A study on the use of shadowing exercises to teach ronunciation for elementary vietnamese adult learners of english

HUE UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES
---------------

LE HOANG THUY SANG

A STUDY ON THE USE OF SHADOWING EXERCISES
TO TEACH PRONUNCIATION FOR ELEMENTARY
VIETNAMESE ADULT LEARNERS OF ENGLISH

MA THESIS IN THEORY AND METHODOLOGY
OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts,
University of Foreign Languages, Hue University

THUA THIEN HUE, 2021


HUE UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES
---------------

LE HOANG THUY SANG

A STUDY ON THE USE OF SHADOWING EXERCISES
TO TEACH PRONUNCIATION FOR ELEMENTARY
VIETNAMESE ADULT LEARNERS OF ENGLISH

MA THESIS IN THEORY AND METHODOLOGY
OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

CODE: 8140111

SUPERVISOR: DR. TON NU NHU HUONG

THUA THIEN HUE, 2021


ĐẠI HỌC HUẾ
TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ
---------------

LÊ HOÀNG THÚY SANG

NGHIÊN CỨU VỀ VIỆC SỬ DỤNG BÀI TẬP
SHADOWING ĐỂ DẠY PHÁT ÂM TIẾNG ANH
CHO NGƯỜI HỌC VIỆT, Ở ĐỘ TUỔI ĐI LÀM
VÀ TRÌNH ĐỘ CƠ BẢN

LUẬN VĂN THẠC SĨ LÝ LUẬN VÀ PHƯƠNG PHÁP
DẠY HỌC BỘ MÔN TIẾNG ANH
MÃ SỐ: 8140111

NGƯỜI HƯỚNG DẪN KHOA HỌC:
TS. TÔN NỮ NHƯ HƯƠNG

THỪA THIÊN HUẾ, 2021


STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a
degree in any university. I certify that, to the best of my knowledge and belief,
my thesis contains no material previously published or written by another
person except where due reference is made in the thesis itself.

Signed:................................................................
Le Hoang Thuy Sang Date: ........./........./...........

i


ABSTRACT
This thesis is about the possibility of implementing the shadowing exercise in
teaching pronunciation to elementary Vietnamese adult learners of English. The purpose
of this study is threefold: (a) to test the effectiveness of the shadowing exercise in
improving Vietnamese adult learners’ pronunciation, (b) to find suitable strategies for
implementing the shadowing exercise in pronunciation teaching online, (c) to know what
learners think about the effectiveness of the shadowing exercise in improving their
pronunciation. To achieve those aforementioned purposes, a three-cycle action research
was conducted in three months. Participants’ logs together with online-based interview
and in-depth literature review were also employed to collect adequate data from 6
research participants. The data collected from those sources have revealed three key
findings. First, positive changes in both learners’ actions and reflections appeared after the
implementation of (i) concrete and clear supports, (ii) a strict following up routine and (iii) a
supportive and interactive environment. Second, after three months of shadowing practice,
learners could speak with a more intelligible pronunciation as well as be more aware of the
production of all key elements of English pronunciation. Finally, all learners gave positive
feedback on the effectiveness of the shadowing exercise in improving their pronunciation and
boosting their confidence in speaking English.

2


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank the Hue University of Foreign
Languages for giving me the opportunity to complete my
study here.
I will not forget to thank Dr. Ton Nu Nhu Huong,
my supervisor. Without her patience, guidance and
encouragement, I would not have made it this far, especially
with my dissertation.
I am also thankful for receiving full support from Ms.
Yen, who have always given me valuable advices during my
time of study here.
In addition, I would like to thank my family, my
beloved parents, my three brothers and my husband for
always being by my side and loving me with all their heart
and soul.
I am truly grateful for all the love and support you All
have given to me.

iii


LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1. The eight diphthongs found in English........................................... 12
Table 2.2. Classification of all consonants found in English. ......................... 14
Table 2.3. Six Steps of Shadowing Training for Beginners ............................ 35

Table 2.4. Tailored Six Steps of Shadowing Training for Elementary Adult
learners ............................................................................................................. 36
Table 3.1. The way triangular matrix of data collection used to find answers
for the research questions ................................................................................ 45
Table 3.2. The Tailored Six-steps Shadowing Training for Elementary Adult
Learners adapted from Kadota and Tamai’s Six Steps of Shadowing Training
for Beginners (2004, p.62) ............................................................................... 47
Table 3.3. Pronunciation Chart (adapted from Celce-Murcia et al., 2006) ..... 51
Table 4.1. Pronunciation features that affected learners’ intelligibility .......... 57

iv


LIST OF FIGURES – CHARTS

Figure 2.1. Vowels quadrilateral showing the 12 monophthongs found in
English ............................................................................................................. 11
Figure 2.2. An illustration of shadowing ......................................................... 33
Figure 2.3. An illustration of repeating exercise ............................................. 33
Figure 3.1. Stringer (2008)’s Action Research Process ................................... 41
Figure 3.2. The adapted model of action research from Stringer’s (2008) ..... 45

