Introduction to environmental management

Introduction to

ENVIRONMENTAL
MANAGEMENT



Introduction to

ENVIRONMENTAL
MANAGEMENT
Mary K. Theodore
Louis Theodore

Boca Raton London New York

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Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................xi
Authors ................................................................................................................... xiii

Contributing Authors ............................................................................................... xv

Part I Overview
Chapter 1

Introduction to Environmental Issues ..................................................3

Chapter 2

Environmental Regulations ..................................................................7

Chapter 3

International Regulations ................................................................... 31

Chapter 4

ISO 14000........................................................................................... 45
Contributing Author: Lauren De Sanctis

Chapter 5

Multimedia Concerns ......................................................................... 61

Chapter 6

Classification and Sources of Pollutants ............................................ 71

Chapter 7

Effects of Pollutants ........................................................................... 83

Chapter 8

Green Chemistry and Green Engineering..........................................97
Contributing Author: Vincenza Imperiale

Chapter 9

Sustainability .................................................................................... 107

Part II Air
Chapter 10 Air Pollution Control Equipment ..................................................... 121
Chapter 11 Atmospheric Dispersion Modeling .................................................. 135
vii


viii

Contents

Chapter 12 Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming ......................................... 145
Contributing Author: Shannon O’Brien
Chapter 13 Air Toxics ......................................................................................... 157
Chapter 14 Indoor Air Quality ........................................................................... 165
Chapter 15 Vapor Intrusion ................................................................................. 181

Part III Water
Chapter 16 Water Chemistry .............................................................................. 191
Contributing Author: Richard F. Carbonaro

Chapter 17 Safe Drinking Water ........................................................................ 201
Contributing Author: Richard F. Carbonaro
Chapter 18 Municipal Wastewater Treatment..................................................... 211
Chapter 19 Industrial Wastewater Management ................................................. 223
Chapter 20 Dispersion Modeling in Water Systems ........................................... 233
Chapter 21 Acid Rain.......................................................................................... 243

Part IV Solid Waste
Chapter 22 Municipal Solid Waste Management ............................................... 255
Chapter 23 Industrial Waste Management .......................................................... 265
Chapter 24 Hospital Waste Management ............................................................ 275
Chapter 25 Nuclear Waste Management ............................................................. 285


Contents

ix

Chapter 26 Underground Storage Tanks ............................................................. 297
Chapter 27 Superfund .........................................................................................307
Chapter 28 Asbestos ........................................................................................... 317
Chapter 29 Metals ............................................................................................... 325

Part V Pollution Prevention
Chapter 30 The Pollution Prevention Concept.................................................... 335
Chapter 31 Pollution Prevention Applications .................................................... 347
Chapter 32 Introduction to Health, Safety, and Accident Management ............. 355
Chapter 33 Health, Safety, and Accident Management Applications ................. 363
Chapter 34 Introduction to Energy Conservation ............................................... 373
Chapter 35 Energy Conservation Applications................................................... 381

Chapter 36 Architecture in the Environment: History,
Practice, and Change ........................................................................ 387

Part VI Environmental Risk
Chapter 37 Introduction to Environmental Risk Assessment ............................. 399
Chapter 38 Health Risk Assessment ...................................................................407


x

Contents

Chapter 39 Hazard Risk Assessment .................................................................. 417
Chapter 40 Public Perception of Risk ................................................................. 425
Chapter 41 Risk Communication........................................................................ 433

Part VII Other Areas of Interest
Chapter 42 The EPA Dilemma ...........................................................................449
Contributing Author: Anna M. Daversa
Chapter 43 Electromagnetic Fields ..................................................................... 463
Chapter 44 Noise Pollution ................................................................................. 473
Chapter 45 Used Oil............................................................................................ 483
Chapter 46 Environmental Audits ...................................................................... 493
Chapter 47 Economics ........................................................................................ 501
Chapter 48 Environmental Implications of Nanotechnology .............................509
Chapter 49 Environmental Ethics ....................................................................... 523
Chapter 50 Environmental Justice ...................................................................... 535
Contributing Author: Francesco Ricci
Index ......................................................................................................................545

