Marine cosmeceuticals trends and prospects

Tai Lieu Chat Luong




Edited by

Se-Kwon Kim


CRC Press
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Contents
Preface...............................................................................................................................................ix
Editor.................................................................................................................................................xi
Contributors.................................................................................................................................... xiii
Chapter 1 Cosmeceuticals from Marine Resources: Prospects and Commercial Trends............. 1
Se-Kwon Kim and Isuru Wijesekara
Chapter 2 Chemical and Biological Aspects of Marine Cosmeceuticals.................................... 11
Bin Yang, Xiuping Lin, Xue-Feng Zhou, Xian‑Wen Yang, and Yonghong Liu
Chapter 3 Chemical Properties of Chitosan as a Marine Cosmeceutical.................................... 39
Laura Calderón Moz, Elena Lecumberri Lima, Ruth Expósito Harris,
María Ángeles López Mengíbar, Niuris Acosta Contreras, and
Ángeles María Heras Caballero
Chapter 4 Marine Phytochemical Compounds and Their Cosmeceutical Applications............. 51
Abdul Bakrudeen Ali Ahmed and Rosna Mat Taha
Chapter 5 Effect of Marine Cosmeceuticals on the Pigmentation of Skin.................................. 63
Sumathy Babitha and Eun-Ki Kim
Chapter 6 Photoprotective and Cosmeceutical Prospects from Marine Origin.......................... 67
Ramjee Pallela and Se-Kwon Kim
Chapter 7 Prospects of Marine Sponge Collagen and Its Applications in Cosmetology............ 77
Janapala Venkateswara Rao, Ramjee Pallela, and G.V.S. Bhanu Prakash
Chapter 8 Skin Photoprotection by Marine Carotenoids........................................................... 105
Kazuo Miyashita, Nana Mikami, M. Airanthi K. Widjaja‑Adhi, Masayuki Abe,
and Masashi Hosokawa
Chapter 9 Role of Astaxanthin in Cosmeceutical Applications................................................ 119
Pamela Chávez-Crooker, Johanna Obreque, Jeanette Vera, and Karla Moya

Chapter 10 Effect of Marine Collagen Peptide on Skin Condition............................................. 125
Kenji Sato and Yasutaka Shigemura

v


vi

Contents

Chapter 11 Fish Collagen and Tissue Repair............................................................................... 133
Yoshihiko Hayashi, Shizuka Yamada, Takeshi Ikeda, and Kajiro Yanagiguchi
Chapter 12 Red Algal Mycosporine-Like Amino Acids (MAAs) as Potential
Cosmeceuticals..................................................................................................... 143
Yvonne V. Yuan and Yasantha Athukorala
Chapter 13 Cosmeceutical Applications of Chitosan and Its Derivatives................................... 169
Mahinda Senevirathne, Chang-Bum Ahn, Se-Kwon Kim, and Jae-Young Je
Chapter 14 Brown Algae-Derived Compounds as Potential Cosmeceuticals............................. 179
Mahinda Senevirathne and Se-Kwon Kim
Chapter 15 Biological Properties of Cosmeceuticals Derived from Marine Algae.................... 191
Se-Kwon Kim and Ratih Pangestuti
Chapter 16 Hair Biology and Care Product Ingredients from Marine Organisms...................... 201
Se-Kwon Kim and Soon-Sun Bak
Chapter 17 Cosmeceuticals from Marine Fish and Shellfish...................................................... 211
Vazhiyil Venugopal
Chapter 18 Unlocking the Power of Marine Cosmeceuticals for Wrinkle-Free Skin................. 233
Dinanath B. Fulse, Spandana R. Kopalli, and Sushruta Koppula
Chapter 19 Sea Water and Sea Mud: Cosmeceuticals Applications............................................ 241
Se-Kwon Kim, Jayachandran Venkatesan, and P.N. Sudha
Chapter 20 Potential Cosmeceutical Applications of Phlorotannins and Fucoidans from

Marine Algae in the Treatment of Atopic Dermatitis............................................... 257
Noel Vinay Thomas and Se-Kwon Kim
Chapter 21 Application of Chitin Nanofibrils and Collagen of Marine Origin as Bioactive
Ingredients................................................................................................................. 267
Pierfrancesco Morganti, Paola del Ciotto, Gianluca Morganti, and
Véronique Fabien-Soulé
Chapter 22 Screening Strategies for the Discovery of Marine Microbial Cosmeceuticals......... 291
Se-Kwon Kim and Ira Bhatnagar


vii

Contents

Chapter 23 Cosmeceutical Properties of Brown Algae and Its Industrial Applications............. 305
You-Jin Jeon, W.A.J.P. Wijesinghe, and Se-Kwon Kim
Chapter 24 Potential Applications of Chitosan as a Marine Cosmeceutical............................... 319
Elena Lecumberri Lima, Laura Calderón Moz, Ruth Expósito Harris, and
Ángeles María Heras Caballero
Chapter 25 Industrial Applications of Marine Cosmeceuticals................................................... 335
Janak K. Vidanarachchi and Maheshika S. Kurukulasuriya
Chapter 26 Aquatic and Marine Bioactive Antimicrobial Peptides and Biosurfactants for
the Cosmeceutical Industry....................................................................................... 371
Jen-Leih Wu and Jenn-Kan Lu
Chapter 27 Industrial Prospects of the Cosmeceuticals Derived from Marine Mucin............... 391
Se-Kwon Kim and Fatih Karadeniz