Chart 4.1. Average number of shadowing practices per learner ..................... 54
Chart 4.2. Changes in segmental features after the training course ................ 58
Chart 4.3. Number of sentences with appropriate intonation pattern per learner.... 64

v


LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CEFR

: Common European Framework of Reference for
Language English English as a Foreign Language

EFL

: English as a Foreign Language

EFL

: English as a Lingua Franca

EIL

: English as an International Language

ESL

: English as a Second Language

L1

: First Language

L2

: Second Language

WE

: World Englishes

vi


TABLE OF CONTENTS
Statement of original authorship ......................................................................... i
Abstract .............................................................................................................. 2
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................... iii
List of tables...................................................................................................... iv
List of figures – charts ....................................................................................... v
List of abbreviations ......................................................................................... vi
Table of contents .............................................................................................. vii
Chapter 1: Introduction .................................................................................. 1
1.1. Background of the study ............................................................................. 1
1.2. Rationale for the study ................................................................................ 2
1.3. Aims of the study ........................................................................................ 3
1.4. Research questions ...................................................................................... 4
1.5. Scope of the study ....................................................................................... 4
1.6. Significance of the study ............................................................................ 4
1.7. Thesis structure ........................................................................................... 4
Chapter 2: Literature Review......................................................................... 6
2.1. Spoken English and principles of teaching spoken English ....................... 6
2.1.1. Definition and characteristics of spoken English .................................... 6
2.1.2. Principles of teaching spoken English ..................................................... 7
2.1.3. Views of English ...................................................................................... 7
2.2. Pronunciation .............................................................................................. 9
2.2.1. Pronunciation and its elements ................................................................ 9

2.2.2. Teaching pronunciation in the English as an International Language (EIL)
paradigm .......................................................................................................... 18
2.2.3. Assessing pronunciation in EIL paradigm ............................................. 23
2.3. Adult learners ............................................................................................ 25
2.3.1. Who are adult learners? ......................................................................... 25
2.3.2. Characteristics of adult learners and implications for online learning
design ............................................................................................................... 25
2.3.3. Teaching pronunciation to adult learners .............................................. 27
2.3.4. Vietnamese adult learners’ pronunciation features ............................... 29
2.4. Shadowing exercises ................................................................................. 33
2.4.1. What is the shadowing exercise? ........................................................... 33
2.4.2. The shadowing exercise in English language teaching ......................... 33
2.4.3. Ways to use shadowing exercises in pronunciation teaching ................ 34

vii


2.4.4. Materials for shadowing practice........................................................... 36
2.5. Chapter summary ...................................................................................... 38
Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................... 39
3.1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 39
3.2. Research approach .................................................................................... 39
3.2.1. Reasons for choosing action research approach .................................... 39
3.2.2. Action research procedure ..................................................................... 41
3.3. Participants................................................................................................ 41
3.4. Materials chosen ....................................................................................... 43
3.5. Data collection procedure ......................................................................... 44
3.5.1. Cycle 1 ................................................................................................... 46
3.5.2. Cycle 2 ................................................................................................... 47
3.5.3. Cycle 3 ................................................................................................... 48

3.6. Data analysis procedure ............................................................................ 50
3.7. Chapter summary ...................................................................................... 52
Chapter 4: Findings and Dicussion .............................................................. 53
4.1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 53
4.2. Ways to use the shadowing exercise to teach pronunciation to adult learners
in the online environment ................................................................................ 53
4.3. Segmental and supra-segmental features improved after three months of
shadowing training ........................................................................................... 56
4.3.1. Changes in learners’ segmental features................................................ 56
4.3.3. Changes in learners’ supra-segmental features ..................................... 59
4.4. Learners’ personal feeling on the effectiveness of the shadowing exercise
in improving their pronunciation ..................................................................... 65
4.5. CHAPTER SUMMARY .......................................................................... 66
Chapter 5: Conclusion and Implications ..................................................... 68
5.1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 68
5.2. Summary of key findings .......................................................................... 68
5.3. Contributions of the study ........................................................................ 69
5.4. Implications of the study .......................................................................... 69
5.5. Limitations of the study ............................................................................ 69
5.6. Suggestion for further research ................................................................. 69
REFERENCES............................................................................................... 71
APPENDICES ................................................................................................ 79

viii


Chapter 1: Introduction

This chapter provides an introduction to the study by first discussing its
background. Following that is the presentation of the thesis’s rationale,

significance, aims and scope and finally, its structure.

