A dictionary of twentieth century world history

Tai Lieu Chat Luong


ENOxfordUniversityPressOxfordUniversityPress


ADictionaryofTwentieth-CenturyWorldHistory
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A
AalandIslandsSome6,500islandsintheGulfofBothnia,betweenFinlandandSweden.Theywerepart
ofSwedenuntil1809,when,togetherwithFinland,theywereannexedbyRussia.Afterthecollapseof
theRussianEmpirein1917,theywereadministeredbyFinland.Despitepopulardemandstobegoverned
bySweden,FinnishsovereigntywasconfirmedbytheLeagueofNationsin1921.Atthesametime,they
weregrantedconsiderableautonomy,sincewhenSwedishhasbeentheofficiallanguage.In1945,the
islands'assemblyagainvotedtocomeunderSwedishsovereignty,buttheislands'constitutionalstatus
remainedunchanged.

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Abacha,Sani(b.20Sept.1943).
Nigeriandictator1993–BorninKanooftheHaussapeople,hewaseducatedatthelocalgovernment
collegebeforeenteringthearmyin1962.Herosethroughitsrankstobecomemajor-generalin1984,and
waspartoftherulingSupremeMilitaryCouncil(1984–5).AclosecolleagueofBabangida,hesupported
hismilitarycoupin1985andwasmadeChiefofStaff.HebecameMinisterofDefencein1990.
FollowingBabangida'selectoraldefeatbyAbiolain1993,hebecamethemostinfluentialpersonin
Nigeria,withonlyabriefperiodofcivilianrule.HeofficiallybecamePresidenton18November1993.
Despitewavesofproteststrikes,heoutlawedalldemocraticpoliticalinstitutions,pacifyingsomeofthe
strikersthroughwithdrawingsomeofthedraconianeconomicpolicieshehadintroduced,suchasa600
percentincreaseinthepriceofpetrol.Hemanagedtodefygrowinginternationalpressureforanendto
hisbrutalregime,whichincreasedafterhisexecutionofKenSaro-Wiwaandotherhumanrightsactivists,
largelybecauseWesternsanctionswouldremainineffectiveaslongastheyexcludedNigeria'svital
exportcommodity,oil.
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Abbas,Ferhat(b.24Oct.1899,d.24Dec.1985)
.AlgeriannationalistAstudentofchemistry,hefoundedaMuslimstudents'associationin1924.He
foughtintheFrencharmyfrom1939,butin1942producedaManifestowhichcalledforAlgerian
autonomyfromFrance.HejoinedBenBella'sFrontdeLibérationNationalin1956,andaftertheoutbreak
oftheAlgerianWarofIndependencefoundedtheAlgeriangovernment-in-exileinTunis(1958).Upon
AlgerianindependencehebecamepresidentoftheNationalConstituentAssembly(1962–3)and
provisionalheadofstate,but,astheleaderofthemoderatenationalists,hesoonfelloutoffavourwith
BenBella.Hewasexiledin1963,butwasallowedtoreturnshortlybeforehisdeath.
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Abboud,Ibrahim(b.26Oct.1900,d.8Sept.1983)
.SudanesegeneralandpoliticianEducatedatGordonCollege,hebecameasoldierand,after
distinguishedservicewiththeBritisharmyinWorldWarII,becameageneralin1954.Hewasmade
Commander-in-ChiefoftheSudanesearmyuponindependencein1956.Heoverthrewthecountry's
democraticgovernmentin1958,andthereafterledthemilitarygovernment.However,hismilitarygenius
wasnotmatchedbypoliticalastuteness,andhewasforcedtoresignin1964.

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Abdal-AzizibnSaud(b.24Nov.1880,d.9Nov.1953)
.KingofSaudiArabia1932–53BorninRiyadoftheWahhabidynasty,hewasforcedintoexileto
Kuwaitin1902.Fromthere,heorganizedandledasuccessfulBedouinrevoltwhichenabledhimto
recaptureRiyad.HethenconqueredtheTurkishprovinceofAlHasa,andwasrecognizedbytheBritish
asEmirofNejdandHasain1915.HethenchallengedHusseinibnAli,whomheeventuallydefeated,


annexingAzirin1923,andtakingtheHolyCityofMeccain1925.HeproclaimedhimselfKingofHejaz
andNejdinMeccaon8January1926,acountrywhichcoveredmostoftheArabianpeninsula.In1932,
herenamedhiskingdomSaudiArabia.AdevoutMuslim,helaidthefoundationsofthecountry's
subsequentdevelopment(andtheroyalhousehold'sfortune)bygrantingthefirstconcessiontooil
explorationin1933,andbycreatingtheArabia-AmericanOilCompany(ARAMCO)in1944.He
maintainedagoodrelationshipwiththeUSAandtheUK,whichhesupportedinWorldWarII.
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Abdal-IlahibnAliibnHussein(b.1912,d.14July1958)
.RegentofIraqBorninHejazasthegrandsonofHusseinibnAli,hebecameregentofIraqforhis4year-oldcousinFaisalII,afterthedeathofhisbrother-in-law,KingGhazi.Stronglypro-British
throughouthislife,in1941hewasexpelledbyagroupofpro-Germanofficers,buthewasreinstatedby
theBritish,sincewhenhewasregardedasapawnofBritainandtheUSA.Herelinquishedofficein1953
butcontinuedaschiefadvisertoKingFaisaluntilbothwerekilledintheIraqiRevolutionof1958.
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Abdal-Krim(MuhammadibnAbdal-Karimal-Khattabi)(b.1882,d.5Feb.1963)
.MoroccannationalistleaderBorninAgadir,hebecameanewspapereditorandroseintheranksofthe
SpanishadministrationofnorthernMoroccotobecomechiefjudgein1915.Hebecameincreasingly
hostiletotheSpanishandFrenchoccupationofMorocco,however.HewasimprisonedbytheSpanishin
1917,andafterhisreleaseheorganizedarebellionbyhistribe,theAitWaryaghartribe.Heinflicteda
seriesofheavydefeatsupontheSpanish,andestablishedtheRepublicoftheRifin1921.Hewas
defeatedbyajointFranco-Spanisharmyin1926,imprisoned,andsenttodetentionontheislandofLa
Réunionuntil1947,whenhewasallowedtoreturntoFrance.OnthewayheescapedtoCairo,wherehe
setuptheMaghrebBureauorLiberationCommitteeoftheArabWest.AfterMoroccanindependence

(1956)herefusedtoreturnsincehedidnotconsiderthenewgovernmentrepresentedtheinterestsofthe
Rif.
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AbdicationCrisis(UK)ThecrisisintheBritishestablishmentoverKingEdwardVIII'sdesiretomarrya
twice-divorcedAmerican,WallisSimpson.Hemadethisannouncementtoseniorpoliticiansand
churchmenon16November1936.PrimeMinisterBaldwin,theCabinet,theArchbishopofCanterbury
(CosmoLang),andtheDominions'representativeswereallvehementlyopposedtopassingthespecial
legislationnecessary,partlyonthegroundsthatmarriagetoadivorceewouldbeinconsistentwiththe
King'sroleasheadoftheChurchofEngland.OnecompromiseproposedbyEdwardwasa‘morganatic
marriage’,wherebyWallisSimpsonwouldnotacquirehisrank:hecouldbecomeKing,butshewouldnot
becomeQueen.Thiswasalsorejectedbythepoliticalandreligiousleaders.TheBritishpressdidnot
coverthecrisisuntil3December,bywhichtimetheabdicationwasvirtuallycertainasthepolitical
partiesallagreedthattheKingshouldaccepttheadviceofhisministers.Edwardannouncedhis
abdicationon11December,andwassucceededbyhisbrotherasGeorgeVI.
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AbdulRahmanPutra,Tunku(Al-HajIbniAl-MarhumSultanAbdulHamidHalimShah)(b.8Feb.
1903,d.6Dec.1990)
.PrimeMinisterofMalaya/Malaysia1957–63/1963–70Sonofthe24thSultanofKedah,hestudiedat
CambridgeandqualifiedasanEnglishbarrister.UponhisreturntoMalayain1931heenteredthecivil
service,wherehecontinuedtoworkduringtheJapaneseoccupation.Heco-foundedtheUnitedMalays
NationalOrganization,andsucceededDatoOnnbinJafaar(b.1895,d.1962)asleaderin1952.
Recognizingthatindependencecouldonlybeachievedthroughco-operationbetweenthevariousethnic
groups,heorganizedanalliancewiththeMalayanChineseAssociation,andthentheMalayanIndian
Congress.Followingthealliance'svictoryinthe1955elections,hebecameChiefMinisterandMinister


forHomeAffairs.Henegotiatedindependence,andbecameMalaya'sfirstPrimeMinister.In1962–3he
presidedovertheformationoftheFederationofMalaysia,whichheledasPrimeMinister,successfully
securingthesupportofboththeChineseandtheIndiancommunitiesthroughpragmaticcompromise.
DuringthegeneralelectionsinMay1969therewerewidespreadethnicriotsinthecapitalbetween