Preface

Science is the intellectual activity carried on by humans that is formulated to discover newer and
novel information about the natural world in which we thrive. Humans have developed great skills to
organize and use this basic information and translate it into meaningful output for their well-being
through logical approaches. Cosmeceutical science is one branch of this never-ending curiosity of
humans to design the best out of the existing framework of resources in the natural environment.
Although a very promising field, it is yet to achieve its bloom. A vast exploration of various animal
and plant sources in search of cosmeceuticals has led to some efficient products. However, most of
them are now being associated with secondary effects of unknown magnitude of complications.
The idea of this book is to investigate oceanic sources as an alternative to these complications and
survey the possibilities of bringing together this vast treasure of marine environment toward safer
cosmeceutic development. As an editor of this book, I have aimed to accumulate the latest research
in this field from across the globe and highlight the potential of marine micro- and macroflora and
fauna as effective agents for the development of novel cosmeceuticals. The concept of this book had
been developing since I started researching hair growth factors and anti-inflammatory compounds
of marine origin. I always used to marvel at the gems of the aquatic milieu for their possession of
substances par excellence and wonder why the exploration and exploitation of marine cosmeceuticals is a long-time task. The question of why, despite this great potential, just a few cosmeceutical
products from marine sources have entered the cosmetic market has pushed me to commit to the
complex task of compiling a book on this topic of utmost interest. I looked into the research groups
working in the field of aquatic sciences, marine environment in particular, and started reviewing
their concepts of developing marine-derived cosmeceuticals. After thorough research, I decided on
a collective contribution of researchers from different countries for their input, and finally wrote
this book to present a consolidated overview of the marine environment as a productive source of
novel cosmeceuticals, and the future prospects of seeing marine sources as cosmeceutics factories.
With contributions from Korea, Japan, China, India, Spain, France, Chile, Malaysia, Canada,
Italy, Sri Lanka, and Taiwan, this book holds great insight for cosmetologists and marine researchers in general. My sincere thanks to all the contributors, who have brought the best themes and
concepts to the book. The layout of the book has been kept simple and understandable with explanations wherever possible. Part I starts with a general introduction to cosmeceuticals and marine cosmeceutical sources. It covers an overview of the biological activities of different marine sources and
the class of cosmeceutical agents that they may deliver. This is followed by the chemical properties
of marine cosmeceuticals, with special emphasis on chitosan as a cosmeceutical agent, in Part II.
The most extended part of this book, Part III, covers the range of biological properties and bioactive
promise that the oceanic environment holds in the field of cosmetology. The information covered

in this part is useful for cosmetologists and marine researchers looking for marine alternatives to
existing cosmeceuticals in terms of skin whitening, antiwrinkling, photo protection, tissue repair,
and antiacne, as well as hair growth. Collagen is an important protein in our skin and its degradation results have been associated with aging. Part III also covers information on marine fish and
sponge-derived collagens as effective skin treatment agents to be utilized in antiaging formulations.
Biotechnology is an emerging science that in conjunction with marine biology and microbiology
may lead to wonders in the field of cosmetology. I have explored the role of biotechnology in marine
cosmeceutical science, and Part IV of this book deals with this, where we have presented different
strategies for enhanced cosmeceutical production. Part V wraps up the book with the industrial
applications of marine cosmeceuticals. Apart from other applications, this part covers information
on aquatic and marine bioactive antimicrobial peptides for the cosmeceutical industry, which is
ix


x

Preface

an important aspect of marine protein chemistry. This book offers comprehensive knowledge on
novel marine cosmeceutical agents, their biological and chemical properties, as well as industrial
applications.
I owe deep gratitude to the people who helped me and encouraged me in the process of writing
this book. My students, who are the budding researchers, have extended their helping hands for this
effort of mine. I would also like to thank Taylor & Francis for their willingness in this project and
publishing this book with their in-depth professionalism and sense of excellence. I hope reading this
book is a great experience for you.
Se-Kwon Kim


Editor
Se-Kwon Kim, PhD, is a professor of marine biochemistry in the Department of Chemistry,

Pukyong National University (PKNU), Busan, South Korea. Dr. Kim received his MSc and PhD
degrees from PKNU and became a faculty member there. He conducted his postdoctoral study at
the Bioprocess Laboratory, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Illinois,
Urbana-Champaign, Illinois (1988–1989). He became a visiting scientist at the Memorial University
of Newfoundland in Canada (1999–2000).
In 2004, Dr. Kim became the director for the Marine Bioprocess Research Center (MBPRC) at
Pukyong National University. He served as president of the Korean Society of Chitin and Chitosan
(1986–1990) and the Korean Society of Marine Biotechnology (2006–2007). Dr. Kim was also the
chairman for 7th Asia-Pacific Chitin and Chitosan Symposium, which was held in South Korea in
2006. He is one of the board members of the International Society of Marine Biotechnology (IMB)
and the International Society for Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods (ISNFF).
He was the editor-in-chief of the Korean Journal of Life Sciences (1995–1997), the Korean
Journal of Fisheries Science and Technology (2006–2007), and the Korean Journal of Marine
Bioscience and Biotechnology (2006–present). To the credit of his research, he won Best Paper
awards from the American Oil Chemists’ Society (AOCS) and the Korean Society of Fisheries
Science and Technology (KSFST) in 2002.
His major research interests are investigation and development of bioactive substances derived
from marine organisms and their application as cosmeceuticals and nutraceuticals via marine bioprocessing and mass production technologies. He expanded his research fields into the industrialization of antiphotoaging and photoprotective substances from marine organisms. To date, Dr. Kim
has authored over 450 research papers and holds 72 patents. In addition, he has written or edited
more than 30 books.