1.1. Background of the study
In the world, English is gaining its dominance and becomes the main
language of science, business and technology (Halliday, 2006). In many Asian
countries, including Vietnam, English is also the dominant foreign language,
especially for professional advancement. Almost all jobs require a certificate in
English, and even work promotion now considers English proficiency as a criterion
(Carter, 2001). A survey conducted by the FPT Education in 2019 showed that
employees with a good command of English usually had a better income
comparing to those who could only use their mother tongue (FPT education, 2019).
This high status of English has boosted the practices of teaching and
learning this language both inside and outside Vietnam’s formal educational
system. On September 30th, 2008 the Vietnamese Prime Minister issued
Decision N0 1400/QD-TTg on Approving the National Plan for “Teaching and
Learning Foreign Languages in the National Formal Educational System in the
Period of 2008 – 2020” with the aim of renovating the foreign language teaching
and learning throughout the general educational system as well as developing
foreign language programs for vocational schools, colleges and universities in
the period of 2008-2020 (MOET 2008), now has been extended to 2025
(Vietnam’s government 2017). Outside the formal educational system, many
English centers, foreign and joint venture language schools have also been set
up throughout the country (Van, 2010).
However, English competence of Vietnamese workers is not very high
with only 5% of Vietnamese work force can communicate fluently in English
(The Nguoi Lao Dong, 2019). There are two possible reasons for this problem.
First, it is the mismatch between English teaching and English testing practices
within Vietnam’s educational system. While teaching follows the
communicative approach, testing seems to focus more on measuring students’
lexico-grammatical knowledge (Van, 2010). Grammar, reading and writing

skills have normally been given more attention than listening and speaking,
which gradually hinders the development of these communicative skills (Vu,
1


2016, p.8). The second reason, which probably results from the first, is the
neglect of teaching and learning pronunciation in many English classes. A good
pronunciation is shown to be able to boost learners’ confidence and help
improve their listening, speaking (Low, 2016), while a poor pronunciation can
impede the development of these skills (Demirezen, 2012).
However, in many English teaching programs, pronunciation is still a
marginalized skill (Gilakjani et al., 2011; Hismanoglu & Hismanoglu, 2013;
Ketabi & Saeb, 2015, as cited in Vu, 2016). Indeed, English pronunciation is
not only avoided by teachers (Brown, 1992; Claire, 1993; Fraser, 2000; Yates
& Zielinski, 2009) but also by learners (Pourhosein, 2012). It is claimed to be
too challenging to learn and cause many difficulties to the learners when
learning it (Gilakjani et al., 2011). Therefore, focusing more on the teaching and
learning of English pronunciation may be one of the solutions to help
Vietnamese workers better their English communication. For that reason, this
thesis is dedicated to find suitable approach to foster the practice of teaching
and learning English pronunciation to adult learners in Vietnam.
1.2. Rationale for the study
There were three reasons why this study was worth being conducted. First,
teaching and learning English pronunciation have not been easy tasks for
Vietnamese people (Cunningham, 2009). However, while there had been many
studies conducted to clarify what made English pronunciation so difficult for
Vietnamese people (Nguyen, 2007; Ha, 2007, Lin, 2014, Nguyen 2015, Vu,
2016), not much research has been done either to test the effectiveness of any
pronunciation training technique or to propose any specific exercise to
Vietnamese teachers and learners, especially to adult learners whose

pronunciation is much more challenging to be improved (Flege et al., 1999).
Therefore, this study, a study on the effectiveness of the shadowing exercise as
a pronunciation training technique for Vietnamese adult learners, was essential
to be conducted. The shadowing exercise is a language learning technique
developed by Professor Alexander Arguelles in 1998. It is named “shadowing”
because in doing this exercise, learners attempt to repeat what they hear as
quickly and accurately as possible (Wang, 2017). The shadowing exercise was
initially used for simultaneous interpreters training (Sabatini, 2000), but now it
is considered as an effective practice to develop pronunciation in Japan and in
many other Asian countries (Hamada, 2021). In 2010, Omar & Umehara
successfully helped retired, elementary Japanese adult learners to improve their
pronunciation using the shadowing exercise. They were convinced that: “the
‘shadowing’ technique is one of the most effective interventions for Japanese
2


