The science of environmental pollution, second edition

Tai Lieu Chat Luong


THE
SCIENCE OF
ENVIRONMENTAL
POLLUTION
S E C O N D

© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

E D I T I O N


THE
SCIENCE OF
ENVIRONMENTAL
POLLUTION
S E C O N D
F R A N K

R.

E D I T I O N
S P E L L M A N

Boca Raton London New York

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Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC


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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Spellman, Frank R.
The science of environmental pollution / Frank R. Spellman. -- 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4398-1302-7 (alk. paper)
1. Pollution. 2. Environmental sciences. I. Title.
TD174.S675 2010
628.5--dc22
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© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

2009039100


Dedication
For
JoAnn Garnett-Chapman (Ultimate Friend)

© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC


Contents
Preface....................................................................................................................xix
Author ................................................................................................................. xxiii

Part I. Introduction
1 Pollution: What Is It? ........................................................................................3
Introduction .........................................................................................................3
Reality ...........................................................................................................3
Pollution Defined.................................................................................................5
Key Terms .....................................................................................................8
Case Study 1.1. Eau de Paper Mill .............................................................. 14
Pollution: Effects Often Easy to See, Feel, Taste, or Smell .............................. 15
Case Study 1.2. Toxic Sulfuric Acid ........................................................... 16
Preventing Pollution .................................................................................... 16
Pollution and Environmental Science/Health ................................................... 17
A Different Approach ................................................................................. 19
Case Study 1.3. Salmon and the Rachel River ............................................20
Environmental Pollution and Technology: The Connection ............................. 23
Case Study 1.4. Attwater’s Prairie Chicken ................................................26
Environmental Degradation........................................................................26
Case Study 1.5. The Amish and Lancaster County, Pennsylvania ............. 27
The Good Life............................................................................................. 29
Case Study 1.6. Tragedy of the Commons Revisited .................................. 30
Science and Technology Offer Solutions........................................................... 31
The Bottom Line ............................................................................................... 32
Discussion Questions......................................................................................... 33
References and Recommended Reading ...........................................................34
2 Pollution Science Fundamentals..................................................................... 37
Introduction ....................................................................................................... 37
Biogeochemical Cycles...................................................................................... 38
Carbon Cycle............................................................................................... 39
Nitrogen Cycle............................................................................................. 41
Phosphorus Cycle........................................................................................ 42
Sulfur Cycle ................................................................................................ 43

Energy Flow through an Ecosystem and the Biosphere....................................44
Materials Balance .......................................................................................44
Energy Flow in the Biosphere.....................................................................46
Energy Flow in the Ecosystem.................................................................... 47
vii
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viii

Contents

Units of Measurement ....................................................................................... 49
Units of Mass .............................................................................................. 50
Units of Length ........................................................................................... 51
Units of Volume .......................................................................................... 51
Units of Temperature................................................................................... 52
Units of Pressure ......................................................................................... 52
Units Often Used in Environmental Pollution Studies ............................... 53
Liquids .................................................................................................. 53
Gases or Vapors .................................................................................... 53
The Bottom Line ...............................................................................................54
Discussion Questions.........................................................................................54
References and Recommended Reading ........................................................... 55
3

Global Pollution: The Problem....................................................................... 57
Introduction ....................................................................................................... 58
Global Interdependence..................................................................................... 58
Case Study 3.1. Persistent Organic Pollutants............................................. 59

Global Meeting on Persistent Organic Pollutants................................. 59
Global Pollution Problems: Causal Factors .......................................................60
Frontier Mentality .......................................................................................60
Population Growth ...................................................................................... 62
Development................................................................................................64
Case Study 3.2. Transnational Corporations
and Environmental Pollution..........................................................64
Development and Soil Degradation ...................................................... 65
Development and Freshwater Degradation........................................... 65
Development and Atmospheric Air Degradation ................................. 65
Pollution and Global Environmental Degradation ............................................66
So, What Is the Answer? ................................................................................... 67
Discussion Questions......................................................................................... 67
References and Recommended Readings.......................................................... 68