xi



Contributors
Masayuki Abe
Faculty of Fisheries Sciences
Hokkaido University
Hokkaido, Japan

and
Kaneka Co.
Osaka, Japan
Niuris Acosta Contreras
Instituto de Estudios Biofuncionales
Departamento de Química Física II
Facultad de Farmacia
Universidad Complutense
Madrid, Spain
Chang-Bum Ahn
School of Food Technology and Nutrition
Chonnam National University
Busan, Republic of Korea
Abdul Bakrudeen Ali Ahmed
Institute of Biological Sciences
Faculty of Science
University of Malaya
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Yasantha Athukorala
School of Nutrition
Ryerson University
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Sumathy Babitha
Department of Biological Engineering
National Research Lab of Skin Bioactive
Materials
Inha University
Incheon, Republic of Korea
Soon-Sun Bak
Marine Bioprocess Research Center

Pukyong National University
Busan, Republic of Korea
Ira Bhatnagar
Marine Biochemistry Laboratory
Department of Chemistry

Pukyong National University
Busan, Republic of Korea
and
Infectious Diseases
Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology
Hyderabad, India
Laura Calderón Moz
Instituto de Estudios Biofuncionales
Departamento de Qmica Física II
Facultad de Farmacia
Universidad Complutense
Madrid, Spain
Pamela Chávez-Crooker
Biotechnologies Aguamarina Research Center
(CR97)
Antofagasta, Chile
Paola del Ciotto
R&D Lab
MAVI Sud
Aprilia (LT), Italy
Ruth Expósito Harris
Instituto de Estudios Biofuncionales
Departamento de Qmica Física II
Facultad de Farmacia

Universidad Complutense
Madrid, Spain
Véronique Fabien-Soulé
Regulatory Affairs
Puteaux, France
Dinanath B. Fulse
Synthetic Cellular Chemistry Laboratory
Advanced Science Institute RIKEN
Saitama, Japan
Yoshihiko Hayashi
Department of Cariology
Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences
Nagasaki University
Nagasaki, Japan
xiii


xiv

Ángeles María Heras Caballero
Instituto de Estudios Biofuncionales
Departamento de Química Física II
Facultad de Farmacia
Universidad Complutense
Madrid, Spain
Masashi Hosokawa
Faculty of Fisheries Sciences
Hokkaido University
Hokkaido, Japan
Takeshi Ikeda

Department of Cariology
Nagasaki University Hospital
Nagasaki, Japan
Jae-Young Je
School of Food Technology and Nutrition
Chonnam National University
Yeosu, Republic of Korea
You-Jin Jeon
Faculty of Marine Biomedical Science
Jeju National University
Jeju, Republic of Korea
Fatih Karadeniz
Department of Chemistry
Pukyong National University
Busan, Republic of Korea
Eun-Ki Kim
Department of Biological Engineering
National Research Lab of Skin Bioactive
Materials
Inha University
Incheon, Republic of Korea
Se-Kwon Kim
Department of Chemistry, and
Marine Bioprocess Research Center
Pukyong National University
Busan, Republic of Korea
Spandana R. Kopalli
Department of Pharmacology
College of Medicine
Seoul National University

Seoul, Republic of Korea

Contributors

Sushruta Koppula
College of Biomedical and Health Sciences
Konkuk University
Chungbuk-Do, Chungju, Republic of Korea
Maheshika S. Kurukulasuriya
Department of Animal Science
Faculty of Agriculture
University of Peradeniya
Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Elena Lecumberri Lima
Instituto de Estudios Biofuncionales
Departamento de Química Física II
Facultad de Farmacia
Universidad Complutense
Madrid, Spain
Xiuping Lin
Key Laboratory of Marine Bioresources
Sustainable Utilization
Guangdong Key Laboratory of Marine Materia
Medica
Research Center for Marine Microbes
South China Sea Institute of Oceanology
Chinese Academy of Sciences
Guangzhou, China
Yonghong Liu
Key Laboratory of Marine Bioresources

Sustainable Utilization
Guangdong Key Laboratory of Marine Materia
Medica
Research Center for Marine Microbes
South China Sea Institute of Oceanology
Chinese Academy of Sciences
Guangzhou, China
María Ángeles López Mengíbar
Instituto de Estudios Biofuncionales
Departamento de Química Física II
Facultad de Farmacia
Universidad Complutense
Madrid, Spain
Jenn-Kan Lu
Department of Aquaculture
National Taiwan Ocean University
Keelung, Taiwan


xv

Contributors

Rosna Mat Taha
Institute of Biological Sciences
Faculty of Science
University of Malaya
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Nana Mikami
Faculty of Fisheries Sciences