Preface
In the last four decades, there has been an increased awareness of a wide range
of environmental issues covering all sources: air, land, and water. More and more
people are becoming aware of these environmental concerns, and it is important that
professional people, many of whom do not possess an understanding of environmental problems, have the proper information available when involved with environmental issues. All professionals should have a basic understanding of the technical and
scientific terms related to these issues as well as the regulations involved. Hopefully,
this book will serve the needs of the professional by increasing his or her awareness
of (and help solve) the environmental problems that society is facing now.
This book is primarily intended for individuals who have a limited environmental
technical background. It is presented in simple, understandable terms for students,
practicing engineers and scientists, lawyers, news media executives, business personnel, and even the consumers who need to know the fundamentals of the many
environmental issues that exist and will continue to exist in the future. The authors’
objective is also to provide both background material on numerous environmental
issues and information on what each individual can do to help alleviate some of these
problems.
This book is divided into seven parts. Part I provides an overview that includes
an introduction to environmental issues, regulations, and types of pollutants. Part II
deals with issues related to air pollution. It includes material on how air pollution
can be controlled, and on the quality of indoor air, which is an issue in many office
buildings today. Part III discusses the problems of pollution in water and methods
to control this problem. Part IV focuses on solid waste management. It examines the
different types of solid waste, such as hazardous, medical, and nuclear, and treatment techniques for each. This part also includes material on the Superfund program
and the result of its effort to clean up waste sites.
Part V focuses on three pollution prevention topic areas, including health, safety,
and accident prevention, energy conservation, and waste reduction. Since the concern with many of the environmental issues arises because of the risks involved,
Part VI examines how risks are perceived and communicated, and how individuals
can be educated about these risks. Part VII provides information on other areas of
interest in the environmental arena. These include many popular topics like electromagnetic fields, environmental implications of nanotechnology, and ethical issues as
they relate to the environment.

Mary K. Theodore
Louis Theodore

xi



Authors
Mary K. Theodore received her BA degree in English from Manhattan College and
MA from Queens in Applied Linguistics.
Ms. Theodore is presently the president of Theodore Tutorials, a company that
specializes in providing training needs to industry, government, and academia.
She is the author of the chapter entitled “Domestic Solutions” in the Handbook of
Environmental Management and Technology (Wiley-Interscience, 1993; the only
nontechnical chapter in the handbook); coauthor of the unpublished, but copyrighted, work A Citizen’s Guide to Pollution Prevention; and, coauthor of Major
Environmental Issues Facing the 21st Century (Prentice-Hall, 1996). The latter text
effectively integrated the concept of “sustainable growth without environmental
degradation” at both the industrial and domestic levels. Ms. Theodore is currently an
adjunct faculty member at Nassau County Community College.
Since marriage and the birth of her first child, Ms. Theodore has devoted a significant part of her life to help solve the environmental problems facing society from
a domestic point of view. A proactive environmentalist with no ties to any of the
environmental organizations in vogue today, she has also lectured in this area. She
was recently involved with the development of a nontechnical environmental calendar that serves as a consumer and youth outreach product.
Ms. Theodore resides in East Williston, Long Island, New York, with her husband
of 42 years and their three children—Georgeen, Molleen, and Patrick.
Louis Theodore is a professor of chemical engineering at Manhattan College,
Riverdale, New York. Born and raised in Hell’s Kitchen, he received his MChE and
EngScD from New York University and his BChE from The Cooper Union. Over the
past 49 years, Dr. Theodore has been a successful educator, researcher, professional
innovator, and communicator in the field of engineering. He has taught courses in

environmental management, hazardous waste incineration, accident and emergency
management, pollution prevention, and air pollution and its control at Manhattan
College.
Dr. Theodore is an internationally recognized lecturer who has provided nearly
200 courses to industry, government, and technical associations; he has served as
an after-dinner or luncheon speaker on numerous occasions; and he has appeared
on television as a guest commentator and a news spokesperson. He has developed
training materials and has served as the principal moderator/lecturer for U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) courses on hazardous waste incineration, pollution prevention, and air pollution control equipment. He has also served
as a consultant to several industrial companies in the field of environmental management, and is presently a consultant/expert witness for the USEPA and the U.S.
Department of Justice.
Dr. Theodore has written 81 text/reference books including Pollution Prevention
(Van Nostrand Reinhold), Engineering and Environmental Ethics (John Wiley &
xiii


xiv

Authors

Sons), Air Pollution Control Equipment (Prentice-Hall), and Introduction to
Hazardous Waste Incineration (Wiley-Interscience); he has also been a section
author/editor in Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook (McGraw-Hill),
Nanotechnology: Environmental Implications and Solutions (John Wiley & Sons),
and Nanotechnology: Basic Calculations for Engineers and Scientists (John Wiley &
Sons). He is also the cofounder of Theodore Tutorials, a company specializing in providing training needs to industry, government, and academia; included in this series
of 21 texts are four tutorials concerned with the professional engineer’s (PE) exam.
Dr. Theodore is the recipient of the prestigious Ripperton award by the International
Air and Waste Management Association that is “presented to an outstanding educator
who through example, dedication, and innovation has so inspired students to