adult learners with deficient pronunciation to learn English rhythms.” (p. 228).
Many universities and high schools in Japan have also started to teach
shadowing in their language program (Horiyama, 2012). That widely
appreciated status of the shadowing exercise in Japan gave it the more reason to
be studied in Vietnam context.
Second, most of the prior research on the shadowing exercise chose
learners who were at advanced or intermediate level to be their study subject
and let the elementary learners, especially elementary adult learners remain
under-researched. However, this study has filled that gap by focusing on testing
the effectiveness of the shadowing exercise in improving pronunciation to adult
learners who were at beginner level of English.
Finally, in Vietnam, it was reported that pronunciation was not allotted
much time in face-to-face classes (Vu, 2016). Apart from that, adult learners
generally were shown to lead complex lives and fulfill a variety of different life

roles (Smith & Strong ,2009). Therefore, comparing to traditional classes,
online learning environments was more suitable for adult learners (Cercone,
2008). Nevertheless, in Vietnam, there has been very little research done on the
implementation of the shadowing exercise in teaching pronunciation online.
The possibility of filling this gap was also the third reason why this study was
worth being conducted.
1.3. Aims of the study
The general aim of this thesis is to see the possibility of implementing the
shadowing exercise in teaching pronunciation to elementary Vietnamese adult
learners of English in order that students of all levels outside the formal
classroom may have a proven technique to improve their pronunciation by
themselves anytime and anywhere. To achieve that objective, this study has three
specific aims. First, this study is designed to see if the shadowing exercise would
be effective in improving pronunciation for elementary Vietnamese adult
learners. More specifically, this study would identify the effects that the
shadowing exercise have on learners’ pronunciation both in segmental and
supra-segmental aspects after three months of practice.
Second, this study also aims to develop suitable approaches to effectively
use the shadowing exercise to teach pronunciation to elementary Vietnamese
adult learners in the online environment.
Finally, the third aim of this study is to capture learners’ attitude toward the
effectiveness of the shadowing exercise in improving their pronunciation to see the
prospect of implementing this kind of online training widely throughout Vietnam.
3


1.4. Research questions
This study directly aims to find the answers to the following questions:
1. How can shadowing exercises be used to teach pronunciation to
elementary Vietnamese adult learners in the online environment?

2. What segmental and supra-segmental features are improved (if any)
after three months of shadowing training?
3. What do participants think about the effectiveness of the shadowing
exercise in improving their pronunciation?
1.5. Scope of the study
In this study, participants were limited in elementary Vietnamese adult
learners of English. As mentioned above, most of previous studies were
conducted with the participation of intermediate or advanced learners but rarely
with beginner-level ones. Therefore, to better fill in the gap, only elementary
Vietnamese adult learners were chosen to participate in this study. The time
scope for the online shadowing training course was three months. The reason
for this was because the training course aimed to help learners form new
pronunciation habits, and it was found to take at least 3 months for most people
to form a new habit that could be long lasting without further effort (Lally, van
Jaarsveld, Potts & Wardle., 2009). Finally, the shadowing exercise was the only
type of exercise that the participants practiced during the training course to
ensure the reliability of the data collected.
1.6. Significance of the study
At the micro level, this study can serve as an evidence for the effectiveness
of the shadowing exercise in improving adult learners’ pronunciation. This
study can also be used as a guideline for Vietnamese teachers as well as
Vietnamese adult learners when they want to use the shadowing exercise to
teach or to learn English pronunciation online.
At the macro level, this study is expected to contribute to the body of
literature in the field of English teaching and learning in general and on the topic
of applying the shadowing exercise in teaching English pronunciation in
particular.
1.7. Thesis structure
The thesis starts with Chapter I, which gives an overall introduction to the
study by presenting the background, rationale, aims, scope, and the significance

of the study. Following that is Chapter II, which provides a review of literature
4


in the field of teaching English in general and in teaching pronunciation in
particular with detailed information on spoken English, pronunciation, adult
learners and the shadowing exercise. Chapter III elaborates on the methodology
employed in this study together with the data collection and data analysis
procedure. Chapter IV presents the findings of the study as well as discusses
those findings. Chapter V ends the thesis with the summary of key findings
along with the presentation of the study’s contributions, implications,
limitations, and suggestions for further study.

5


Chapter 2: Literature Review

This thesis is about teaching pronunciation to adult learners using the
shadowing exercise in the online environment. Therefore, in this chapter,
information related to the general field of teaching spoken English is presented,
following that are studies on pronunciation, adult learners and the shadowing
exercise. Specifically, spoken English’s definitions, teaching principles, and
different viewpoints on the wide spread of the English language are mentioned
in the first section. Details on pronunciation such as its definition, elements,
teaching and assessing principles are elaborated in the second one. Finally,
facets around the term “adult learners” and in-depth information on the
shadowing exercise are presented in the last two sections of this chapter.