Hokkaido University
Hokkaido, Japan
and
Faculty of Nursing and Human Nutrition
Yamaguchi Prefectural University
Yamaguchi, Japan
Kazuo Miyashita
Bio-Functional Material Chemistry
Faculty of Fisheries Sciences
Hokkaido University
Hakodate, Japan
Gianluca Morganti
R&D Lab
MAVI Sud
Aprilia (LT), Italy
Pierfrancesco Morganti
Applied Cosmetic Dermatology
II University of Naples
and
China Medical University
Shenyang, China
and
I.S.C.D.
Rome, Italy
and
Nanoscience Centre
Mavi Sud S.r.l Via dell’Industria
Aprilia, Italy

Ramjee Pallela

Marine Bioprocess Research Center
Pukyong National University
Busan, Republic of Korea
Ratih Pangestuti
Marine Biochemistry Laboratory
Department of Chemistry
Pukyong National University
Busan, Republic of Korea
G.V.S. Bhanu Prakash
Toxicology Unit
Biology Division
Indian Institute of Chemical Technology
Hyderabad, India
Kenji Sato
Division of Applied Life Sciences
Graduate School of Life and Environmental
Sciences
Kyoto Prefectural University
Shimogamo Kyoto, Japan
Mahinda Senevirathne
Marine Bioprocess Research Center
Pukyong National University
Busan, Republic of Korea
Yasutaka Shigemura
Division of Applied Life Sciences
Graduate School of Life and Environmental
Sciences
Kyoto Prefectural University
Shimogamo Kyoto, Japan
and

Osaka Yuhigaoka Gakuen Junior College
Osaka, Japan

Karla Moya
Biotechnologies Aguamarina Research Center
(CR97)
Antofagasta, Chile

P.N. Sudha
Department of Chemistry
DKM College
Thiruvalluvar University
Tamilnadu, India

Johanna Obreque
Biotechnologies Aguamarina Research Center
(CR97)
Antofagasta, Chile

Jayachandran Venkatesan
Department of Chemistry
Pukyong National University
Busan, Republic of Korea


xvi

Contributors

Janapala Venkateswara Rao

Toxicology Unit
Biology Division
Indian Institute of Chemical Technology
Hyderabad, India

Shizuka Yamada
Department of Cariology
Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences
Nagasaki University
Nagasaki, Japan

Vazhiyil Venugopal
Seafood Technology Section
Food Technology Division
Bhabha Atomic Research Center
Mumbai, India

Kajiro Yanagiguchi
Department of Cariology
Nagasaki University Hospital
Nagasaki, Japan

Jeanette Vera
Biotechnologies Aguamarina Research Center
(CR97)
Antofagasta, Chile
Janak K. Vidanarachchi
Department of Animal Science
Faculty of Agriculture
University of Peradeniya

Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Noel Vinay Thomas
Marine Biochemistry Laboratory
Department of Chemistry
Pukyong National University
Busan, Republic of Korea
M. Airanthi K. Widjaja-Adhi
Bio-functional Material Chemistry
Faculty of Fisheries Sciences
Hokkaido University
Hakodate, Japan
Isuru Wijesekara
Marine Biochemistry Laboratory
Department of Chemistry
Pukyong National University
Busan, Republic of Korea
W.A.J.P. Wijesinghe
School of Marine Biomedical Science
Jeju National University
Jeju, Republic of Korea
Jen-Leih Wu
Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology
Academia Sinica
Taipei, Taiwan

Bin Yang
Key Laboratory of Marine Bioresources
Sustainable Utilization
Guangdong Key Laboratory of Marine Materia
Medica

Research Center for Marine Microbes
South China Sea Institute of Oceanology
Chinese Academy of Sciences
Guangzhou, China
Xian-Wen Yang
Key Laboratory of Marine Bioresources
Sustainable Utilization
Guangdong Key Laboratory of Marine Materia
Medica
Research Center for Marine Microbes
South China Sea Institute of Oceanology
Chinese Academy of Sciences
Guangzhou, China
Yvonne V. Yuan
School of Nutrition
Ryerson University
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Xue-Feng Zhou
Key Laboratory of Marine Bioresources
Sustainable Utilization
Guangdong Key Laboratory of Marine Materia
Medica
Research Center for Marine Microbes
South China Sea Institute of Oceanology
Chinese Academy of Sciences
Guangzhou, China


from
1 Cosmeceuticals

Marine Resources
Prospects and Commercial Trends
Se-Kwon Kim and Isuru Wijesekara
CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Prospects and Trends of Marine-Derived Cosmeceutical Ingredients......................................3
1.3 Potential Cosmeceutical Ingredients from Marine Resources..................................................3
1.3.1 Seaweed Extract............................................................................................................. 3
1.3.1.1 Phlorotannins.................................................................................................. 4
1.3.1.2 Polysaccharides............................................................................................... 4
1.3.1.3 Carotenoid Pigments....................................................................................... 5
1.3.2 Microalgae Extract........................................................................................................ 5
1.3.3 Collagen.........................................................................................................................6
1.3.4 Bioactive Peptides..........................................................................................................6
1.3.5 Chitooligosaccharide (COS) Derivatives....................................................................... 7
1.3.6 Enzymes........................................................................................................................7
1.3.7 Sea Mud......................................................................................................................... 7
1.4 Biological Activities of Marine Cosmetic Ingredients on Skin Health.....................................7
1.4.1 Antioxidant Activity...................................................................................................... 7
1.4.2 Antiwrinkling Activity.................................................................................................. 8
1.4.3 Antityrosinase Activity..................................................................................................8
1.4.4 Antiacne Activity...........................................................................................................8
1.5 Concluding Remarks................................................................................................................. 9
References........................................................................................................................................... 9