achieve excellence in their professional endeavors.” He was also the recipient of the
American Society of Engineering Education AT&T Foundation award for “excellence in the instruction of engineering students.” Dr. Theodore was recently honored
at Madison Square Garden in 2008 for his contributions to basketball and the youth
of America.
Dr. Theodore is a member of Phi Lambda Upsilon, Sigma Xi, Tau Beta Pi,
American Chemical Society, American Society of Engineering Education, Royal
Hellenic Society, and the International Air and Waste Management Association.
He is also certified to referee scholastic basketball games through his membership
in the International Association of Approved Basketball Officials. He has previously
served on a Presidential Crime Commission under Gerald Ford and provided testimony as a representative of the pari-mutuel wagerer (horseplayer). His column “AS
I SEE IT,” a monthly feature of several Long Island newspapers, addresses social,
economic, political, technical, and sports issues.


Contributing Authors
Richard F. Carbonaro
Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering
Manhattan College
Riverdale, New York
Anna M. Daversa
Department of Chemical Engineering
Manhattan College
Bronx, New York
Lauren De Sanctis
Department of Chemical Engineering
Manhattan College
Bronx, New York

Vincenza Imperiale

Wyeth Pharmaceuticals
Pearl River, New York
Shannon O’Brien
Department of Chemical Engineering
Manhattan College
Bronx, New York
Francesco Ricci
Department of Chemical Engineering
Manhattan College
Briarcliff, New York

xv



Part I
Overview
Part I of this book serves as an overview of the 50 major environmental issues facing the twenty-first century. Part I comprises nine chapters. A brief review of the
environmental issues is presented in Chapter 1. Chapter 2—the longest and most
detailed chapter in the book—focuses on environmental regulations while Chapter
3 examines international regulations. Chapter 4 provides an overview of ISO 14K.
Multimedia concerns and approaches are treated in Chapter 5. Chapter 6 discusses
the sources and classifications of pollutants while Chapter 7 discusses the effects of
pollutions. Part I concludes with Chapters 8 and 9, which address the general subject
of green chemistry and sustainability.
Also note that the acronym USEPA (United States Environmental Protection
Agency) and EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) are used interchangeably
throughout this as well as the remaining parts of the book. This problem arises because
some of the material has been drawn directly from government publications.

to
1 Introduction
Environmental Issues
CONTENTS
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8

Introduction .......................................................................................................3
Part I ..................................................................................................................4
Part II ................................................................................................................4
Part III ...............................................................................................................4
Part IV ...............................................................................................................5
Part V ................................................................................................................5
Part VI ...............................................................................................................5
Part VII .............................................................................................................5

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In the past four decades there had been an increased awareness of a wide range of
environmental issues covering all sources: air, land, and water. More and more people
are becoming aware of these environmental concerns, and it is important that professional people, many of whom do not possess an understanding of environmental
problems or have the proper information available when involved with environmental
issues. All professionals should have a basic understanding of the technical and scientific terms related to these issues as well as the regulations involved. Hopefully

this book will serve the needs of the professional by increasing his or her awareness
of (and help solve) the environmental problems facing society.
The past four decades have been filled with environmental tragedies as well as
a heightened environmental awareness. The oil spills of the Exxon Valdez in 1989
and in the Gulf War of 1991 showed how delicate our oceans and their ecosystems
truly are. The disclosures of Love Canal in 1978 and Times Beach in 1979 made the
entire nation aware of the dangers of hazardous chemical wastes. The discovery of
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) virus and the beach washups of 1985
brought the issue of medical waste disposal to the forefront of public consciousness.
A nuclear accident placed the spotlight on Chernobyl, and to this day society is still
seeing the effects of that event.
An outline of the contents of the book follows. Details on each of the chapters of
the seven Parts is included in the presentation.

3


4

1.2

Introduction to Environmental Management

PART I

The “Overview” provides a general background and addresses international concerns, environmental regulations, and generators of pollutants. Degradation of
the environment is not a problem that is restricted to the United States, or even to
developed countries. On the contrary, underdeveloped countries are struggling with
several environmental issues that have already been resolved in many developed
countries. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as well

as the individual states is working hard to implement regulations addressing areas of
environmental concern. Generators and sources of pollutants are being identified so
that solutions may be targeted to specific areas. The Part concludes with chapters
that deal with the chemistry of green engineering.

