
c
onsumed
e
xclusively
b
y
t
he
M
ongolian
r
aces
m
ainly
i
n
S
outh,
N
orth,
a
nd
E
ast
A
sia.

T
hough
s
oybean
w
as
n
ot
g
rown
t
radi-
tionally

i
n
A
frica,
a

s
imilar
p
roduct
c
alled
d
awadawa
o
r

i
ru
o
r
s
umbara
i
s
p
repared
f
rom
w
ild
l
ocust
b
ean,
a
nd
i
s
t
he
m
ost
i
mportant
c
ondiment

o
f
W
est
a
nd
C
entral
A
frica.
T
he
b
ean
i
s
i
nedible
r
aw,
b
ut
p
rovides
a
n
i
mportant
s
ource

o
f
p
rotein,
e
spe-
cially

f
or
p
oor
f
amilies
w
ho
c
an
a
fford
l
ittle
m
eat
(
Odunfa
1
988).
T
empe

o
f
I
ndonesia
i
s now more popular in the Netherlands.
1.3.3  Fermented Cereals
The preeminent staple food of Europe, west Asia, and the Near East is bread; as such
i
t
i
s
d
eeply
e
mbedded
w
ith
s
ocial
a
nd
s
ymbolic
a
ctivities
(
Jaine
1
999).

B
read
i
s
a
n
i
mportant
p
art
o
f
t
he
d
iet
i
n
m
any
ot
her
c
ultures.
A
lthough
b
read
c
an

b
e
u
nleav-
ened—notably

d
ocumented
i
n
t
he
B
iblical
a
ccount
o
f
J
ews

eeing
E
gypt
(
Exodus
1
3:3–10)—most
t
ypes

o
f
b
read
a
re
l
eavened
w
ith
y
east
o
r
l
actobacilli
(
sourdough).
I
n
m
odern
t
imes,
g
luten-rich
g
rains
(
bread

w
heat,
T
riticum aestivum;
s
pelt
w
heat,
T
riticum spelta;
a
nd
r
ye,
S
ecale cereale)
a
re
o
ften
c
onsidered
e
ssential
f
or
s
atisfactory
14 Fermented Foods and Beverages of the World
baking.

T
he

rst
c
ereal
d
omesticates,
b
arley
(H
ordeum vulgare),
e
inkorn
(T
. mono-
coccum),

a
nd
e
specially
e
mmer
w
heat
(T
. dicoccum),
w
ere

a
lso
u
sed
f
or
b
read
m
aking
i
n
e
arlier
t
imes
d
espite
t
heir
l
ower
g
luten
c
ontent.
T
he
m
ention

o
f
b
read
i
n
t
he
B
ible
i
s
o
ne
i
ndication
o
f
t
he
a
ntiquity
o
f
b
aking,
b
ut
b
read

m
aking
g
oes
m
uch
f
urther
b
ack
i
n
t
ime
t
han
t
he
B
ronze
A
ge.
B
read
i
s
m
entioned
i
n

r
ation
l
ists
a
nd
o
fferings
t
o
d
eities
i
n
s
urviving
d
ocuments
f
rom
a
ncient
M
esopotamia
a
nd
E
gypt.
T
here

a
re
a
mple
a
rchaeological
r
emains
o
f
t
ools
a
nd
i
nstallations
t
hat
w
ere
u
sed
t
o
m
ake
b
read
i
n these ancient times. The origin of leavened bread is unknown, but is likely to have

a
risen
a
fter
t
he
d
omestication
o
f
c
ereals,
a
bout
1
0,000
y
ears
a
go,
b
ecause
b
read
m
ak-
ing

r
equires

a

s
ubstantial
q
uantity
o
f
g
rain.
P
rior
t
o
t
his,
p
eople
m
ay
h
ave
m
ade
a

t
ype
o
f

b
read
f
rom
a

v
ariety
o
f
s
tarch-rich
s
ources,
a
kin
t
o
t
he
c
ycad
“
loaves”
o
f
t
he
G
idjingalis

f
rom
n
orthern
A
ustralia
(
Jones
a
nd
M
eehan
1
989),
b
ut
t
his
i
s
a
n
u
nleav-
ened
food.
Although

m
any

a
rtifacts
a
ssociated
w
ith
c
ereal
p
rocessing
h
ave
b
een
r
ecovered
f
rom
a
rchaeological
s
ites
(
Curtis
2
001),
t
he
m
ost

d
irect
e
vidence
f
or
a
ncient
b
aking
a
re
p
reserved
b
read
l
oaves.
C
harred
a
ncient
l
oaves
o
r
l
oaf
f
ragments

a
re
e
xtremely
r
are,
b
ut
h
ave
b
een
f
ound
i
n
E
uropean
a
rchaeological
d
eposits.
F
inds
f
rom
s
uch
d
iverse