1.1  INTRODUCTION
Cosmetics are defined as articles intended to be applied to the human body for cleansing, beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering the appearance without affecting body structure or
functions (Nelson and Rumsfield, 1988). Cosmetic preparations that are also intended to prevent
disease or affect the function or structure of the human skin are considered drugs, for example, sunscreen or antidandruff shampoos. Cosmeceuticals contain active ingredients as creams,
lotions, and ointments. In addition, ingestible beauty products or nutricosmetics are offered as

liquids, pills, or functional foods. These products are formulated with ingredients or nutrients
believed to promote healthy skin, hair, and nails at cellular levels, and their key ingredients often
include vitamins, minerals, botanical extracts, and antioxidants. The world’s cosmeceuticals
market in 2007 was estimated at US$60 billion, with a growth rate of 8 to 12%, but it increased
1


2

Cosmetic Consumption (£per capita)

Marine Cosmeceuticals: Trends and Prospects
120
100
80
60
40
20
0

Japan

Western Europe

North America

Rest of the World

FIGURE 1.1  Cosmetic products consumption by various nations, excluding soap, toothpaste, and razors.
2008 provisional estimates. (From 2008 L’Oreal estimates, manufacturer selling prices. With permission.)

to £110.3 billion in 2008. In terms of the geographical market for cosmeceuticals, Japan is by
far the biggest market, valued at $6 to $8 billion. The United States is estimated at around $5 to
$6 billion, and the EU at $3 to $5 billion. China became the fourth largest market in 2008, and
the South Korean cosmetic market is the fourth biggest among Asian cosmetic markets. Over the
last few years, the cosmetic market has witnessed a huge change that has resulted in an entire
shift in its value chain, with cosmetics production being shifted to low-cost countries like India
and China. At the same time new channels of distribution are emerging, such as online retailing.
The cosmetic products consumption in the world is depicted in Figure 1.1. Recently, a great deal
of interest has been developed by consumers toward novel bioactive compounds as ingredients
in cosmeceuticals from natural resources because of their numerous beneficial effects against
synthetic ingredients. Marine resources have been demonstrated as rich sources of structurally
diverse biologically active compounds with great cosmeceutical potential (Table 1.1). As more
than 70% of the world’s surface is covered by oceans, the wide diversity of marine organisms
offers a rich source of natural products. The marine environment contains a source of functional
materials, including polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), polysaccharides, essential minerals and
TABLE 1.1
Some Potential Cosmeceutical Ingredients
from Marine Resources
Cosmetic Ingredient
Potassium alginate
Squid ink powder
Mussel glycogen
Aluminum silicate
Chitin/chitosan
Shell powder
Turtle oil
Squalene
Whale wax
Dried sea water substance

Carrageenan
Fucoidan

Marine Resources
Brown algae
Sepia subaculeate
Nattallia japonica
Sea mud
Crustaceans
Oysters
Chelonia mydas
Shark species
Physeter macrocephalus
Sea water
Red algae
Brown algae


Cosmeceuticals from Marine Resources

3

vitamins, antioxidants, enzymes, and bioactive peptides (Kim and Wijesekara, 2010; Pomponi,
1999). This chapter focuses on prospects and novel trends of potential cosmeceutical ingredients
from marine resources and presents a brief overview of their cosmeceutical activities with health
benefits.