2.1. Spoken English and principles of teaching spoken English

Pronunciation is an integral part of spoken language (Wei, 2006).
Therefore, the teaching of English pronunciation usually goes in accordance
with the teaching of spoken English. For that reason, it is essential for the
definitions, characteristics and principles of teaching spoken English to be
elaborated in this thesis.
2.1.1. Definition and characteristics of spoken English
Spoken English is the English language ‘produced, processed and then
evaluated in the context of face-to-face exchange’ (Horowitz & Samuels, 1987,
p.56) or simply, the information exchange process where we use our mouths to
make meaningful English sounds and our ears to listen to the sounds made by
others (“The ‘Inner Circle’ of English-Speaking Countries,” 2019). No matter
how complicated or how simple the definitions might be, the instant, direct and
context-bound characteristics of spoken language have always been reflected.
According to Crystal (2021), there are six distinctive features of spoken
English that differentiate it from the written form: First, spoken English is timebound, which means the conversation and participants are only present at the
time of speaking. Second, spoken English is spontaneous. When
communicating, speakers normally think and speak almost at the same time.
Third, spoken English is heavily context-bound, which means the meaning
conveyed may be true only in the speaking context. Forth, prosodic (i.e., extrasegmental) aspects are unique features of spoken English that its written form
does not have. These aspects include intonation, stress, rhythm, etc. Fifth,
6


spoken English is normally less formal than its written form. There are many
words like fillers, swear words or slangs are not usually mentioned in any
written text. Sixth, flexibility is another unique trait of spoken English, which
means speaker can make rethink an utterance while it is in progress.
2.1.2. Principles of teaching spoken English
Regarding to principles of teaching spoken English, there are the five
principles proposed and strongly advocated by prior researchers. (i) First, when

teaching spoken English, it is vital to provide students with understandable
model language within a context. Green and Oxford (1995) claimed that
productive skills could not be developed without meaningful context. Adding
to the point, Tuyet Anh (2015) suggested that to better prepare students for real
life conversation, it was essential to stimulate real context while teaching them
the language. (ii) Second, when teaching spoken English teachers should give
students many opportunities to practice. It was reported that practicing speaking
in meaningful contexts tremendously facilitated learners’ language acquisition
(Nunan, 1999) and fluency (Geyser, 2006). (iii) Third, spoken English teaching
should focus more on fluency than on accuracy. Carter & Nunan (2001) and
Bian (2013) claimed that spoken English teaching was to help develop learner’s
communicative competence rather than helping them to speak in an error-free
way. (iv) Fourth, teachers should keep students motivated. Harmer (2015)
pinpointed that a high level of motivation encouraged students to speak more in
class, thus made it easier for them to better their speaking skill. (v) Finally,
teachers should keep learners’ differences in mind. The more a teacher is aware
of learner’s differences, the more appropriate teaching strategies that the teacher
can develop (Kham khien, 2010).
2.1.3. Views of English
English (i.e. spoken English) used to be spoken in some specific countries,
but now it is used all over the world. Along with this spread, many views of
English have arisen. Among them, the three most well-known ones are: English
as an International Language (EIL), World Englishes (WE) and English as a
Lingua Franca (EFL). These three paradigms appear to be distinctive but they
are supportive to each other (Low, 2016). Therefore, in this section, all of the
three views of English are discussed and the most inclusive view point has been
chosen to be the stand point for this thesis.
The first view to be mentioned is English as an international language
(EIL). English is considered as the international language for three main
reasons. First, the users of English are not only large in number but also diverse

7


in ethnic background. There were nearly 2 billion speakers of English around
the globe (Crystal, 2021) and over 1 billion of English speakers were those from
countries where English was not their first language (McKay, 2012). Second,
English has become a vital mean for both inter and intra-communication in
many countries, especially in multi-lingual ones (McKay, 2002). Last, English
has the ability of ‘acculturation’, which means English norms can be changed
and adapted to suit the culture of its non-native users (Low, 2016, p.3). Those
three reasons have established a strong stand for the view of English as an
international language (EIL) and made it the most widely accepted paradigm in
English teaching field (Low, 2016).
Regarding the second view point, World Englishes (WE), Kachru’s model
is considered to be the most influential contribution. In 1985, Kachru developed
a three-circle Model of World Englishes. The three circles, from inside out, were
named the Inner Circle, the Outer Circle and the Expanding Circle. In that model,
Kachru divided the English speaking world into three groups basing on the
historical context, the status and the functions of English in those countries
(Kilickaya, 2009). The Inner Circle included the countries where English acted
as the first language. These countries included the USA, the UK, Canada,
Australia and so on. The varieties of English used in these countries were
considered to be the ‘norm providing’, which meant that the norms developed in
these countries were ought to be followed by all English users. The Outer Circle
consisted of countries where English had become their second language like
Malaysia, Singapore, India, etc. The English varieties used in these countries
were seen as ‘norm-developing’, which meant users in these countries had
adopted and perhaps developed their own norms of English. The Expanding
Circle comprised countries where English had become an essential language for
social development, yet still learnt as a foreign language. These countries