ChineseandMalays.FacedwiththebreakdownofhisattempttoruleonthebasisofharmoniousChineseMalayrelations,heresignedinJanuary1970.Throughactivepoliticaljournalismheremainedan
influentialfigureinMalaysiaduringtheyearsofhisretirement.
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AbdullahibnHussein(b.1880,d.20July1951)
.EmirofTransjordan1921–48,KingofTransjordan/Jordan1948–51SonofHusseinibnAli,Sherif
ofMecca,withhisbrotherFaisalheledtheArabRevoltof1916.In1921hewasmadeEmirofthe
provinceofTransjordan,aterritorycreatedbytheSykes-PicotAgreementandmadeaBritish
protectoratein1923.Hespentthenextdecadescreatingasenseofidentityandunityinhisquite
arbitrarilydefinedkingdom,establishingstateinstitutionssuchasaParliament,aconstitution,anda
policeforcethroughthecreationoftheArabLegion.HebecameKinguponhiscountry'sindependence
fromBritainin1948.DuringthefirstArab-IsraeliWar(1948–9),heusedtheArabLegiontooccupythe
WestBankandEastJerusalem,whichheunitedwithTransjordanastheHashemiteKingdomofJordanin
1950.AfterheengagedinsecretnegotiationswithIsrael,hewasassassinatedbyanArabnationalist.
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Abiola,MoshoodKashimawoOlawale(b.24Aug.1937)
.NigerianpoliticianBorninAbeokutaoftheYorubapeople,hestudiedattheUniversityofGlasgow
(1961–3)beforebecomingabusinessmanager,advancingtobecomevice-presidentofITTAfricaand
MiddleEast,aswellaschairpersonofITTNigeria,1971–88.HejoinedthesocialdemocraticNational
PartyofNigeria(NPN)in1979andbecameitschairmaninhishomestateofOgun.Hewaschosento
contestthe1993presidentialelectionsagainstBabangida.Whenhisvictorywasclear,themilitary
governmentannulledtheelectionsandimprisonedhim.
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AbkhaziaACaucasianterritorywhichwaspartoftheSovietUnionasanAutonomousSovietRepublic
withinGeorgia.InApril1991,itbecameindependentaspartofGeorgia,againstthewilloftheMuslim
Abkhazianpopulation(17.8percentofthetotalpopulation)anditsRussianminority(14.3percent).
HelpedbyacontingentofMuslimvolunteersfromneighbouringautonomousRussianrepublicssuchas
Chechnya,therebelsmanagedtorepeltheGeorgiantroops,weakenedalreadybycivilwar.Theyalso
securedcontrolofthecountrybyforcingtheexodusofthelargestpopulationgroup,the(mostly)Christian
OrthodoxGeorgians,whohadformed45percentofthepopulationin1989,buthadcompletelydeserted
thecountryby1994.Georgiahadtoconcededefeatandnegotiationsfocusedonextensiveautonomyfora

territoryoverwhichGeorgiahadlostallcontrol.
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AboriginesandTorresStraitIslanders(Australia)TheoriginalinhabitantsofAustralia,whose
existencethereisthoughttogobacksome40,000years.Theyweresemi-nomadichunterswhosevalue
systemsincludedcommonuse,andaspiritualappreciation,oftheland.Theirpopulationisestimatedto
havebeenbetween300,000and700,000beforeWhitesettlementbeganin1788.Bytheearlytwentieth
century,thisfigurehaddiminishedtolessthan50,000andwasdecliningfurtherowingtolossofland,
adoptionofEuropeanhabitssuchasdrinkingalcohol,diseasesagainstwhichtheyhadnotdeveloped
immunity(smallpox,influenza,etc.),andadecliningbirth-rate.ViolencebetweenEuropeansand
Aborigineshadledtothedeathofaround2,500Whitesand20,000Aborigines.
Duringthe1930s,sparkedoffbycelebrationsofthe150thanniversaryofthefirstEuropeansettlements,
campaignsdevelopedforanendtosocialandlegaldiscriminationagainstAboriginesandTorresStrait


Islanders,andforaidinareasofhealth,education,andemployment.Fromthe1950s,ratherthan
segregatingthemfromtherestofsocietythegovernmentattemptedtointegratethem.Inthefollowing
decade,AboriginesandTorresStraitIslandersbegantoemphasizetheirrighttoassimilatethemselves
whilemaintainingtheirownculture.In1967,theyweregrantedfullcitizenship,and90percentof
(White)AustraliansvotedinareferendumtotransferresponsibilityforAboriginalaffairsfromthe
individualstatestothefederalgovernment.
Since1972,landhasbeenreturnedtotheAboriginesandTorresStraitIslanders,incentralAustraliaand
theTorresStraitsrespectively.Inthecentralissueoflandclaimsasinothermatters,thefederal
governmentusuallyspearheadedactiononbehalfofAboriginalrights,oftenagainstfierceresistancefrom
theindividualstatesunwillingtoconcedejurisdictionovertheirterritory.Theirclaimsforlandtitles
wererecognizedforthefirsttimein1992,andin1994theywerepromisedconsiderableownershipof
land.By1991,thenumberofAboriginesandTorresStraitsIslandershadrisenagaintoover250,000.
Despiteincreasingpublicrecognitionoftheirrights,however,theycontinuedtobethemost
disadvantagedsectionofAustraliansociety,withthehighestdeath,imprisonment,andunemployment
rates,andthelowestincomeandlifeexpectancyrates.
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AbortionTheprematureterminationofpregnancybyremovalofthefoetusfromthewomb.Ithasbeen
stronglyopposedbymanyreligionswhichemphasizethesanctityofhumanlifefromthedayof
conception.Bycontrast,itslegalizationhasbeendemandedby‘pro-choice’groupswhichstresseach
individualmother'srighttochoosewhetherornottoproceedwithapregnancy.Asaresult,theissueof
abortionhasbecomeatouchstonefortheinfluenceofreligioninthestate.Forinstance,abortionisstill
illegalinArabcountries,whereIslamisthestatereligion,andinIreland,wheretheinfluenceofthe
RomanCatholicChurchisstillstrong.ItisacentralanddivisivematterincountriessuchasPoland,
whichhassoughttoredefinetheroleoftheCatholicChurchinstateandsociety.InGermany,in1995,five
yearsafterreunification,lawsweredrawnupwhichamountedtoacompromisebetweenamore
religiouslyobservantwesternhalf,andacompletelysecularizedeasternhalf.IntheUSAaSupremeCourt
judgment,Roev.Wadeof1973,ruledinfavourofa‘righttochoose’asanimpliedconstitutional‘rightto
privacy’,buttheproblemhascontinuedtopolarizesocietybetweenRomanCatholicsandfundamentalist
Christiansontheonehand,and‘pro-choice’groupsontheother.Astheformergroupshavebecome
increasinglyinfluentialintheRepublicanParty,andthelatterhavebeenlargelyreliantontheDemocratic
Partyforthedefenceofthepresentsystem,abortionhasbecomeacentralissueinUSpolitics.By
contrast,inmoresecularizedsocietiesthesubjectcausesonlysporadiccontroversy.InBritain,since
1967abortionhasbeenallowedforupto24weeksafterconception(reducedfrom28in1990)onsocial
ormedicalgrounds.
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AbuDhabi,seeUNITEDARABEMIRATES
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AbyssinianWar(1935–6)TheconquestofEthiopia(formerlyAbyssinia)byItalianforcesbornoutof
Mussolini'sdesiretostrengthenhisdomesticpositionthroughtheestablishmentofanItalianEastAfrican
Empire.Furthermore,hewantedtoavengeItalyforitsprevioushumiliatingdefeatbytheEthiopianforces
atAdowain1896duringanearlierattempttooccupythearea.Followingaborderclashatthe
AbyssinianoasisofWalwal,MussolinirejectedallattemptsbytheLeagueofNationstomediateand
invadedAbyssiniaon2October1935.Somesixmonthslater,theill-equippedEthiopianarmysuccumbed
totheItalianuseofairforce,tanks,andpoisongas,andon5May1936Badogliocapturedthecapital,
AddisAbaba.TheItalianaggressioncausedinternationaloutrage,buttheinabilityoftheLeagueof
NationstoagreetomorethanlimitedsanctionsagainstItalydemonstratedtheessentialineffectivenessof