4

Sources of Pollution ......................................................................................... 71
A Historical Perspective .................................................................................... 71
Introduction ....................................................................................................... 72
Natural Pollutants .............................................................................................. 74
Case Study 4.1. Keeper of the Spring ......................................................... 77
Case Study 4.2. Leaves in the Stream......................................................... 78
Pollutant Terminology ....................................................................................... 79
Pollutant-Related Terms: Defined ...............................................................80
Soil, Water, and Air Pollution: The Interface.................................................... 82
Case Study 4.3. Problem Wastes—Tire Disposal ....................................... 82
Discussion Questions......................................................................................... 83
References and Recommended Reading ...........................................................84

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Contents

ix

Part II. Air
5

Air...................................................................................................................... 87
Introduction ....................................................................................................... 88
All About Air .................................................................................................... 88
The Components of Air: Characteristics and Properties ..................................90
Atmospheric Nitrogen .................................................................................90
Physical Properties of Nitrogen ............................................................ 91
Uses for Nitrogen ..................................................................................92
Nitrogen Oxides....................................................................................92
Atmospheric Oxygen...................................................................................92
Physical Properties of Oxygen..............................................................92
Uses for Oxygen....................................................................................92
Ozone: Just Another Form of Oxygen .................................................. 93
Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide ..................................................................... 93
Physical Properties of Carbon Dioxide ................................................94
Uses for Carbon Dioxide ......................................................................94
Atmospheric Argon..................................................................................... 95
Physical Properties of Argon ................................................................ 95
Uses for Argon...................................................................................... 95
Atmospheric Neon ...................................................................................... 95
Physical Properties of Neon.................................................................. 95

Uses for Neon ....................................................................................... 95
Atmospheric Helium ...................................................................................96
Physical Properties of Helium ..............................................................96
Atmospheric Krypton .................................................................................97
Physical Properties of Krypton.............................................................97
Uses for Krypton ..................................................................................97
Atmospheric Xenon.....................................................................................97
Physical Properties of Xenon................................................................97
Uses for Xenon......................................................................................97
Atmospheric Hydrogen ............................................................................... 98
Physical Properties of Hydrogen .......................................................... 98
Uses for Hydrogen ................................................................................ 98
Atmospheric Water...................................................................................... 98
Atmospheric Particulate Matter..................................................................99
Air for Combustion.......................................................................................... 101
Air for Power ................................................................................................... 101
Stratification of the Atmosphere...................................................................... 102
Physical Properties and Dynamics of Air ....................................................... 103
Force, Weight, and Mass........................................................................... 104
Pressure ..................................................................................................... 105
Work and Energy ...................................................................................... 105
Diffusion and Dispersion .......................................................................... 105
Compressibility ......................................................................................... 106

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Contents

Gas Laws ......................................................................................................... 106
Boyle’s Law ............................................................................................... 106
Example 5.1 ........................................................................................ 107
Charles’s Law ............................................................................................ 107
Ideal Gas Law ........................................................................................... 108
Example 5.2 ........................................................................................ 109
Flow Rate .................................................................................................. 109
Gas Conversions .............................................................................................. 109
Major Constituents .................................................................................... 110
Both Major and Minor Constituents ......................................................... 110
Minor Constituents.................................................................................... 111
Gas Velocity .................................................................................................... 111
Gas Stream Treatment (Residence) Time........................................................ 111
Gas Density ..................................................................................................... 111
Heat Capacity and Enthalpy ............................................................................ 112
Heat and Energy in the Atmosphere ............................................................... 112
Adiabatic Lapse Rate....................................................................................... 113
Viscosity .......................................................................................................... 114
Flow Characteristics ........................................................................................ 114
Particle Physics................................................................................................ 116
Characteristics of Particles .............................................................................. 116
Surface Area and Volume ......................................................................... 117
Example 5.3 ........................................................................................ 118
Aerodynamic Diameter............................................................................. 118
Particle Size Categories ............................................................................ 120
Regulated Particulate Matter Categories............................................ 120
Size Distribution ....................................................................................... 121
Particle Formation ........................................................................................... 122
Physical Attrition ...................................................................................... 122