1.3

PART II

“Air” management issues looks into several different areas related to air pollutants
and their control. Atmospheric dispersion of pollutants can be mathematically modeled to predict where pollutants emitted from a particular source, such as a combustion facility stack, will settle to the ground and at what concentration. Pollution
control equipment can be added to various sources to reduce the amount of pollutants before they are emitted into the air. Acid rain, the greenhouse effect, and global
warming are all indicators of adverse effects to the air, land, and sea which result
from excessive amount of pollutants being released into the air. One topic that few
people are aware of is the issue of indoor air quality. Inadequate ventilation systems
in homes and businesses directly affect the quality of health of the people within
the buildings. For example, the episode of Legionnaires’ disease, which occurred
in Philadelphia in the 1970s, was related to microorganisms that grew in the cooling water of the air-conditioning system. Noise pollution, although not traditionally
an air pollution topic, is included in this section. The effects of noise pollution are
generally not noticed until hearing is impaired. And although impairment of hearing
is a commonly known result of noise pollution, few people realize that stress is also
a significant result of excessive noise exposure. The human body enacts its innate
physiologic defensive mechanisms under conditions of loud noise, and the fight to
control these physical instincts causes tremendous stress on the individual.

1.4

PART III

Pollutant dispersion in water systems and wastewater treatment is discussed in

“Water” management issues. Pollutants entering rivers, lakes, and oceans come
from a wide variety of sources, including stormwater runoff, industrial discharges,
and accidental spills. It is important to understand how these substances disperse in
order to determine how to control them. Municipal and industrial wastewater treatment systems are designed to reduce or eliminate problem substances before they are
introduced into natural water systems, industrial use systems, drinking water supply,
and other water systems. Often, wastewater from industrial plants must be pretreated
before it can be discharged into a municipal treatment system.


Introduction to Environmental Issues

1.5

5

PART IV

“Solid Waste” management issues addresses treatment and disposal methods for
municipal, medical, and radioactive wastes. Programs to reduce and dispose of
municipal waste include reuse, reduction, recycling, and composting, in addition to
incineration and landfilling. Potentially infectious waste generated in medical facilities must be specially packaged, handed, stored, transported, treated, and disposed
of to ensure the safety of both the waste handlers and the general public. Radioactive
waste may have serious impacts on human health and the environment, and treatment and disposal requirements for radioactive substances must be strictly adhered
to. Incineration has been a typical treatment method for hazardous waste for many
years. Superfund was enacted to identify and remedy uncontrolled hazardous waste
sites. It also attempts to place the burden of cleanup on the generator rather than on
the federal government. Asbestos, metals, and underground storage tanks either contain or inherently are hazardous materials that require special handling and disposal.
Further, it is important to realize that both small and large generators of hazardous
wastes are regulated.

1.6

PART V

“Pollution Prevention” covers domestic and (primarily) industrial means of reducing
pollution. This can be accomplished through (a) proper residential and commercial
building design; (b) proper heating, cooling, and ventilation systems; (c) energy conservation; (d) reduction of water consumption; and (e) attempts to reuse or reduce
materials before they become wastes. Domestic and industrial solutions to environmental problems arise by considering ways to make homes and workplaces more
energy-efficient as well as ways to reduce the amount of wastes generated within
them.

1.7

PART VI

Managers also need to be informed on how to make decisions about associated risks
and how to communicate these risks and their effects on the environment to the
public. “Environmental Risk” topics include short-term and long-term threats to
human health and the environment. Risk assessment is the most important consideration for remediation of harmful effects stemming from the presence of a hazardous
substance, and risk-based decision-making is a tool that is now routinely being used
to select a cleanup alternative. This Part also provides an explanation of both how to
estimate and how to avoid environmental, health, and hazard risks.

1.8

PART VII

The last part, “Other Areas of Interest,” discusses nine topics that are relatively new
in the area of environmental management. Included in Part VII are electromagnetic
fields, noise pollution, used oil, and the environment implications of nanotechnologies.

Environmental audits provide a means of assessing the environmental conduct and


6

Introduction to Environmental Management

performance of an organization. Environmental ethics, as it relates to rules of proper
environmental conduct, receives treatment in the next to the last chapter. Finally,
environmental justice (last chapter) is a new term for describing the disproportionate distribution of environmental risks in minority and low-income communities.
Federal attention is now focused on environmental and human health conditions in
these areas, with the goal of achieving equality of environmental protection for all
communities.
This book is not intended to be all-encompassing. Rather, it is to be used as a
starting point. References are provided at the end of each chapter, which provide
more detailed information on each topic.