theLeagueaswellastheconceptofappeasement.Ontheotherhand,thewarexposedsomeserious


deficienciesintheItalianarmy,whichwerelargelyignoredbyMussoliniandotherswhoweredeluded
bythefactofthevictory.
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Acheson,DeanGooderham(b.11Apr.1893,d.12Oct.1971)
.USSecretaryofState194953BornatMiddletown,Connecticut,hewaseducatedatYaleandHarvard
LawSchool.HeservedasapersonalassistanttoSupremeCourtJusticeLouisBrandeisbetween1918
and1921,andbuiltasuccessfulNewYorklawpracticethereafter.HebecameAssistantSecretaryof
StateforPresidentF.D.Rooseveltin1941,andUnder-SecretaryforPresidentTrumanin1945.Heurged
internationalcontrolofatomicpowerintheAcheson-LilienthalReportof1946,outlinedtheTruman
DoctrineofUSsupportfornationsthreatenedbyCommunism,andhelpedtoformulatetheMarshallPlan.
AsSecretaryofState,hehelpedinthecreationofNATO,butwascriticizedbyRepublicansinCongress
forwhattheyregardedashisfailuretopursueamorevigorouslyanti-Communistpolicy,ortosupport
SyngmanRheeinSouthKorea.HewasastrongsupporteroftheFrenchinIndochinaandoftheRepublic
ofChinainTaiwan.In1961,heonceagainbecameanimportantinfluenceonUSforeignpolicyasan
advisertoPresidentKennedy.In19678,hewasoneofthemostimportantofthewisemenwhocalled
inprivateandpublicforPresidentLyndonJohnsontoendtheVietnamWar.Hismemoirs,Presentatthe
Creation,wonthe1970PulitzerPrizeinhistory.
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ActionFranỗaiseAFrenchultra-right-wingmovementwithtraitsoffascismco-foundedbyMaurrasat
theheightoftheDreyfusAffairin1898.Themovement'snewspaper(190844)carriedthesamename.Its
parliamentaryrepresentationremainedrelativelyweak,butitbecameveryinfluentialinthatitmadeantiRepublicanismandanti-Semitismrespectableinintellectualcircles.Bannedin1936,from1940mostof
itsmemberssupportedtheVichygovernment.
FASCISM
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ActionSquad(Squadred'Azione),
seeBLACKSHIRTS
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Adams,Gerard(GerryAdams)
(b.6Oct.1948)
.RepublicanpoliticianinNorthernIrelandBornandeducatedinBelfast,heworkedasabarmanager,
and joined the Republican movement in 1964. He was imprisoned twice (1971, 1978) on suspicion of
being a leader of the IRA, but both times was released on grounds of insufficient evidence. He was
successivelyelectedtoParliamentforSinn Féin (1983–92), but never took up his seat in the House of
Commons,sinceheobjectedinprincipletoBritishruleinNorthernIreland.Hebecamepresidentofthe
partyin1984.In1988and1993,heheldmeetingswithHumetodiscussproposalsfortalksonthefuture
of Northern Ireland. He came to appreciate that, after conducting a terrorist campaign for more than
twenty years, the IRA had not come closer to fulfilling its aim of a British withdrawal from Northern
Ireland. After a flurry of secret negotiations with British government representatives, he persuaded the
IRAtoannounceacease-fire,inordertomeettheBritishconditionofarenunciationofviolencebefore
negotiations. In consequence, he acquired a pivotal role as a spokesman for the nationalist Catholic
community,whichwasrecognizedon17March1995,whenhemetUSPresidentClintonin Washington.
However, when all-party talks on the future of Northern Ireland had still not commenced by February
1996,theIRAresumeditsbombingcampaign.Subsequently,Adamstriedtosalvagehisrelationshipwith
theIRA,whiletryingtokeepprospectsfornegotiationsopen.
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Adams,SirGrantleyHerbert(b.28Apr.1898,d.28Nov.1971)


.LeaderofBarbados1946–58,andtheFederationoftheWestIndies1958–62EducatedinBarbados,
hestudiedatOxfordUniversity,becamealawyer,andreturnedtoBarbadosin1925.ElectedtotheHouse
ofAssemblyin1934,heco-foundedtheBarbadosLabourParty(BLP)in1938.Asleaderofthe
government(1946–58),heagitatedforfullinternalself-government,whichwasgrantedin1958.Healso
supportedthecreationoftheshort-livedFederationoftheWestIndies,whoseonlyPrimeMinisterhe
became.HespenttheremainingyearsofhislifeasleaderoftheBLPinopposition.Hewasknightedin
1967.
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Adamson,William(b.2Apr.1863,d.23Feb.1936)

.BritishLabourleader1918–21BornatHalbeath(Scotland),hebecameaminerattheageof11,and
wassoonanactivetradeunionist.HebecameaLabourlocalcouncillorin1905,andinDecember1910
waselectedasLabourMPforWestFife.HewasthefirstScottishminertoenterParliament,andfrom
1917,aschairpersonoftheparliamentaryLabourParty,heledthepartyintheHouseofCommons.Inthe
1918generalelections,LabouremergedasthesecondlargestpartyinParliament,sothathebecamethe
party'sfirstleaderoftheopposition.IllnessforcedhimtohandovertoClynesin1921,butheservedas
SecretaryofStateforScotlandinthefirsttwoLabourgovernments(1924,1929–31).
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Addams,JaneLaura(b.6Sept.1860,d.21May1935)
.USsocialreformerBornatCedarville,Illinois,shegraduatedwithaBachelorofArtsdegreefrom
RockfordCollegein1881.WithherfriendEllenGatesStarr,sheopenedHullHouseinChicagoin1889,
asettlement-houseforimmigrantsandworkers,onthemodelofToynbeeHallinLondonwiththeaimof
attackingurbanpoverty.Asapioneerinthenewdisciplineofsociology,shelaterhadconsiderable
influenceovertheplanningofneighbourhoodwelfareinstitutionsthroughouttheUSA.Shewasa
progressive,whoselifeencapsulatedthatmovement.Aprohibitionist,shebecamealeaderofthe
women'ssuffragemovementintheUSA,aco-founderoftheNAACPin1909,acampaignerforchild
labourregulationbylawand,asapacifist,shehelpedtofoundtheWomen'sInternationalLeaguefor
PeaceandFreedom,forwhichshereceivedtheNobelPeacePrizein1931.
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Adenauer,Konrad(b.5Jan.1876,d.19Apr.1967)
.ChancellorofWestGermany1949–63BorninCologne,hejoinedtheCentrePartyin1906,andwas
LordMayorofCologne1917–33.DeposedbytheNazis,hewasreinstatedbytheAmerican
administrationin1945,thoughtheBritishsoondischargedhimfor‘incompetence’.ElectedCDUleader
intheBritishZonein1946,hewaselectedchairmanoftheparliamentarycouncilwhichdraftedthe
constitutionin1948.HewasnarrowlyelectedChancellorin1949,butwonthesubsequentelectionsof
1953,1957,and1961withahandsomemajority.AsarequirementforWestGermany'slong-term
stability,andtowinnationalsovereigntyfromtheWesternAllies,herealizedWestGermany'sintegration
withtheWest,culminatingwithitsaccessiontoNATOin1955,eventhoughthisalienatedtheUSSRand
madeGermanreunificationmoreunlikelyintheshortrun.Nevertheless,onhisvisittoMoscow(1955)he
negotiatedthereleaseoftheremaining10,000Germanprisonersofwar,andthetakingupofdiplomatic