Combustion Particle Burnout.................................................................... 123
Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Nucleation.......................................... 123
Droplet Evaporation .................................................................................. 124
Collection Mechanisms ................................................................................... 124
Inertial Impaction and Interception .......................................................... 125
Brownian Diffusion................................................................................... 126
Gravitational Settling ................................................................................ 127
Electrostatic Attraction ............................................................................. 128
Thermophoresis......................................................................................... 128
Diffusiophoresis ........................................................................................ 128
Atmospheric Dispersion, Transformation, and Deposition ............................. 129
Weather ..................................................................................................... 130
Turbulence................................................................................................. 130
Mixing....................................................................................................... 131
Topography................................................................................................ 131
Temperature Inversions ............................................................................. 132
Plume Rise ................................................................................................ 132
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Contents

xi

Transport ................................................................................................... 133
Dispersion Models..................................................................................... 133
The Bottom Line ............................................................................................. 134
Discussion Questions....................................................................................... 134
References and Recommended Reading ......................................................... 134
6

Air Pollution ................................................................................................... 137
Yurk and Smilodon.......................................................................................... 137
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 140
Types and Sources of Air Pollutants......................................................... 140
Criteria Air Pollutants............................................................................... 141
Sulfur Dioxide .................................................................................... 141
Nitrogen Oxides.................................................................................. 142
Case Study 6.1. Meeting Air Pollution Standards .............................. 143
Carbon Monoxide ............................................................................... 143
Particulate Matter ............................................................................... 143
Lead Particulates ................................................................................ 144
Ozone.................................................................................................. 144
Deposition of Pollutants in the Atmosphere.................................................... 144
Problems of Atmospheric Pollution................................................................. 144
Acid Deposition......................................................................................... 145
Smog Formation........................................................................................ 147
Stratospheric Ozone Depletion ................................................................. 147
Case Study 6.2. Ozone Hole over Antarctica at Record Size ............. 149
Climate Change......................................................................................... 149
The Past .............................................................................................. 151
A Time of Ice...................................................................................... 152
Warm Winter ...................................................................................... 154
Global Warming ................................................................................. 156
Chlorofluorocarbons ........................................................................... 159
Global Dimming ....................................................................................... 159
Haze .......................................................................................................... 161
Roadway Air Dispersion ........................................................................... 161
The Bottom Line ............................................................................................. 162
Discussion Questions....................................................................................... 162

References and Recommended Readings........................................................ 162

7 Air Pollution Remediation............................................................................. 165
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 166
Pollution Prevention (P2) .......................................................................... 166
Reducing Air Emissions ........................................................................... 166
Clearing the Air............................................................................................... 167
Air Pollution Control: Choices ........................................................................ 167
Case Study 7.1. Cedar Creek Composting ................................................ 168
Case Study 7.2. Chlorine Regulations....................................................... 170
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Contents

Air Pollution Control Equipment and Systems ............................................... 172
Removal of Dry Particulate Matter ................................................................. 172
Particulate Matter...................................................................................... 173
Air Pollution Control Equipment for Particulates..................................... 173
Gravity Settlers ................................................................................... 173
Cyclone Collectors.............................................................................. 174
Electrostatic Precipitators................................................................... 174
Wet (Venturi) Scrubbers ..................................................................... 174
Baghouse (Fabric) Filters.................................................................... 175
Removal of Gaseous Pollutants: Stationary Sources....................................... 175
Absorption................................................................................................. 176
Adsorption................................................................................................. 177
Condensation............................................................................................. 178

Combustion ............................................................................................... 178
Direct-Flame Combustion (Flaring)................................................... 179
Thermal Combustion (Afterburners) .................................................. 179
Catalytic Combustion ......................................................................... 179
Removal of Gaseous Pollutants: Mobile Sources............................................ 180
Control of Crankcase Emissions ............................................................... 180
Control of Evaporative Emissions............................................................. 181
Catalytic Converters.................................................................................. 181
The Bottom Line ............................................................................................. 181
Discussion Questions....................................................................................... 182
References and Recommended Reading ......................................................... 182