t
imes
a
nd
l
ocations
s
uch
a
s
N
eolithic
(
ca.
f
ourth
m
illennium
B
C)
S
wiss
l
ake
v
illages,
R
oman
P
ompeii,

a
nd
m
edieval
(
Viking)
S
wedish
g
raves
a
re
s
ummarized
i
n
S
amuel
(
2002),
a
nd
m
any
ot
her
a
ncient
b
reads

a
re
d
escribed
b
y
W
ähren
(
2000).
I
t
i
s
l
ikely
t
hat
s
ome
f
ragmented
s
pecimens
h
ave
b
een
l
ost

b
ecause
t
heir
t
rue
n
ature
w
as
u
nrecognized
a
t
t
he
t
ime
o
f
e
xcavation.
D
ue
t
o
t
he
a
rid

en
vironment
o
f
E
gypt
a
nd
t
he
p
ractice
o
f
i
nterring
f
ood
f
or
t
he
d
ead,
t
here
a
re
n
umerous

e
xamples
o
f
d
esiccated
a
ncient
E
gyptian
b
read
l
oaves
r
ecovered
f
rom
t
ombs,
a
nd
t
hese
a
re
n
ow
i
n

m
useums
t
hroughout the world (Samuel 2000).
Analysis

o
f
a
ncient
b
read
b
egan
e
arly
b
ut
w
as
s
poradic.
F
or
e
xample,
a

M
edieval

S
wedish
b
read
f
ragment
w
as
s
hown
t
o
c
onsist
o
f

eld
p
ea
a
nd
S
cots
P
ine
(P
inus
sylvestris)

i
nner
b
ark—a
c
ombination
n
ot
n
ormally
a
ssociated
w
ith
b
read
m
aking
(
Rosendahl
1
912).
T
he
u
se
o
f
S
cots

P
ine
i
nner
b
ark
a
s
a

b
read
i
ngredient
a
mong
t
he
M
edieval
V
ikings
w
as
l
ater
c
onrmed
b
y

t
he
w
ork
o
f
H
ansson
(
1995).
M
ore
r
ecently,
a
nalyses
o
f
b
read
h
ave
w
idened,
e
specially
t
hat
o
f

t
he
m
agisterial
r
esearch
u
nder-
taken
by Währen (2000).
Ancient

E
gyptian
l
oaves
a
re
p
articularly
w
ell-suited
t
o
a
nalysis
a
nd
i
nvestiga-

tion

b
ecause
o
f
t
heir
e
xcellent
p
reservation.
A
s
e
arly
a
s
1
932,
a

t
horough
i
nvestiga-
tion

o
f

a
n
a
ncient
l
oaf
i
ntegrated
a
rchaeological
e
vidence
f
or
b
aking
w
ith
m
odern
r
ural
E
gyptian
b
aking
t
echniques,
E
gyptian

a
rtistic
d
epictions
o
f
b
read
m
aking,
a
nd
m
acro-
a
nd
m
icroscopic
a
nalyses
o
f
t
he
l
oaf
i
tself
(
Borchardt

1
932,
G
rüss
1
932).
M
ore
r
ecently,
S
amuel
h
as
u
ndertaken
a
n
e
xtensive
s
tudy
o
f
a
ncient
E
gyptian
b
aking,

i
ncluding analysis using low-power light microscopy (Samuel 2000).
Egyptian

l
oaves
r
ange
i
n
f
orm
f
rom
a

9

c
m
l
ong
b
read
i
n
t
he
s
hape

o
f
a


sh,
t
o
d
omed
o
val
l
oaves
o
ver
2
0
c
m
i
n
l
ength
(
Sist
1
987,
F
ig.

6
1).
S
ome
a
re
r
epresentational,
s
uch
a
s
t
he

sh-shaped
e
xample,
b
ut
m
any
a
re
d
isk
s
haped,
o
ften

w
ith
a

c
entral
c
rater
o
r
d
epression
i
n
t
he
c
enter,
p
erhaps
d
esigned
t
o
h
old
a

m
oist

a
ccompanying
f
ood.
T
he
s
urface
m
ay
b
e
p
lain,
o
r
e
mbellished
w
ith
i
ndented
d
ecorations.
I
n
g
eneral,
E
gyptian

l
oaves
a
re
m
illed
t
o
a

m
edium
c
onsistency,
i
n
w
hich
g
rain
f
ragments
o
f
b
etween
0
.5
a
nd

1
.5
m
m
a
re
t
he
n
orm.
N
umerous
l
arge
f
ragments
o
f
g
rain
a
re
c
ommon,
b
ut
t
hese
w
ere

p
robably
d
eliberate
a
dditions,
m
uch
l
ike
t
he
m
odern
“
granary”
o
r
“
multigrain”
l
oaves of today with the addition of whole or cracked grains.