relationswiththeUSSR.ThroughtheRestitutionAgreementheinitiatedaprocessofreconciliation
betweenGermansandJews,andhemadeparticularlygreateffortstowinthefriendshipandtrustof
France,whichhadbeenatwarwithGermanythreetimessince1870.Apartfromearlyco-operationwith
FrancetowardsEuropeanIntegration,theFranco-Germanfriendshiptreatyof22January1963signalled
thestartofa‘special’relationshipbetweenthetwocountries,e.g.throughculturalexchangesandregular,
twice-yearlyconsultationsbetweentheFrenchPresidentandGermanChancellor.Despitehis
achievements,whichdidmuchtoensurethesuccessofWestGermandemocracy,Adenauerwasa
controversialfigure,notleastbecauseofhishighlyautocraticmanner.Helosthismajorityin1961,and


resignedfromofficein1963onthedemandofhiscoalitionpartner,theLiberalParty.Againsthisadvice,
hewassucceededbythepersonmostresponsibleforGermany'spost-wareconomicrecovery,L.Erhard.
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AffirmativeAction(USA)InitiatedasUSgovernmentpolicybyPresidentJohnsonin1968,itwas
designedtoreducesocialinequalitiesinUSsocietybyrequiringallfederalgovernmentcontractorsas
wellaspublicinstitutionstogiveconsiderationtoracialminoritiesand,from1971,towomen.In1978
thepolicywasgivenanambiguousverdictbytheSupremeCourtintheBakkecase,whenthecourt
confirmedthepolicyasconstitutionalwhiledecidingatthesametimethattheuseofquotastofavour
minoritiesviolatedtheFourteenthAmendmenttotheconstitution,whichsecuredthecitizens'equal
protectionbeforethelaw.However,inthecaseofUnitedSteelWorkersofAmericav.Weber(1979),the
SupremeCourtwentfurtherbydecidingthatintrainingprogrammes,preferencetoBlackscouldbegiven
aslongasthisdidnotbarWhitesfromadvancement.Duringthe1980sandparticularlythe1990s,
popularoppositiontoaffirmativeactionincreased,andwasreflectedinaseriesofSupremeCourtrulings
inthemid-1990swhichlimitedornarroweditsscope.
CIVILRIGHTSACTS(US);CIVILRIGHTSMOVEMENT
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Afghanistan

A Central Asian country that managed to maintain its independence in the nineteenth century largely
becauseofitsstrategicimportancebetweenanexpandingRussianEmpire,andaBritishEmpirekeento
preserveitsdominanceover,andextenditscontrolbeyond,theIndiansubcontinent.In1879Afghanistan
was forced to concede nominal British sovereignty, though Britain never exerted much control over its
internal affairs, which continued to be dominated by the relationship between its ethnically and
religiouslyheterogeneoussocialgroups.
Formallyindependentfrom1919,KingAmanullahintroducedanumberofreformsdesignedtointroduce
Westernnormsandpracticesintoatraditional,Islamicsociety.Islamicdresswasforbiddeninfavourof
European dress, polygamy abolished, and universal education for men and women introduced. This
caused enormous resistance and he was forced to abdicate in 1929. He was succeeded by Nadir Shah
and, in 1933, his son Zahir Shah . They reversed many of their predecessor's reforms, and shied away
fromanyattemptatsocialoreconomicchange.
ZahirShahentangledhiscountryintenserelationswiththenewlyfoundedstateofPakistanin1947,when
he claimed the Pathan state from Pakistan. In the tradition of his predecessors, Zahir Shah used the
country's geopolitical position to maximum benefit, this time to attract large-scale foreign aid from the
SovietUnionandtheUSAduringthecoldwarwithoutgivinganyreciprocalcommitments.Heruledwith
thehelpofhiscousinGeneralMohammadDaoudasPrimeMinister(1953–63),andin1964transformed
thecountryintoaconstitutionalmonarchy,withthefirstelectionsbeingheldin1965.
On 19 July 1973, when Shah was abroad, Daoud asserted full control, deposed the King and declared
Afghanistan a republic, with himself as President. He nationalized a number of industries, a measure
whichalienatedimportantsectionsofthecommunity.Hefailedtoestablishapermanentpoliticalbase,
and was deposed on 27 April 1978 by a Communist ‘Armed Forces Revolutionary Council’ (Khalq).
Daoud was assassinated and the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan proclaimed. The new regime
sufferedfromconsiderableinfighting,untiltheaccessiontopowerofBabrakKemalin1979.Thefailure
ofKemal'snewregimetoestablishitsauthorityquickly,andtheunpopularityofitsCommunist,secular
reforms,ledtotheeruptionofthetensionthathadbeenbuildingupforsometime.
AnarchywassubduedbytheinvasionoftheSovietarmyinDecember,atKemal'srequest.Thisgavethe
diversegroups,rangingfromIslamicfundamentalists,themujahidin,tribalfractions,andintellectuals,a
common enemy. Helped by the country's rugged terrain, and especially by large military aid from
Pakistan,Arabstates,and,aboveall,theUSA,theoppositionalgroupsmanagedtosustainthewaruntil

the USSR pulled its troops out in 1989. Out of a population of around thirteen million in 1979, one
millionisestimatedtohavediedinthecivilwar,withalmostfivemillionrefugees(aroundonemillion
withinthecountry,overtwomillionintoPakistan,andoveronemillionintoIran).
Meanwhile,KemalhadalreadybeenreplacedwiththemoreconciliatoryMohammadNajibulla(b.1947,
d.1996)in1987,buthefailedtogainthenecessaryendorsementfromthemujahidin,andretiredin1992.
Themujahidin'svictoryovertheiropponentsexposedtheirowndivisions,leadingtoastateofcomplete
anarchy. In 1993, a new group emerged, the Taliban. Supported by Pakistan, they aimed to erect a
theocratic state based on Islamic law. They pushed back the major mujahidin faction, the Northern
Alliance, until they controlled four-fifths of the territory in 1999. Although slighted by the international
community,theTalibanregimesupporteditselfthroughthedrugstrade,asthreequartersofallopiumwas
harvested in Afghanistan. The Taliban developed close connections to Osama Bin Laden , whose al-


Qaeda network helped support the regime while using Afghanistan as a training ground for terrorist
activities in return. Following the September 11 attacks, and the subsequent refusal of the Taliban to
extraditeBinLaden,TalibanfighterswereattackedbytheUSfromtheair.Afterweeksofbombardment,
Taliban rule imploded, and opposition movements took control over the entire country. An interim
governmentwasestablishedunderHamidKarzai,whoserulewassupportedbytheUNandthepresence
ofinternationaltroopsinthecapital,Kabul.Hisruleremainedfragile,asregionalwarlordscontinuedto
dominatethecountrybeyondthecapital.
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AFL(AmericanFederationofLabor)Aconfederationofso-called‘craft’unionstorepresentskilled
trades,foundedin1886aftermassdisordersculminatingintheHaymarketSquareRiotinChicago.From
itsformationuntilhisretirementin1924itwasdecisivelyshapedbyitspresident,SamuelGompers,
whostoodfor‘pureandsimple’unionism,andsummeduphisapproachsimplywithoneword,‘More’.
Hewantedapragmaticorganizationofskilledworkerscommittedtocollectivebargainingforbetter
wagesandconditions.TheAFLreflectedthis,aseachoftheFederation'sthirteencraftunionswasselfgoverningandextendedmembershiponlytoskilledworkers.Thegrowingnumbersofsemi-skilled
workersinmass-productionindustrieswhowereoutsidetheAFL'sdefinitionofcraftatfirstfoundtheir
championinJohnL.Lewis,leaderofthemoremilitantUnitedMineWorkers.
WhenLewisfailedtoconvincetheAFLoftheneedtopromoteindustry-wideunionsinsteel,