Part III. Water
8

Water............................................................................................................... 187
Water: Earth’s Blood ....................................................................................... 188
Water: Facts and Prose .................................................................................... 189
Water: The Basics............................................................................................ 190
How Special, Strange, and Different Is Water?............................................... 191
Characteristics of Water .................................................................................. 191
Inflammable Air + Vital Air = Water ....................................................... 193
Just Two H’s and One O ............................................................................ 193
Somewhere between 0° and 105° .............................................................. 193
Water’s Physical Properties ............................................................................. 194
Capillary Action .............................................................................................. 195
The Water Cycle .............................................................................................. 196
Specific Water Movements .............................................................................. 197
Q and Q Factors............................................................................................... 199
Sources of Water.............................................................................................. 201

Watershed Protection.......................................................................................202
Multiple-Barrier Concept..........................................................................202
Watershed Management ............................................................................203

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Water Quality Impact................................................................................205
Watershed Protection and Regulations .....................................................205
A Watershed Protection Plan ....................................................................206
Reservoir Management Practices..............................................................206
Potable Water Source.......................................................................................206
Potable Water ............................................................................................206
Key Definitions .........................................................................................207
Surface Water ..................................................................................................208
Location! Location! Location! ..................................................................208
How Readily Available Is Potable Water? ................................................209
Advantages and Disadvantages of Surface Water..................................... 212
Surface Water Hydrology.......................................................................... 213
Raw Water Storage.................................................................................... 213
Surface Water Quality............................................................................... 214
Groundwater Supply........................................................................................ 215
Groundwater.............................................................................................. 215
Groundwater Quality ................................................................................ 217
GUDISW................................................................................................... 218
Perpetual Motion....................................................................................... 218

Well Systems ................................................................................................... 219
Water Use ........................................................................................................220
The Bottom Line ............................................................................................. 221
Discussion Questions....................................................................................... 222
References and Recommended Reading ......................................................... 222
9

Water Pollution .............................................................................................. 223
Case Study 9.1. Chesapeake Bay .....................................................................224
Chesapeake Bay: A Modest Proposal .......................................................224
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 225
Surface Water .................................................................................................. 226
Lentic (Standing or Still) Water Systems.................................................. 227
Still Water ........................................................................................... 227
Lotic (Flowing) Water Systems ................................................................ 229
Stream Genesis ................................................................................... 229
Setting the Stage.............................................................................................. 231
Surface Water Pollutants ................................................................................. 231
Case Study 9.2. Nonpoint-Source Pollution and the Chesapeake Bay...... 232
Case Study 9.3. Good Science vs. “Feel Good” Science .......................... 232
Biochemical Oxygen Demand .................................................................. 234
Nutrients.................................................................................................... 234
Nitrogen .............................................................................................. 235
Phosphorus.......................................................................................... 235
pH.............................................................................................................. 236
Solids......................................................................................................... 237
Fats, Oil, and Grease................................................................................. 238

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Contents

Pathogenic Organisms............................................................................... 239
Giardia................................................................................................240
Cryptosporidium................................................................................. 247
Cyclospora.......................................................................................... 252
Toxic Pollutants......................................................................................... 253
Nontoxic Pollutants ................................................................................... 253
Case Study 9.4. River Cleanup.................................................................. 253
Macroscopic Pollution...............................................................................254
Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products........................................... 257
Groundwater Pollution..................................................................................... 259
Groundwater Uses and Sources ................................................................260
Aquifers..................................................................................................... 261
Groundwater Flow .................................................................................... 262
Case Study 9.5. Nitrates and Pregnancy ................................................... 263
Wetlands ..........................................................................................................264
The Bottom Line on Surface Water and Groundwater Pollution .................... 265
Discussion Questions.......................................................................................266
References and Recommended Reading .........................................................266
10 Water Pollution: Remediation..................................................................... 273
Historical Prospective...................................................................................... 274
Effect of Regulations on Preventing Water Pollution...................................... 276
A Sherlock Holmes at the Pump ..................................................................... 276
Dr. John Snow ........................................................................................... 277
Cholera ...................................................................................................... 277
Flashback to 1854 London ........................................................................ 278

Pump Handle Removal—To Water Treatment (Disinfection) .................. 279
Water Treatment ..............................................................................................280
Wastewater Treatment ..................................................................................... 281
Thermal Pollution Treatment .......................................................................... 285
Pollution Control Technology: Underground Storage Tanks .......................... 286
Pollution Control Technology: Groundwater Remediation ............................. 288
The Bottom Line ............................................................................................. 291
Discussion Questions....................................................................................... 291
References and Recommended Reading ......................................................... 291