included China, Japan, and Greece, to name some. The English used in this Circle
was regarded as ‘norm dependent’ as the English norms learnt here were those
developed by users in the Inner one (Kachru, 1985 as cited in Kilickaya, 2009).
Although the Kachru’s circles model plays an essential part in the view of
WE, it is not synonymous with the WE view itself. Bolton (2016 as cited in Low,
2016) claimed that there were two ways to look at the term ‘World Englishes’. In
a narrow viewpoint, the WE view referred to the study of English worldwide
conceptualized by Kachru and a close group of scholars. However, in a wider
view, the WE was an umbrella term that embraced many different approaches to
the study of English worldwide covering from ‘English studies, corpus
linguistics, the sociology of language’, to ‘features-based and dialectological
8


studies, pidgin and creole research’, ‘Kachruvian linguistics, lexicographical
approaches, popular accounts, critical linguistics, futurological approaches’ and
an emerging approach known as English as a Lingua Franca (ELF). From this
wider view of World Englishes we can see that the WE paradigm do not oppose
the EIL paradigm, but even contribute to it.
The last view point is English as a Lingua Franca (EFL). As mentioned
above, EFL is not a separate paradigm, but a new approach in the WE in a wider
view. A lingua franca is a contact language used for communication between two
peoples/communities who do not share a common language (Jenkins, 2007, p. 1).
Therefore, in the EFL viewpoint, English is the main language used for
communication between two or more of its non-native speakers. Seeing from the
EFL viewpoint, the idea that only native speakers own and have the rights to set
the rules of using the English language has no longer been supported (Low, 2016).
All in all, even though EIL, WE and EFL looked at the use of English from
different perspectives, they all paint the same picture which features the wide
spread of English around the world. While EIL provides the overview of the

picture, WE and EFL look more closely on the change in English characteristics
and usages around the world, respectively. By mentioning these three views of
English, the researcher wants to emphasize the vital role of English in today
world, as well as turns down the idea that English norms are only dictated by
native speakers. This then leads to the shift in the aim of teaching and learning
English pronunciation discussed in the following sector. Along with that, the EIL
is also adopted to be the view point in the scope of this study for its inclusiveness.
2.2. Pronunciation
The previous part has provided information related to the general area of
teaching spoken English including the definition of spoken English, its
characteristics and teaching principles. The three well-known views of English
have also been mentioned together with the choosing of the EIL as the stand
point for this study. This section continues the flow of information by going into
a more specific sector of spoken English which is pronunciation. In this section,
the definition of pronunciation, its elements, as well as its teaching and
assessing principles from the EIL viewpoint are presented.
2.2.1. Pronunciation and its elements
Pronunciation can be defined mechanically or functionally. Mechanically,
pronunciation is simply defined as ‘a set of habits of producing sound’
(Pourhosein, 2012, p. 96), ‘the way we say words’ (Yoshida, 2016, p. 7), ‘how
we produce the sounds that we use to make meaning when we speak’ (Yates &
9


Zielinski, 2009, p.11), or a little more specific as ‘the production of sounds, stress
patterns, rhythmic structures, and intonations of a language’ (Brown, 2014, p.
30). From the functional view point, Pennington and Rogerson-Revell (2018)
defined pronunciation as the “foundation of messaging in speech” (p.1), which
means pronunciation is not merely about making sounds but making sounds for
communicating purpose. Though these definitions are all different, they seem to