automobiles,andchemicals,heformed(1936)theCommitteeofIndustrialOrganizations(later
CongressofIndustrialOrganizations)(CIO),itsmemberssecedingfromtheAFL.In1955thesetwo
rivalorganizationswerereconciledastheAFL-CIOunderGeorgeMeanyandWalterReuther.The
Teamsterswereexpelledfromtheneworganizationin1957.In1968,theUnitedAutoWorkersunder
Reutherseceded;theywerebroughtbackin1981,andsixyearslatertheTeamstersrejoined.Withatotal
ofoverfifteenmillionmembersandalmost100affiliatedtradeunions,itremainedtherecognizedvoice
oforganizedlabourintheUSAandCanada,althoughincommonwiththerestoftheindustrialworld,
tradeunionmembershipdeclinedgreatlyintheUSduringthe1980sand1990s.
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Aflaq,Michel(b.1910,d.1989)
.ArabnationalistpoliticianBorninDamascus(Syria)asaGreekOrthodoxChristian,hebecamea
schoolteacher.Inthe1930s,hedevelopedtheideaofArabunity,whichwouldbefreefromforeign
(especiallyWesterncapitalist)influence.Tothisend,in1943,togetherwithSalah-al-Dinal-Bitar,he
foundedtheBa'ath(ArabRenaissance)Party.AfteranunsuccessfulcareerinSyrianpolitics,in1953his
partymergedwiththeArabSocialistPartytoformtheArabSocialistRenaissanceParty.In1959,he
publishedIntheWaysoftheBa'ath,whichoutlinedthemovement'sideology,nowwithstronglyantiZionistovertones.ThemovementstagedsuccessfulcoupsinSyria(1963)andIraq(1969),butthese
Ba'athistregimesweremoreinterestedinthemaintenanceoftheirownpowerthaninArabunity.
PAN-ARABISM
Back- NewSearch
AfricanNationalCongress,seeANC
Back- NewSearch
Afrikaans,seeAFRIKANER
Back- NewSearch
AfrikanerAtermoriginallyusedtodescribeapersonborninSouthAfricaratherthanEurope,inthe
twentiethcenturyitwasusedtodenoteaWhitepersonwhosefirstlanguagewasAfrikaans.Afrikaners
descendedlargelyfromtheBoers(‘farmers’),mostlyDutch,butalsoFrenchandGermanswho
immigratedbeforetheadventofBritishruleintheCape,1806.Whileaminorityassimilated,many
retainedtheirdistinctculture,theirCalvinist(DutchReformed)faith,andtheirlanguage,whichbecame

moreandmoredistinctfromwrittenDutch.Afrikaneridentitywasemphasizedbytheemergenceof
Afrikanernationalism.ThiswaspartlyaresponsetothedevelopmentofAfrikaansintoawrittenlanguage
towardstheendofthenineteenthcentury,partlytotheBritishoccupationoftheTransvaalin1879–85,
andpartlytotheSouthAfricanWar(1899–1902),whentheAfrikanerstates(theTransvaalandthe
OrangeFreeState)wereannexedbytheBritish.
AfrikanerpoliticalidentitywasformedandexpressedbytheNationalParty(NP),aswellas
organizationssuchastheBroederbond.Itwasfurtherstrengthenedbycommonapprovalofapartheid,
whichwaspartlyinspiredbyasenseofreligiousdestiny.AlthoughAfrikanerscouldmusteronlyalittle
morethan50percentoftheWhitepopulation,theymanagedtodominateSouthAfricanpoliticsand
societyafter1948throughamuchclearersenseofunityandculturalidentitythannon-Afrikaners.This
unitycameunderstrainaspressurestochangetheapartheidsystemgrewduringthe1980s,leadingtothe
formation,forinstance,oftheConservativeParty.Afrikanercultureandvalueswerechallengedeven
furtherbytheendofapartheid,andtheestablishmentofamulti-racialdemocracyin1994,asAfrikaans
becameonlyoneofelevenofficiallyrecognizedSouthAfricancultures.
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AgadirAportinMoroccowhichbecamethefocusofthesecondMoroccancrisis(July–November
1911).InresponsetotheFrenchoccupationoftheMoroccancityofFez,whichbroketheagreementover
MoroccanneutralityreachedafterthefirstMoroccanCrisis,aGermangunboat,thePanther,wassentto
Agadir,ostensiblytoprotectGermancommercialinterestsinMorocco.Inpractice,the‘Panther'sLeap’
wasmoreaGermanappealtobetakenseriouslyasacolonialpowerinaperiodthatmarkedthehigh
noonofimperialism.Ultimately,theGermansagreedtorecognizeMoroccoasasphereofFrench
influence,inreturnforFrenchterritorialconcessionsintheCongo(addedtotheGermancolonyof
Cameroon).Itmarkedafurthermilestoneinthebuildupoftheinternationaltensionsthatprecipitated
WorldWarI.Morespecifically,itconvincedtheBritishofGermannavalaggressionandtheresulting
directthreattotheBritishEmpire.
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Aguinaldo,Emilio(b.23Mar.1869,d.6Feb.1964
).FounderofthePhilippineRepublicBorninCavite,hestudiedattheColegiodeSanJuandeLetran.
HebecamehostiletoSpanishruleand,afterleadingasuccessfulattackonaSpanishgarrisonatthe
outbreakoftherevolutionagainstSpain(1896–7),hebecameacknowledgedasoneofthenationalist

leaders.Assuch,hewaselectedpresidentoftherevolutionarygovernment.Whenthiswasdefeatedby
theSpanishandhewasforcedintoexile,heacceptedUShelp,andin1898returnedtofoundthe
PhilippineRepublicon23January1900.HeturnedagainsttheUSforces,whosoondefeatedhimand
madehimswearallegiancetotheUSA,anactwhichmarkedthedeclineoftheFilipinoresistance
movement.Heretiredintoprivatelife,thoughin1935hestoodunsuccessfullyforPresident.Accusedin
1945ofcollaborationwiththeJapaneseinWorldWarII,hewasarrestedbutnevercametotrial.Onhis
releasehewasappointedamemberofthePhilippinesCouncilofStateanddevotedtherestofhislifeto
improvingUS-Philippinesrelations.
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Ahidjo,ElHadjAhmadou(b.Aug.1924,d.30Nov.1989)
.PrimeMinisterofCameroon1958–60,President1960–82BornatGaruaasthesonofachiefofthe
Fulanipeople,hebecamearadiooperatorinthepostoffice.HewaselectedtotheFrenchCameroon
TerritorialAssemblyin1947andbecameleaderoftheUnionCamérounaise(UC).Hecametorepresent
CameroonattheAssemblyoftheFrenchUnioninParis(1953–6)and,duetoAndré-MarieMbida's
shortcomingsasPrimeMinister(since1957),succeededhiminthepostin1958,agedonly34.President
afterindependencein1960,hetriedtocreateaunitedcountrythroughintegratingallotherpolitical
movementsintheUC,sothatdissensionandconflictwasinternalizedinthepartywhichhecontrolled.


Hefurthersoughttounitethecountry(andincreasehispersonalcontrol)throughpoliticalcentralization.
Thehumanrightsviolationscommittedbyhisgovernmentalsocontributedtothestabilityofthecountry
andofhispersonalposition.Hesurprisedhiscountrybyretiringin1982.Hissubsequentattemptto
continuehisinfluenceinthepoliticalprocessledtoapowerstrugglewithhissuccessor,Biya,whichhe
lost.HeretiredtoSenegal.
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AirshipsThefirstairshipwasbuiltin1900byCountFerdinandZeppelin(b.1838,d.1917).Following
successfultrials,hewascommissionedtobuild100airships(Zeppelins)fortheGermanmilitary,which
usedthemforreconnaissanceandbombingflightsduringWorldWarI.InBritain,airshipswerebuiltafter
WorldWarI,buttheywereabandonedinfavourofflyingboatsinthewakeoftheexplosionofthe
hithertolargestairship,theR101,onitsmaidenvoyagetoIndiain1930.Bycontrast,theGermans