Part IV. Soil
11

Soil Basics ..................................................................................................... 295
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 296
Soil: What Is It?............................................................................................... 298
Key Terms Defined..........................................................................................300
All About Soil..................................................................................................306

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xv

Functions of Soil .......................................................................................306
Soil as a Plant Growth Medium..........................................................307
Soil as a Regulator of Water Supplies ................................................307
Soil as a Recycler of Raw Materials ................................................... 310

Soil as a Habitat for Soil Organisms................................................... 311
Soil as an Engineering Medium ......................................................... 311
Soil as a Source of Materials .............................................................. 312
Concurrent Soil Functions ........................................................................ 312
Soil Basics ....................................................................................................... 313
Physical Properties of Soil ........................................................................ 315
Soil Separates............................................................................................ 317
Soil Formation ................................................................................................. 319
Weathering ................................................................................................ 320
Factors That Influence Weathering..................................................... 320
Categories of Weathering Processes................................................... 320
Soil Characterization....................................................................................... 325
Diagnostic Horizons and Temperature and Moisture Regimes ................ 326
Soil Taxonomy .......................................................................................... 327
Soil Orders.......................................................................................... 328
Soil Suborders..................................................................................... 329
Soil Great Groups and Subgroups ...................................................... 329
Soil Families and Series ..................................................................... 329
Soil Mechanics and Physics ............................................................................ 330
Soil Mechanics.......................................................................................... 330
Weight–Volume or Space and Volume Relationships......................... 330
Soil Particle Characteristics................................................................ 332
Soil Stress ........................................................................................... 334
Soil Compressibility ........................................................................... 334
Soil Compaction ................................................................................. 334
Soil Failure.......................................................................................... 335
Soil Physics ............................................................................................... 336
Water and Soil..................................................................................... 336
Water: What Is It?............................................................................... 336
Water Physical Properties................................................................... 337

The Water Cycle (Hydrological Cycle)............................................... 338
Soil Water ........................................................................................... 339
Soil Chemistry................................................................................................. 339
Solid Wastes .................................................................................................... 339
Case Study 11.1. The Great Circle Route .................................................. 341
Solid Waste Regulatory History in the United States............................... 342
Solid Waste Characteristics....................................................................... 343
Sources of Municipal Solid Wastes...........................................................344
Residential Sources of MSW..............................................................344
Commercial Sources of MSW............................................................ 345
Institutional Sources of MSW ............................................................ 345

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Construction and Demolition Sources of MSW .................................346
Municipal Services Sources of MSW.................................................346
Treatment Plant Site Sources of MSW ...............................................346
The Bottom Line .............................................................................................346
Discussion Questions....................................................................................... 347
References and Recommended Reading .........................................................348
12

Soil Pollution................................................................................................. 351
Clean Soil ........................................................................................................ 352
Soil Pollutants: Transport Mechanisms Affecting Flow Regime.................... 352

Movement of Organics in Soil .................................................................. 355
The Basics of Soil Pollution ............................................................................ 355
Surface Origins of Soil Pollutants ............................................................ 356
Gaseous and Airborne Particulate Pollutants ........................................... 357
Infiltration of Contaminated Surface Water ............................................. 357
Land Disposal of Solid and Liquid Waste Materials ................................ 358
Stockpiles, Tailings, and Spoils ................................................................ 358
Dumps ....................................................................................................... 358
Salt Spread on Roads ................................................................................ 358
Animal Feedlots and Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations ............ 359
Fertilizers and Pesticides .......................................................................... 361
Accidental Spills ....................................................................................... 361
Composting of Leaves and Other Wastes ................................................. 362
Industrial Practices and Soil Contamination................................................... 362
Underground Storage Tanks...................................................................... 362
Contamination from Oilfield Sites ............................................................ 362
Contamination from Chemical Sites......................................................... 363
Contamination from Geothermal Sites ..................................................... 363
Contamination from Manufactured Gas Plants ........................................364
Contamination from Mining Sites ............................................................364
Case Study 12.1. Acid Rock Drainage/Acid Mine Drainage .................... 365
Contamination from Environmental Terrorism and Ecoterrorism ........... 365
Case Study 12.2. Revenge Is Mine, Sayeth Daniel ................................... 366
What Is Terrorism? ............................................................................. 370
Terrorism by Any Other Name Is … ................................................. 372
Standard Dictionary Definition of Terrorism ..................................... 372
An Old Cliché on a Terrorist .............................................................. 373
Hazardous Substances ..................................................................................... 374
America: A Throwaway Society ............................................................... 375
What Is a Hazardous Substance? .............................................................. 375