1.2  P
 ROSPECTS AND TRENDS OF MARINE-DERIVED
COSMECEUTICAL INGREDIENTS

Marine resources have been well recognized for their biologically active substances with a great
potential to be used as cosmetics (Kim et al., 2008). Capitalizing on the growing need to look
younger through natural and organic means, the need of marine biotechnology is the best way to
help aging and inflammation, minimize the formation of free radicals, and slow the degradation of
the skin. Moreover, much attention has been paid recently by the young generation to beauty as well
as maintaining a young appearance with novel cosmetics containing natural bioactive ingredients.
Therefore, the search for safe and inexpensive natural bioactive ingredients from marine resources
as cosmetic ingredients is promising, and a few potential examples follow.
Phycoerythrin pigment protein in red algae can be used as a pigment in cosmetics. Incorporating
marine proteoglycans as a nutricosmetic in skin capsules is said to boost collagen and help
strengthen cell cohesion and improve skin density, creating firmer skin. New technologies are also
on the horizon for incorporating popular nutritional ingredients into cosmetic formulas, including
marine-derived ingredients such as omega-3 fatty acids. Among the reported effects of omega-3
fatty acids on skin is the stimulation of tissue repair and enhancement of collagen production.
Bioactive peptides derived from Hawaiian red seaweeds are incorporated some cosmeceuticals to
enhance collagen formation and firmer skin appearance. Laminaria japonica, a brown seaweed,
stores marine minerals and trace elements in a highly concentrated form and uses them to generate
special algae-based active ingredients that are used as a protective shield against all harmful influences, for example, UV radiation. Laminaria produces extremely effective moisture binding agents
that prevent the alga from drying out at low tide. Therefore, Laminaria extract could be used as a
potential cosmetic ingredient to make the skin firm and smooth. Marine phytoplankton is a skin
“super food” that contains more than 65 amino acids, essential fats, vitamins, key minerals, trace
elements, antioxidants, electrolytes, nucleic acids, and enzymes—virtually all the raw materials
necessary for complete cellular regeneration. Able to deeply penetrate skin, it increases circulation
and oxygenates tissues to repair, rebuild, and replenish healthy skin. In addition, marine-derived
proteins such as collagen have potential as functional ingredients in cosmetics such as sunscreen
lotions, shampoo, conditioners, hair gel, nail polish, and lipstick. Recently, the cosmetic application of collagen and gelatin, derived from terrestrial animals like cow and pig, have been declining
because of animal diseases and some ethnic or religious barriers. New trends are pointing toward
the use of other food sources such as marine fish-derived collagen and gelatin. These are excellent
functional ingredients for the cosmetic industry. Collagen and gelatin have high moisturizing properties and can be produced as novel cosmetic creams and gels. With the invention of UV radiation
protection compounds, antiwrinkling agents, and antiaging compounds in the cosmetic industry,

new trends have focused on the manufacture of sunscreen lotions, creams, and other cosmetics. In
this regard, marine-derived bioactive functional ingredients are promising functional ingredients
for novel cosmeceuticals with health benefits.

1.3  POTENTIAL COSMECEUTICAL INGREDIENTS FROM MARINE RESOURCES
1.3.1  Seaweed Extract
Among marine organisms, seaweeds have been identified as an underexploited plant resource and
a source of cosmeceutical ingredients. In addition, they have long been used in food diets as well


4

Marine Cosmeceuticals: Trends and Prospects
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O

O

OH

O

OH

(b)
HO

O
OH

(c)

FIGURE 1.2  Some phlorotannins derived from marine algae (a) phloroglucinol, (b) eckol, and (c) dieckol.

as traditional remedies in Asian countries, mainly China, Japan, and Korea. Said to be rich in
vitamins and minerals, and well known to tolerate desiccation, temperature variations, and high
saline water, the components make up a product that could possibly head up the growing trend—
enticing manufacturers with its multifunctional skin care properties. Recently, their importance as
a source of novel bioactive substances to be used in the cosmetic industry has grown rapidly and
researchers have revealed that marine algal originated compounds exhibit various biological activities (Wijesekara et al., 2010, 2011). In general, marine brown and red seaweeds are the common
types used in cosmeceutical products. Seaweed extracts are rich in cosmeceutical ingredients such
as phlorotannins, polysaccharides, and carotenoid pigments.
1.3.1.1  Phlorotannins
Phlorotannins are formed by the polymerization of phloroglucinol (1,3,5-tryhydroxybenzene) monomer units and biosynthesized through the acetate-malonate pathway, also known as the polyketide
pathway. Phlorotannins are highly hydrophilic components with a wide range of molecular sizes
ranging between 126 Da and 650 kDa. Marine brown algae such as Ecklonia cava accumulate a
variety of phloroglucinol-based polyphenols as phlorotannins of low, intermediate, and high molecular weight containing both phenyl and phenoxy units. Furthermore, pholorotannins consist of phloroglucinol units linked to each other in various ways, and are of wide occurrence among marine
organisms, especially brown and red algae (Wijesekara et al., 2011). Many researchers have shown

that phlorotannins (Figure 1.2) derived from marine brown algae have potential effects on human
skin health and beauty.
1.3.1.2  Polysaccharides
The cell walls of marine algae are rich in various bioactive polysaccharides such as fucoidans in
brown algae, carrageenans in red algae, and ulvans in green algae. These polysaccharides exhibit
many beneficial cosmeceutical effects. Compared to other polysaccharides, fucoidans (Figure 1.3)
are commercially important ingredients that are widely available in various brown seaweeds such as
Laminaria japonica, Fucus vesiculosus, Undaria pinnatifida, and Hizikia fusiformis; hence more
and more fucoidans have been investigated in recent years to develop novel cosmetic products.
Fucoidans have a high fucose polymer backbone and are usually highly branched, sulfated, and
acetylated. Throughout the past few decades, there has been a growing interest in in vitro research


5

Cosmeceuticals from Marine Resources

H3C

O

–O SO
3

OH
–

OSO3

H3C

O

O

OSO3–
O

(a)

+NaOOC

OH

O

OH
O

O

O
–

OSO3

OSO3–
O

O

O

HO
OH

H 3C

O

HO
(c)

OH

HO
(b)

–O SO
3

FIGURE 1.3  Sulfated polysaccharides derived from marine algae (a) fucoidan, (b) carrageenan, and (c)
ulvan.