2 Environmental
Regulations
*

CONTENTS
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4

Introduction .......................................................................................................8
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act .......................................................8

Major Toxic Chemical Laws Administered by the EPA ................................. 10
Water Quality Legislation and Regulation ..................................................... 12
2.4.1 Federal Water Pollution Control Act ................................................... 12
2.4.2 Source-Based Effluent Limitations ..................................................... 13
2.4.3 Clean Water Act of 1977 ..................................................................... 14
2.4.4 Control of Toxic Pollutants.................................................................. 14
2.4.5 1987 CWA Amendments..................................................................... 15
2.4.6 Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL)................................................. 16
2.4.7 Water Quality Trading ......................................................................... 17
2.4.8 Bioterrorism Act of 2003 .................................................................... 17
2.4.9 Safe Drinking Water Act ..................................................................... 17
2.4.10 Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (Title I) ............... 18
2.5 The Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986..................... 19
2.5.1 Major Provisions of Title III of SARA (Also Known as Emergency
Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act or EPCRA) ................20
2.6 The Clean Air Act...........................................................................................20
2.6.1 Provisions for Attainment and Maintenance of National Ambient
Air Quality Standards ......................................................................... 21
2.6.2 Provisions Relating to Mobile Sources ............................................... 22
2.6.3 Air Toxics ............................................................................................ 23
2.6.4 Acid Deposition Control...................................................................... 23
2.6.5 Operating Permits ...............................................................................24
2.6.6 Stratospheric Ozone Protection...........................................................24
2.7 Occupational Safety and Health Act ...............................................................25
2.8 USEPA’s Risk Management Program .............................................................26
2.9 The Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 .............................................................28
2.10 Future Trends ..................................................................................................28
2.11 Summary ......................................................................................................... 29
References ................................................................................................................ 29

*

Adapted from Burke et al. [1] and Stander and Theodore [2].

7


8

Introduction to Environmental Management

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Environmental regulations are not simply a collection of laws on environmental
topics. They are an organized system of statutes, regulations, and guidelines that
minimize, prevent, and punish the consequences of damage to the environment.
This system requires each individual—whether an engineer, field chemist, attorney,
or consumer—to be familiar with its concepts and case-specific interpretations.
Environmental regulations deal with the problems of human activities and the environment, and the uncertainties the law associates with them.
It is now 1970, a cornerstone year for modern environmental policy. The National
Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), enacted on January 1, 1970, was considered a
“political anomaly” by some. NEPA was not based on specific legislation; instead
it is referred in a general manner to environmental and quality of life concerns.
The Council for Environmental Quality (CEQ), established by NEPA, was one of
the councils mandated to implement legislation. On April 22, 1970, thousands of
demonstrators gathered all around the nation to celebrate the occasion of Earth Day.
NEPA and Earth Day were the beginning of a long, seemingly never-ending debate
over environmental issues.
The Nixon Administration at that time became preoccupied with not only trying
to pass more extensive environmental legislation, but also implementing the laws.
Nixon’s White House Commission on Executive Reorganization proposed in the

Reorganizational Plan # 3 of 1970 that a single, independent agency be established,
separate from the CEQ. The plan was sent to Congress by President Nixon on July 9,
1970, and this new U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) began operation on
December 2, 1970. The EPA was officially born.
In many ways, the EPA is the most far-reaching regulatory agency in the federal
government because its authority is very broad. The EPA is charged to protect the
nation’s land, air, and water systems. Under a mandate of national environmental
laws, the EPA strives to formulate and implement actions that lead to a compatible
balance between human activities and the ability of natural systems to support and
nurture life [3].
The EPA works with the states and local governments to develop and implement comprehensive environmental programs. Federal laws such as the Clean Air
Act (CAA), the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), the Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act (RCRA), and the Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), etc., all mandate involvement by state
and local government in the details of implementation.
This chapter provides an overview of the eight key environmental protection laws
and subsequent regulations that affect the environment in the United States.

2.2 RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND RECOVERY ACT
Defining what constitutes a “hazardous waste” requires consideration of both legal
and scientific factors. The basic definitions used in this chapter are derived from
the RCRA of 1976, as amended in 1978, 1980, and 1986; the Hazardous and Solid
Waste Amendments (HSWA) of 1984; and the CERCLA of 1980, as amended by