continuedtousetheZeppelinsuntiltheHindenburg,thebodyofwhichcontained200,000cubicmetresof
hydrogen,explodedaboveNewYorkinMay1937.
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Akihito
(b.23Dec.1933)
.125thEmperorofJapan1989–EmperorAkihito'searlylifewasunconventionalbythestandardsset
byhispredecessors.Hisearlyschoolcareeratthepeers'school,theGakushûin,wasdisruptedbyWorld
War II, in which he was forced to spend long periods outside Tokyo to escape Allied bombing raids.
After1945,thefuturerulerofJapanwastutoredbyElizabethVining,anAmericanQuakerandchildren's
author.HismarriagetoMichikoShôda,followingamuchpublicizedromancebegunonthetenniscourts,
wasalsolargelyunprecedentedinthatCrownPrincessMichikowasthefirstcommonertomarryintothe
imperialhouse.Duringhistimeascrownprince,Akihitoparticipatedinnumerousroyalvisits,cementing
Japan'stieswiththerestoftheworld.Onhisaccessiontothethrone,heemphasizedhiscommitmentto
theprinciplesenshrinedintheJapaneseconstitution,hisrulebeingknownasthe‘Heisei’period(‘perfect
peace’).
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AlanbrookeofBrookeborough,AlanFrancisBrooke,1stViscount(b.23July1883,d.17June1963)
.BritishfieldmarshalBorninBagnères-de-Bigorre(France)ofanUlsterfamily.EducatedattheRoyal
MilitaryAcademy,Woolwich,heservedinIrelandandIndia,beforeservingwiththeRoyalArtilleryin
FranceduringWorldWarI.Intheinter-warperiodhewasheavilyinvolvedwiththeeducationof
soldiersattheSchoolofArtilleryandtheImperialDefenceCollege.HealsoworkedintheWarOffice,
beforetakingoverthepreparationoftheanti-aircraftcorpsin1938.In1940,asCommanderoftheBritish
ExpeditionaryForce,hewasinstrumentalintheevacuationofBritishtroopsatDunkirk.Astrong
influenceonChurchill,hebecamechiefoftheImperialGeneralStaffin1941andchairmanoftheChiefs
ofStaffCommitteein1942.HesupportedforcefullytheNorthAfricancampaignsandsubsequent
campaignsinsouthernEurope.ThisdivertedGermantroopsawayfromtheheavilyfortifiedFrenchcoast,
andthuslaidthegroundfortheeventualsuccessoftheAlliedD-DaylandingsatNormandy.Heretiredin
1946.

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Al-Fatah,
seeFATAH,ALBack- NewSearch


Albania

Formerly part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century; a nationalist movement growing since
1878presagedaseriesofpopularuprisingsagainstattemptstospreadTurkishculturestartingin1910,
culminatinginthedeclarationofindependenceon28November1912.Thiswasrecognizedbythelarge
European powers in 1913, though after the outbreak of World War I in 1914 its southern half was
occupied by Italian troops to check Greek expansionism. The whole country was formally declared an
Italian protectorate in 1917. Plans by Italy, Yugoslavia (then the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and
Slovenes),andGreecetopartitionAlbaniacametonoughtinthefaceoffierceAlbanianresistance,led
by Ahmen Zogu (later King Zog I). Giolitti withdrew the Italian forces in 1920, and in 1921 its
independencewasrecognized(itsborderwithGreecewasrecognizedin1923).
KingZogtriedtoreducehiscountry'seconomicandmilitarydependenceonItaly,buton7April1939
Mussolini , spurred by Hitler's annexationist policies, invaded Albania. Zog fled the country, and the
ItalianKingVictorEmmanuelIIIwasdeclaredKingoverAlbaniainstead.Albaniasubsequentlyfought
on the side of Italy and Germany, but when Italy changed sides and joined the Allies, the Albanian
Parliament dissolved its link with Italy in October 1943. The Albanian government, now dependent on
NaziGermanyforsupport,waschallengedbyvariousresistancemovements,themostimportantofwhich
were the Communist partisans led by Hoxha , who had fought against the fascist domination of their
countrysinceNovember1941.
FollowingthecollapseofGermanruleinthearea,thepartisansestablishedapopularfrontunderHoxha,
and proclaimed a People's Republic on 11 January 1946. Albania became a fiercely Stalinist state, as
landwasexpropriatedandindustrializationintroduced.IncontrasttootherCommunistcountriesitdidnot
abandonitsrigorousStalinismafterthedeathofStalin,whichsoonbroughtHoxhaintoconflictwiththe
newUSSRleadership.Diplomaticrelationsbetweenthetwocountrieswereabandonedin1961,andin
1968AlbanialefttheWarsawPact.Forawhile,Hoxhasoughttocompensateforthebreakdownofthis

relationshipwiththemaintenanceofgoodrelationswithChina,butthisphaseendedin1977,wheneven
ChinaunderMaobecametoo‘liberal’.
Hoxha'sdeathin1985usheredinanewera,ashissuccessor,Alia,graduallymovedhiscountryoutofits
totalinternationalisolation.In1990,politicalreformwasbegunthroughtheadmittanceofanopposition
party (Democratic Party of Albania), which won the parliamentary elections of March 1992. The
Democrats also won the elections of 1996, albeit with the help of widespread corruption. Despite
attempts made by the new President, Berisha , at economic reform, the poorest European country
continued to suffer the effects of decades of economic, cultural, and educational isolation. In 1994, its
GrossNationalProductperheadwasequivalenttothatofsomeofthepoorerAfricanstateslikeTogoor
Gambia,withanofficialunemploymentratewellabove50percent.
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AlcaláZamorayTorres,Niceto(b.6July1877,d.18Feb.1949)
.PresidentofSpain1931–6BorninPriegodeCórdoba,hebecamealawyerandanactiveLiberal.In
1917,hebecameMinisterforDevelopment,and,in1922,MinisterofWar.Hejoinedtheopposition
duringPrimodeRivera'sdictatorship,andon17August1930wasaco-sponsorofthePactofSebastian,
whichcalledforanendtothemonarchyandtheestablishmentofarepublic.Whenthiswasachievedafter
themunicipalelectionsof1931,hebecamePrimeMinisteroftheprovisionalrepublicangovernmentand
drewuptheconstitutionoftheSecondRepublic.HewassucceededasPrimeMinisterbyAza,who


ensuredhiselectionasPresident.Inthispost,AlcaláZamoracalledtwoelections,in1933and1936,to
secureapopularmajorityforagovernment.Afteranofficialreviewofhisactions,hewasimpeachedfor
hisdissolutionof1936,whichthereportarguedshouldhaveoccurredtwoyearspreviously.His
impeachmentconstrainedhissuccessor,Aza,toamuchmorelimitedrole,despitethecrisisofthe
SpanishCivilWar.Hewasawidelyrespectedheadofstate,andhisdismissalwasasevereblowtothe
fragilerepublic.In1941,Francosenthimintoexile,whichhespentinBuenosAires.
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AlemánValdés,Miguel(27Sept.1902,d.14May1983)
.PresidentofMexico1946–52BorninSayula(Jalisco),hebecameaqualifiedlawyerwhobecame
stategovernorofVeraCruzin1936andMinisteroftheInteriorunderPresidentÁvìlaCamacho.The