Hazardous Wastes............................................................................................ 377
What Is a Hazardous Waste?..................................................................... 377
Hazardous Waste Legislation .......................................................................... 380
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act................................................ 380
CERCLA ................................................................................................... 381

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The Bottom Line ............................................................................................. 382
Discussion Questions....................................................................................... 382
References and Recommended Reading ......................................................... 382
13

Soil Pollution Remediation.......................................................................... 385
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 386
Case Study 13.1. Remediation as a Growth Industry? .............................. 386
USTs: The Problem.......................................................................................... 387
Corrosion Problems................................................................................... 387
Faulty Construction................................................................................... 388
Faulty Installation ..................................................................................... 388
Piping Failures .......................................................................................... 389
Spills and Overfills.................................................................................... 389
Compatibility of Contents and UST.......................................................... 389
Risk Assessment.............................................................................................. 389
Exposure Pathways.......................................................................................... 390

Remediation of UST-Contaminated Soils ....................................................... 391
In Situ Technologies.................................................................................. 392
In Situ Volatilization........................................................................... 393
In Situ Biodegradation ........................................................................ 394
In Situ Leaching and Chemical Reaction ........................................... 396
In Situ Vitrification ............................................................................. 396
In Situ Passive Remediation ............................................................... 396
In Situ Isolation or Containment......................................................... 396
Case Study 13.2. Innovative Treatment Technologies .............................. 397
Non-In Situ Technologies.......................................................................... 398
Land Treatment................................................................................... 398
Thermal Treatment ............................................................................. 398
Asphalt Incorporation and Other Methods......................................... 399
Solidification or Stabilization .............................................................400
Chemical Extraction ........................................................................... 401
Excavation........................................................................................... 401
Economic Outlook...........................................................................................402
Case Study 13.3. Brownfields....................................................................402
Animal Feeding Operations and Animal Waste Treatment............................403
Manure Treatment.....................................................................................405
Case Study 13.4. Animal Waste Treatment—Lagoons.............................405
Waste Control Technology ..............................................................................406
Waste Minimization..................................................................................407
Substitution of Inputs..........................................................................407
Process Modification ..........................................................................408
Good Operating Practices...................................................................408
Recycling ............................................................................................408
Treatment Technologies ............................................................................409
Biological Treatment...........................................................................409

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Contents

Thermal Processes.............................................................................. 410
Activated-Carbon Sorption................................................................. 410
Electrolytic Recovery Techniques ...................................................... 411
Air Stripping....................................................................................... 411
Stabilization and Solidification........................................................... 411
Filtration and Separation .................................................................... 411
Ultimate Disposal ..................................................................................... 412
Deep-Well Injection............................................................................ 412
Surface Impoundments....................................................................... 413
Waste Piles.......................................................................................... 414
Landfilling .......................................................................................... 414
Green Remediation.......................................................................................... 415
Core Elements of Green Remediation....................................................... 417
Energy Requirements of the Treatment System ................................. 417
Air Emissions ..................................................................................... 418
Water Requirements and Impacts on Water Resources...................... 418
Land and Ecosystem Impacts ............................................................. 418
Material Consumption and Waste Generation.................................... 419
Long-Term Stewardship Actions ........................................................ 419
Green Remediation Techniques ................................................................ 419
The Bottom Line ............................................................................................. 420
Discussion Questions....................................................................................... 420
References and Recommended Reading ......................................................... 421

14

Pollution and the 21st Century ................................................................... 425

Glossary ................................................................................................................ 429

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Preface
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