about bioactive properties of fucoidans. According to most of these studies, fucoidans have a promising potential in cosmetic use.
Alginates also are cell wall ingredients of mainly brown seaweeds. They are chain-forming heteropolysaccharides made up of blocks of mannuronic acid and guluronic acid. Alginates have the
potential to be used as cosmetic additives to improve, modify, and stabilize the texture of cosmeceuticals. Moreover, alginates are highly functional hydrocolloids to thicken and stabilize emulsions at
low pH values.
Carrageenans are sulfated linear polysaccharides with galactose and are extracted from red seaweeds. The most common source of carrageenan is Gigartina from southern Europe. This sulfated
polysaccharide has been used as a viscosity-altering and thickening agent in cosmeceutical products.
1.3.1.3  Carotenoid Pigments

Carotenoids are a family of pigmented compounds that are synthesized by plants, algae, fungi, and
microorganisms, but not animals. The cosmeceutical effects of carotenoid pigments depend on the
number of conjugated double bonds of the molecule and carotenoid end groups or the nature of
substituents in carotenoids containing cyclic end groups. Numerous seaweed-derived carotenoids
are considered to be potential cosmetic ingredients. In this regard, fucoxanthin and astaxanthin
derived from marine algae have been known to be major ingredients (Figure 1.4) of marine algal
carotenoids with beneficial cosmeceutical effects.

1.3.2  Microalgae Extract
Microalgae extracts have been mainly used in the formulation of cosmetic and skin care products. There is a growing trend in marine microalgae, which offer a unique opportunity to deliver


6

Marine Cosmeceuticals: Trends and Prospects
CH3

HO

CH3

CH3

CH3

CH3
O

O
CH3

CH3

H3C

CH3

OH

H3C

(a)
HO
CH3
O CH3
H3C

H3C

CH3

OR

H 3C

CH3
O

CH3

CH3

H 3C

OH

(b)

FIGURE 1.4  Caratenoids derived from marine algae (a) fucoxanthin and (b) astaxanthin.

functional ingredients for the cosmetic market with the advantages of being plant derived, natural,
sustainable, and highly novel. Existing microalgal products include carotenoids and fatty acids,
but it is certain that a vast number of new microalgal-based functional ingredients will appear
over the coming years. Among these are novel polysaccharide products that could replace existing seaweed-derived polysaccharides and provide a wide range of novel functional saccharides for
the development of functional cosmeceutical products. Some cosmetic companies maintain their
own microalgal production systems. Extracts from marine microalgae are a rich source of bioactive proteins, vitamins, minerals, and carotenoid pigments such as astaxanthin. The extracts from
Arthrospira and Chlorella, marine microalgal species, have been used in the cosmeceutical industry to make skin care products. Chorella, a unicellular green alga, contains various valuable proteins and has great potential to be used in novel cosmeceuticals.

1.3.3  Collagen
Collagen is the most abundant animal protein polymer, representing nearly 30% of the total
protein in the animal body. It is the main structural element of bones, cartilage, skin, tendons,
ligaments, blood vessels, teeth, cornea, and all other organs of vertebrates. The molecular structure of collagen contains three polypeptide α chains wound together in a tight triple helix. Each
polypeptide α chain consists of a repeated sequence of triplets (Gly-X-Y)n, where X and Y are
often proline (Pro) and hydroxyproline (Hyp). For industrial purposes, collagen is extracted
mainly from skin and bones of cattle and pigs. However, due to highly infectious and contagious
animal diseases and some religious barriers, industrial use of collagen from these sources is
becoming limited. Therefore, marine-derived collagen is an alternative with safe and economical advantages (Senaratne et al., 2006). Additionally, collagen improves the elasticity of skin by
stimulating the production of collagen by the skin cells themselves, thus maintaining youthful
and vibrant skin and neutralizing the skin’s continuous aging deterioration by redensifying the
dermis.

1.3.4  Bioactive Peptides
Marine-derived bioactive peptides are inactive within the sequence of their parent protein and can
be released by enzymatic hydrolysis of marine organisms and seafood by-products. Bioactive peptides usually contain 3–20 amino acid residues, and their activities are based on their amino acid


7

Cosmeceuticals from Marine Resources

O
HO

NH2

OH

OH

OH

O
O
HO

NH2

O

O

HO
n

O

NH2

FIGURE 1.5  Structure of chitosan.

composition and sequence. Biologically active marine peptides are food-derived peptides that function beyond their nutritional value, having physiological, hormone-like properties with possible
roles in improving skin health.

1.3.5  Chitooligosaccharide (COS) Derivatives
Chitin is the second most abundant biopolymer on the earth after cellulose and one of the most
abundant polysaccharides. It is a glycan of β (1→4)-linked N-acetylglucosamine units, and it is
widely distributed in crustaceans and insects as the protective exo-skeleton and cell walls of most
fungi. Chitin is usually prepared from the shells of crabs and shrimp. Chitosan (Figure 1.5), a partially deacetylated polymer of N-acetylglucosamine, is prepared by alkaline deacetylation of chitin
(S. K. Kim et al., 2006). COSs are chitosan derivatives (polycationic polymers comprised principally of glucosamine units) and can be generated via either chemical or enzymatic hydrolysis of chitosan (Jeon and Kim, 2000a, 2000b). Recently, COSs have been the subject of increased attention
in terms of their cosmeceutical and pharmaceutical applications (Kim and Rajapakse, 2005), due to
their lack of toxicity and high solubility as well as their positive physiological effects on skin health.