firstcivilianPresidentsincetheRevolution(1911),hereorganizedtherulingPartidodelaRevolución
Mexicana(PRM)intothePartidoRevolucionarioInstitucional(PRI).Heinauguratedaprogrammeof
industrializationandeconomicdevelopment,whileprotectingthenascentindustrieswithhighimport
tariffs.HealsolaidthefoundationsforMexico'stouristindustry,whichsubsequentlydevelopedintoa
crucialhard-currencyearnerfortheeconomy.Hewasneverparticularlypopular,largelybecauseof
allegedgovernmentcorruption.
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Alessandri(Palma),Arturo(b.20Dec.1868,d.24Aug.1950)
.PresidentofChile1920–4,1925,1932–8BorninLinares,thesonofItalianimmigrants,hegraduated
inlawfromtheUniversityofChilein1893andenteredpoliticsin1897,actingonbehalfofthenitrate
miners.Thefirsttoappealtourbanmiddle-andworking-classvoters,thecharismatic‘LionofTarapacá’
waselectedPresidentonthepromiseofthelegalizationoftradeunionsandtheintroductionofsocial
welfarereforms.ThesemeasureswereblockedbytheconservativeCongress.In1924thearmy
intervened,andshortlyafterwardsAlessandriwentintoexile.Hewasbroughtbackbythearmyin1925,
nowonamissiontorestorelawandorder,whichhedidpartlythroughthebrutalsuppressionofstrikes.
Hewasinofficejustlongenoughtooverseethepassingofanewconstitution.Thisextendedthesuffrage,
separatedchurchandstate,guaranteedreligiousliberty,andintroducedcompulsoryprimaryeducation.
HeresignedagaininOctober1925andwenttoItaly.Re-electedinthewakeoftheGreatDepression,he
introducedsuccessfulliberaleconomicreformsbuttheworkingclassessawtheirrealearningsdiminish.
Asaresult,helosthislaboursupportanddidnotstandforre-election.HewaselectedtotheSenatein
1946.
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AlessandriRodríguez,Jorge(19May1896,d.31Aug.1986)
.PresidentofChile1958–64SonofArturoAlessandri,heenteredpoliticswhenhisfatherwas
President.Heworkedasanengineerduringthe1930sandwasMinisterofFinance1948–50.Hewonthe
1958presidentialelectionsbyanarrowmarginagainstAllendeandFrei,withonly31.6percentofthe
vote.Despitehispersonalpopularity,heprovedunabletobridgethesocialdivisionswithinChilean
society.Hisorthodoxliberaleconomicpolicieshadsomesuccess,notablyinbringinginflationdown
fromover25percentin1958to8percentin1961.Nevertheless,agrowingtradedeficitcaused
suspicionsamongforeigninvestorsandawithdrawalofmuch-neededcapital.Atthesametime,the

continuedmigrationfromthelandtothecitiesincreasedtheproblemofurbanpoverty,whichhewas
unabletoaddress.Hedidnotstandforre-electionin1964,andin1970wasnarrowlydefeatedby
Allende.
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Alexander,HaroldRupertLeofricGeorge,1stEarlAlexanderofTunis(b.10Dec.1891,d.16June
1969)
.BritishfieldmarshalBorninLondon,andeducatedatHarrowandtheRoyalMilitaryCollege,


Sandhurst,heservedinFranceinWorldWarI,andlaterintheBalticandIndia.InWorldWarII,hewas
incommandoftheBritishExpeditionaryForce'sretreatfromDunkirk,andthenoversawtheBritish
retreatinBurma.Moreanexecutantthanavisionarystrategist,asCommander-in-ChiefintheMiddle
EastfromAugust1942heallowedMontgomerytohavesubstantialindependenceovertacticaldecisions,
whichprovedsuccessfulagainstRommel.FromFebruary1943,hedeputizedforEisenhower,clearing
TunisiafortheAllies,andthenledtheinvasionofSicily,commandingintheItaliancampaignuntilthe
endofthewar.Hewasmadeaviscountin1946,andwasgovernor-generalofCanadauntil1952,when
hebecameChurchill'sMinisterofDefence.Heretiredin1954.
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AlexanderI(b.17Dec.1888,d.9Oct.1934)
.KingofSerbs,Croats,andSlovenes1921–9,KingofYugoslavia1929–34BorninCetinje,thesonof
PrincePeterKaradjordjevic(r.1903–21)ofSerbiawaseducatedinGenevaandStPetersburg.He
returnedtoSerbiain1909.HedistinguishedhimselfintheBalkanWars,andin1914becamePrince
RegentofSerbiaowingtohisfather'sillhealth.AfterWorldWarIheruledthenewlyunifiedKingdomof
Serbs,Croats,andSlovenes,andin1921becamekinguponthedeathofhisfather.Hefounditextremely
difficulttobalancethedesiresoftheSerbs,Croats,andotherminoritypeoplesforautonomywithhisown
desireforaGreaterSerbia,andtheemphasisonSerbianpredominancethroughoutthekingdom.Faced
withdomesticinstabilityresultingfromethnicconflictinParliament,hedissolvedthechamberand
establishedaroyaldictatorship(6January1929).Toreducetensionsbetweenthedifferentcommunities
hechangedthecountry'snametoYugoslavia,butinpracticecontinuedtopromoteSerbinterests.Hewas
assassinatedonastatevisittoFrance,byMacedonianandCroatianUstaseterrorists.

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Alfonsín,Rẳl(b.12Mar.1927)
.PresidentofArgentina1983–9MemberoftheRadicalUnionParty(UCR)from1945,hewasalawyer
aswellasamemberoftheChamberofDeputiesduringtwobriefperiodsofcivilianrule.Hebecame
leaderoftheUCRin1981,andin1983waselectedasanerstwhileopponentofmilitarydictatorshipand
theFalklandsWar.Hesucceededinstabilizinghiscountry'sfragiledemocracy,despiteanumberof
attemptedmilitarycoups,whichwaspossibleowingtopopularaversiontoareturntoauthoritarianrule.
Bycontrast,hewasunabletoleadhiscountrytoeconomicrecovery.Whenhelosttheelectionstohis
opponent,Menem,hecausedageneralsurprisebyresigningfivemonthsbeforeMenemwasduetotake
over,leavingtheeconomyinastateofnear-collapse.
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AlfonsoXIII(b.17May1886,d.12Feb.1941)
.KingofSpain1886–1931Bornnearlysixmonthsafterhisfather'sdeath,heassumedthecrownfrom
hismother,whohadactedasregent,uponreachingtheageofmajority.However,hewasaweakruler
whowasunabletoprovidehiscountrywiththestabilityandintegrationitsodesperatelyneeded.His
acquiescenceinthedictatorshipofPrimodeRiverameantthathewasunabletosurvivethelatter's
resignation.HeleftthecountryaftertheRepublicans'victoryinthe1931elections,buthedidnot
formallyabdicateuntil1940,infavourofhisson.Hisgrandson,JuanCarlos,returnedtoSpainand
accededtothethronein1975,providingaweakpoliticalsystemwiththevisionaryleadershipwhich
Alfonsohadbeenunabletogive.
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Algeciras,Conferenceof(Jan.–Apr.1906)AninternationalconferencetoresolvethefirstMoroccan
crisisof1905.FromtheconclusionoftheAnglo-FrenchEntenteCordiale,whichhadeffectively
establishedMoroccoasaFrenchsphereofinfluence,Germanybecameincreasinglyworriedbyits
growingdiplomaticisolation.On31March1905,theGermanEmperor,WilhelmII,landedatTangierin
ordertodisplayhissupportforMoroccanindependenceandneutrality,inanattempttoarouseBritish


oppositiontoFranceandthussplittheEntente.TheconferenceofAlgeciras(Spain)did,indeed,confirm
Moroccanindependence,thoughthiswastobeguaranteedbyFranceandSpain.Frenchcontrolwas

thereforeassured,whileEnglishsupportforFrancestrengthenedtheEntente.Theoutcomethus
representedadoubledefeatforGermandiplomacy.MoroccoofficiallybecameaFrenchprotectoratein
1912.
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AlgerHissTrials(USA,1949–50)AlgerHisswasaHarvard-educatedlawyerwhohadworkedatthe
highestlevelsfortheUSStateDepartment.In1948,hebecamethefocusofananti-Communist
investigationunderthedirectionoftheCommitteeonUn-AmericanActivitiessetupbytheUSHouseof
Representatives.HisswasoriginallysuspectedofhavingpassedsecretinformationtotheSovietUnionin
the1930s.Sincethestatuteoflimitationspreventedthechargeofespionage,hewaschargedwithperjury
forhavingdeniedonoaththathehadpassedsecretdocumentstoWhittakerChambers,aself-confessed
CommunistPartycourier.Hissmaintainedhisinnocence.Inhisfirsttrialtherewasahungjury,butinthe
secondhewasfoundguilty.Atbothtrialshighgovernmentofficialstestifiedonhisbehalf.Thedefence
challengedChambers'ssanityandallegedthattheFBIhadtamperedwithevidencetoobtainaconviction.
Hisswassentencedtofiveyearsinprison.Thetrialsymbolizesthefearsarousedatthattimebythecold
war.Hisswasreleasedin1954andreturnedtoprivatelifeasalawyer.Whilehewasreadmittedtothe
MassachusettsBarin1975,mostcommentatorsagreethathewasaCommunistandthathedidcommit
perjury,thoughoriginalclaimsthathewasaSovietspyremainunproven.
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Algeria