complement rather than contradict each other. Therefore, those definitions have
been combined to create a more inclusive one. In this study, pronunciation is
defined as “the set of habits of producing sounds, stress patterns, rhythmic
structures and intonations of a language for the communicating purpose.”
According to Wei (2006) and Pourhosein (2012), English pronunciation
have two elements namely segmental and supra-segmental aspects. The
segmental aspects consist of all twenty-eight sounds of English (i.e., consonants
and vowels). The supra-segmental aspects included all the musical aspects of
the language such as intonation, phrasing, stress, timing, rhythm, etc. Among
those prosodic aspects, intonation, rhythm, and stress are claimed to be the three
most essential factors in aiding the communicating process (Brown, 2014; Wei,
2006; Low, 2016; Yoshida, 2016; and Pennington and Rogerson-Revell (2018).
Therefore, in this study, intonation, rhythm and stress are the only three suprasegmental aspects to be researched.
2.2.1.1. Segmental aspects of English pronunciation
English speech sounds are divided into vowels and consonants basing on
the characteristics of the airstream’s flow. Low (2015) noted that for all English
speech sounds, the airstream came from the lungs and all the sounds were
produced when we breathed out. She also described and classified English
speech sounds clearly as below:
2.2.1.1.a. Vowels
Vowels are sounds produced with the airstream flows freely from the
larynx to the lips. In English there are 20 distinct vowel sounds (12 single
vowels and 8 diphthongs). We can change the vowel we produce by changing
the position of the jaws, the tongue and/or the shape of the lips. For that reason,
apart from describing a vowel by the length of the production and the constancy
of the voice quality, it is vital to describe it by the mouth, the tongue, and the
lips position.
Figure 2. 1 below (as shown in Low, 2016, p.33) grasps almost the whole
picture of vowel classification by describing all the 12 single vowels in terms
of mouth position, tongue position, lips position and length of the production.

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Figure 2.1. Vowels quadrilateral showing the 12 monophthongs found
in English
As we can see in the quadrilateral, there are three positions that a mouth
can take up when producing vowels. The mouth can be in a closed position, in
a middle position or a fully open position. For example, when we pronounce the
/i:/ sound, our lips almost come together, that is when we say our mouth is in
the closed position. When we pronounce the /ɒ/ sound, our lips are wide apart,
that is when we say our mouth is in the fully open position and when we produce
the /e/ sound, our lips are in a relaxed, half-open position, that is the neutral or
the middle position of the mouth.
When it comes to tongue position, we usually describe by referring to its
horizontal position (that is, how far forward or backward) and vertical position
(that is, how close it is to the roof of the mouth). From the quadrilateral, we can
see that the vowel /i:/ is produced when our tongue is raised high (i.eg., coming
close to the roof of the mouth) and moved far forward while the vowel / ɒ / is
produced when our tongue is moved backward and in a low position in the mouth.
Regarding lips position, vowels can either be produced with lips in a
rounded position or in an unrounded position. As described in figure 2.1,
English has only four vowel sounds pronounced when the lips are rounded.
They are /u:/, /ʊ/, /ɔː/ and /ɒ/
In terms of the length of production, vowels can be classified as short or
long. Phoneticians sometimes prefer to use the terms ‘tense’ for long vowels
and ‘lax’ for short vowels. The terms ‘tense’ and ‘lax’ are derived from the
muscle strength required for producing long vowels, which may require a
greater release of energy compared to lax or short vowels. A quick way to tell

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whether vowels are long or short is in their transcription. Long vowels have a
colon after them for example /i:/ compared to short vowels, which typically are
not accompanied by a colon for example /ɪ/. Basically, long vowels are often
pronounced longer than short ones. However, it is important to note that the
length of a vowel also depends on whether it is stressed. Short vowels might
seem longer in a stressed syllable and long vowels might seem shorter when it
is in an unstressed syllable.
One last feature that is not yet described in the vowel quadrilateral is the
consistency of a vowel’s quality. Basing on the consistency or change in a vowel
quality, we classify them into monophthong and diphthong. Vowels that
maintain the same quality throughout the pronunciation process are called
monophthong. Those whose quality changes while it is being produced are
called diphthong. The diphthongs are those transcribed with two symbols and
this is done to represent the change in vowel quality when they are being
produced. We say them by starting with one vowel and gliding into another.
Although they are made up of two vowels they are heard as one phoneme not
two. When we pronounce diphthongs we put more emphasis on the first vowel
than on the second. It can be confusing when a learner pronounces only the first
part of a diphthong.
The table 2.1 below (as mentioned in Yates & Zielinski, 2009, p. 58)
shows the 8 diphthongs found in English.
Table 2.1. The eight diphthongs found in English
Diphthongs that glide
to /ɪ/

Diphthongs that glide to / Diphthongs that glide to
ə/
/ ʊ/

/e/ + /ɪ/  /eɪ/

/ɪ/ + / ə// ɪə/

/ə/ + / ʊ/  /əʊ/

(as in play)

(as in cheer)

(as in phone)

/ɔ/ + /ɪ/  / ɔɪ/

/ʊ/ + / ə/  /ʊə/

/a/ + / ʊ/ /aʊ/

(as in boy)

(as in cure)

(as in loud)

/a/ + /ɪ/  /aɪ/

/e/ + / ə/  /eə/

(as in buy)

(as in hair)

2.2.1.1.b. Consonants
Consonants are sounds produced when the airstream is restricted by some
articulators. To identify a consonant, we commonly use a three-term label which
describes the three main characteristics of that consonant, including voicing,
place of articulation and manner of articulation.