1.3.6  Enzymes
Marine bacteria isolated from the deep sea produce specific enzymes to catalyze removal reactions of free radicals caused by UV damage at high temperatures. Specific enzymes from Thermus
thermophilus have been used for developing cosmeceuticals for skin protection (Kim et al., 2008).

1.3.7  Sea Mud
Sea mud contains various nutrients and minerals, and even antibacterial components. Hence sea
mud has been used for skin care and cosmeceutical products. Dead Sea mud is especially recognized for its therapeutic properties for psoriasis and other skin-related disorders. Dead Sea mud and
waters rich in minerals can be applied to either the entire body or just parts. Dead Sea mud masques
stimulate, tighten, clean, and invigorate the skin with a refreshing glow (Kim et al., 2008).

1.4  B
 IOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES OF MARINE COSMETIC
INGREDIENTS ON SKIN HEALTH
1.4.1  Antioxidant Activity
Antioxidants may have a positive effect on human skin health as they can protect human skin against
damage by reactive oxygen species (ROS), which attack macromolecules such as membrane lipids,
proteins, and DNA, leading to skin disorders. Lipid oxidation by ROS such as superoxide anion,
hydroxyl radicals, and H2O2 also causes a decrease in the youthful appearance of skin. Therefore,
in the cosmeceutical as well as pharmaceutical industries, many synthetic commercial antioxidants
such as butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), tert-butylhydroquinone


8

Marine Cosmeceuticals: Trends and Prospects

(TBHQ), and propyl gallate (PG) have been used to retard the oxidation and peroxidation processes.
However, the use of these synthetic antioxidants must be under strict regulation due to potential
health hazards (Hettiarachchy et al., 1996; Park et al., 2001). Hence the search for natural antioxidants as safe alternatives is important in the cosmeceutical industry. Recently, there has been
considerable interest in the cosmeceutical industry the development of antioxidants from natural
sources, such as marine flora and fauna.
Among marine resources, seaweeds represent one of the richest sources of natural antioxidants
such as phlorotannins, sulfated polysaccharides, and fucoxanthins (Mayer and Hamann, 2002;
Ruperez, 2001). Marine-derived chitooligosaccharide derivatives and bioactive peptides recognized
as potential antioxidants with free radical scavenging effects have the potential to be used as novel
cosmeceutical ingredients.

1.4.2  Antiwrinkling Activity
Matrix metalloproteinase enzymes (MMPs) play an important role in the digestion of extracellular

matrix components and are closely associated with wrinkle formation. Several types of MMPs, such
as MMP-2 and MMP-9, have been reported. The inhibition of MMP activity by marine-derived chitooligosaccharides, flavonoides, polyphenols, and fatty acids has been previously reported (Zhang
and Kim, 2009). M. M. Kim et al. (2006) for the first time reported a detailed study on the in
vitro inhibitory effects of phlorotannins derived from E. cava on MMP activities. A novel gelatin
digestion assay could visualize complete inhibition of bacterial collagenase-1 activity at 20 µg/ml
of E. cava extract during preliminary screening assays. A sensitive fluorometric assay revealed
that E. cava phlorotannins can specifically inhibit both MMP-2 and MMP-9 activities significantly
(p < 0.001) at 10 µg/ml. In addition, artificially induced activities of MMP-2 and MMP-9 in human
dermal fibroblasts and HT 1080 cells have been inhibited by E. cava extract in a more or less similar
manner to the positive control doxycycline.

1.4.3  Antityrosinase Activity
Melanin contributes to the skin color and plays a crucial protective role against skin photocarcinogenesis. However, the production of abnormal melanin pigment is a serious skin problem. Melanin
biosynthesis can be inhibited by avoiding UV exposure, the inhibition of tyrosinase enzyme, the
inhibition of melanocytes metabolism and proliferation, or the removal of melanin with corneal
ablation. Therefore, in an effort to inhibit the activity of tyrosinase, many different types of tyrosinase inhibitors have been developed from marine resources. These compounds are applicable
for cosmetics as skin-whitening agents and also as drugs for use in the treatment of pigmentation
disturbances. For example, a phlorotannin, 7-phloroeckol from marine brown seaweed, Ecklonia
cava has been reported as a potential skin-whitening agent with antityrosinase activity via reducing
melanogenesis (Yoon et al., 2009).

1.4.4  Antiacne Activity
Propionibacterium acnes is a bacterium, a major inhabitant of adult human skin, where it resides
within sebaceous follicles, and has been implicated in acne vulgaris (pimples) formation. P. acnes
bacteria are Gram-positive, non-spore-forming, anaerobic rods. They release lipases to digest a
surplus of the skin oil, sebum, that has been produced, which stimulates an intense local inflammation that bursts from the hair follicle. This causes acne formation, a common cosmetic issue
among youth close to adolescence. The inhibition of the growth of P. acnes has been recognized as
a treatment for acne in the cosmeceutical industry. Sargafuran from marine brown alga Sargassum
macrocarpum has been shown to have potent antiacne activity against P. acnes (Kamei et al., 2009).
Chitooligosaccharide derivatives are well-known antibacterial compounds from marine resources.