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Regarding the voicing, consonants are classified into voiced and voiceless.
A consonant produced when the vocal folds vibrate is called voiced consonant,
otherwise it is a voiceless one. In English, there are sixteen voiced consonants
and ten voiceless ones.
Apart from the voicing, a consonant is also identified by the place at
which the obstruction of the airflow is made or in other words, the place of
articulation. Basing on its place of articulation, Cruttenden (2008, pp. 26–27)
classified them into:
- Bilablial consonants: consonants made when the two lips coming
together. For examples: /p, b, m/.
- Labiodental consonants: consonants produced with lower lip coming into
contact with the upper front teeth, like /f/ and /v/.
- Dental consonants: consonants pronounced when the tongue tip or blade
touches the upper front teeth. Examples: /θ/ and /ð/.
- Alveolar consonants: consonants made when the tongue tip or blade
touches the alveolar ridge. Examples: /t, d, s, z/.
- Palato-alveolar consonants: consonants pronounced when the tongue
blade touches the back of the alveolar ridge such that the point of contact

between the tongue and the passive articulator is just behind the alveolar ridge,
nearing the hard palate. Examples: / ʃ/ and / dʒ/.
- Palatal consonants: consonant produced when the front of the tongue
articulates with the hard palate. Example: /j/
- Velar consonants: consonants created when the back of the tongue
touches the soft palate. Examples: /k/ and /g/.
- Glottal consonant: consonant produced when an obstruction or
narrowing of the articulators causing the back of the tongue to come into contact
with the glottis. Example: /h/.
The third dimension in a full description of consonants is the manner of
articulation. This refers to the way in which the air escapes when producing a
particular consonant. The four main types of consonants classified by their
manners of articulation include stops, fricatives, affricates and approximants.
• In producing stop consonants, the airstream is either blocked in the
mouth before being suddenly released like in oral stop sounds (i.e., plosives) or
the blocked airstream must escape through the nose like in nasal stop sounds
(i.e., nasals). In English, there are six oral stop sounds namely / p, b, t, d, k, g/
and three nasal stop sounds namely /m, n, ŋ/.
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• Fricative consonants are produced when the airstream must travel through
a very narrow space created by two articulators and creates a friction during the
pronouncing process. Some fricatives in English include /f, v, s, z, ʒ/.
• Affricate consonants are those created first by a block of the airstream
then a release of that airstream through a narrow space to cause friction. /tʃ/ and
/ dʒ/ are the only two affricates in English.
• Approximants are consonant sounds created when one articulator is close
to another but they do not block the airstream nor create friction when
pronounced. Some examples of approximants are /j, w, r, l/.

All the consonants together with their three characteristics are presented
in Table 2.2 below. In this table, the voiced consonants are in bold.
Table 2.2. Classification of all consonants found in English.
Place
Manner
Plosive

Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar
/p/ /b/

Post- Palato
Palatal Velar Glottal
alveolar alveolar

/t/ /d/

/k/ /g/
/tʃ/ /dʒ/

Affricate
Fricative
Nasal

/f/ /v/

/θ/ /ð/

/ʃ/ /ʒ/

/s/ /z/

/m/

/n/

Approximant (/w/)

/l/

/h/
/ŋ/

/r/

/j/

/w/

Apart from the knowledge of segmental features, the understanding of
English supra-segmental features is also essential for both English teachers and
learners. Celce-Murcia et al. (2006) noticed that just by being good at producing
sounds was not enough to help students communicate effectively. They also
emphasized that mispronunciation of a segmental sound usually led to minor
repairable misunderstandings, but misunderstandings caused by the use of
inappropriate supra-segmental aspects could probably be more serious. Adding to
the point, Yoshida (2016) reported that supra-segmental features were very
important in helping speakers to sound natural and easy-to-understand. Therefore,
in the section below details of supra-segmental aspects of English are presented.
2.2.1.2 Supra-segmental aspects of pronunciation
Supra-segmental aspects are the features of pronunciation that affect more

than just a single sound (Yoshida, 2016) or ‘aspects of speech beyond the level
of the individual segments’ (Yates & Zielinski, 2009, p.11). As mentioned before,
the three supra-segmental aspects that affect the communication process the most
are stress, rhythm and intonation. For that reason, stress, rhythm and intonation
are the only three supra-segmental aspects to be focused in this section.
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