ThesecondlargestAfricancountry,itscolonizationbeganwiththeFrenchoccupationofAlgiersin1830.
In 1848, it was given an administrative structure to parallel that of metropolitan France through the
creation of three départements, Algier, Oran, and Constantine. Most of the country had been brought
undermilitarycontrolby1870,andin1882itformallybecamepartofmetropolitanFrance.TheAlgerian
populationhadnopoliticalorcivilrights,thoughin1919membersoftheindigenousélitewereoffered
full French citizenship if they renounced their Muslim faith and customs. This was part of a general
attempttointegratetheAfricanstateintowhatwasregardedtobesuperiorFrenchcultureandcustoms.
TheFrenchcoloniststookpossessionoftheareassuitableforagrariancultivation,withAlgerianpeasants

workingontheirfarmsforminimalwages.
DuringWorldWarII,AlgeriawasruledbytheVichygovernment.ThesuccessfullandingofAlliedtroops
in French North Africa in November 1942 enabled de Gaulle to set up his headquarters and the
‘Committee of National Liberation’ in Algiers on 3 June 1943. Beginnings of Algerian nationalists'
demandsforgreaterindependenceunderAbbasweremetbyapromise(formallymadein1947)forfull
Algerian participation in the politics and government of the country. The promise was not fulfilled,
however. France was preoccupied with its own attempts at constitutional and social renewal, and the
emergingFourthRepublicinmainlandFranceprovedtooweaktoimposeitswillupontheconservative
andintransigentFrenchAlgeriancolonists.Atthesametime,theFrenchgovernmentwashinderedbyits
inability to rely fully on the loyalty of its military commanders in Algeria, who often sided with the
colonists.
BrutalactsofrepressionagainsttheMuslimpopulationledtotheAlgerianWarofIndependence(1954–
62).Itdevastatedthecountry,bothbecauseofthematerialdestructionandlossoflifeduringthewar,and
because of the subsequent exodus of most of the colonists, who took their capital and their skills with
them.UndertheleadershipofBenBella,thecolonists'farmswerenationalizedandgiventopeasantselfgovernment,thoughthissocialistexperimentfailedtoincreaseproductionandhadtobeabandonedunder
Boumédienne,whocametopowerafteracoupinJune1965.WhileBoumédiennecontinuedtoespouse
the principles of socialism, he shifted economic policy from the development of agriculture to the
establishmentofanindustrialbase,e.g.throughthenationalizationofcompanies.Thiswasaccompanied
by a policy of religious and cultural nationalism which emphasized Algeria's Arabic ethnicity and its
Muslimtraditions,ratherthanitscolonialhistory.Despitethedefiantrhetoric,however,Algeriaremained
closely reliant on France, both through trade (50 per cent of imports were from France in 1990), and
throughthepopulationofover300,000AlgerianslivingandworkinginFrance.
Duringthe1970s,thecountrybecameincreasinglydependentonitsoilrevenues.Whenthepriceofoil
fellfrom1981,Algeria'sforeigndebtburdenincreaseddramatically.Boumédienne'ssuccessor,Chadli ,
was thus forced to introduce market-oriented economic reforms. As dissatisfaction with economic
austeritymeasuresincreased,itbecameevidentthattheregime'spolicyoffosteringAlgeriannationalism
hadbackfired,enablingthegrowthofIslamicfundamentalisminoppositiontothegovernment.In1989,
Chadli revised the constitution and allowed the formation of political parties. He also permitted the
organization of Islamic fundamentalists as the Islamic Salvation Front (Front Islamique du Salut, FIS),
despite their pledge to destroy the current system of government if elected. After the first round of

parliamentaryelections(26December1991),theFISgained188outof435parliamentaryseats,thoughit
had gained only 25 per cent of the popular vote. Chadli subsequently resigned, his power passing to a


transitional state council consisting of five members. On 9 February 1992 it banned the FIS, and
proclaimedastateofemergency.Notwithstandingtheeruptionofnearcivilwarwithanestimated40,000
dead(1992–5),thegovernment'sbasicunwillingnesstoacceptfundamentalistrulefrustratedanyattempts
atcompromise.InpresidentialelectionsinNovember1995LiamineZeroualgainedalmost61percentof
thevote,butviolencecontinuedasthebannedFIShadbeenunabletoparticipateintheelections.
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AlgerianWarofIndependence(1954–62)On1November1954hostilitiesbrokeoutbetweenthe
ChristiancolonistsofFrenchdescentandAlgerianMuslimnationalists,whowereorganizedintothe
FrontdeLibérationNationale(FLN)underBenBella.Despiteitsinitialdramaticinferiority,the
brutalityofthewell-armedFrenchandcolonists'troopssoonbroughttheFLNthemasssupportofthe
agrarianpopulation.Nevertheless,theFLNremainedrestrictedtoguerrillaattacks,whichspreadto
Algiersinlate1956.ThewartriggeredatremendousdomesticcrisisinFranceandchallengedFrench
self-understandingasasociety,eventhoughithadalreadybeenforcedtoabandonitscolonialempirein
Indochina.ForunlikeanyothercolonyAlgeriahadbeenregardedasanintegralpartofFrance.Thewar
radicalizedthecolonists'andtheFrenchmilitary'shardlinepoliciesinAlgeria,toanextenttowhichthey
camealmostoutsidethecontrolofthegovernmentsoftheFrenchFourthRepublic.Theinabilitytocontrol
theeventsinAlgeriatriggeredthecollapseoftheFourthRepublicandthereturnofdeGaulletoendthe
AlgeriancrisisandtofoundanewFrenchstate.DeGaullelostlittletimeindoingboth.Hispersonal
authoritywassufficienttore-establishthearmy'sallegianceinAlgeria,despitetheresistanceofSalan's
Organisationdel'ArméeSecrète.HeorderednegotiationswithBenBella,whichledtotheEvian
Agreements.Independencewasdeclaredon3July1962.
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AlgiersAgreement,seeIRAN-IRAQWAR
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Alia,Ramiz(b.18Oct.1925)
.Albanianleader1985–92OfficiallyAlbanianheadofstatesince1982,hesucceededHoxhaasdefacto

rulerofAlbaniafollowingthelatter'sdeath.Heinitiatedcarefulreform(e.g.endinghiscountry's
economicanddiplomaticisolation)whichlefttheCommunistParty's(andhisown)monopolyofpower
unchallenged.However,thecountry'sappallingeconomicconditionsledtomassprotests,aswellasan
exodusofover100,000peopletoItaly,Greece,andotherneighbouringcountries.ThisforcedAliato
inaugurateaprocessofdemocratization.Hewonthe1991elections,thoughcontinuingprotestsledtonew
electionsin1992,whichhelost.On2July1994,hewassentencedtosevenyears'imprisonmentfor
humanrightsviolationsandcorruption,thoughhewaspardonedandreleasedafewdayslater.
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Allenby,EdmundHenryHynman,1stViscountofMegiddoandFelixstowe(b.23Apr.1861,d.14
May1936)
.BritishfieldmarshalBorninBrackenhurst,Nottinghamshire,hewaseducatedatHaileyburyandthe
RoyalMilitaryCollege,Sandhurst,in1882.Thereafter,heservedinAfricaandbecameasuccessful
cavalryleaderintheSouthAfrican(Boer)War.HeservedontheWesternFrontin1914–16,butwentto
Palestinein1917toleadtheEgyptianExpeditionaryForce.Hefoughtasuccessfulcampaignagainstthe
TurkisharmywhichcollapsedsoonafteritsdefeatattheBattleofMegiddo(18–21September1918).
Despitehisbadtemper,whichearnedhimthenickname‘theBull’,hedemonstratedconsiderable
diplomaticskillsashighcommissionerinEgypt(1919–25),whenhenegotiatedEgyptianself-rule.
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Allende(Gossens),Salvador(b.26July1908,d.11Sept.1973)
.PresidentofChile1970–3Thesonofwealthyparents,hequalifiedasadoctorin1932.In1933he
helpedfoundtheSocialistPartyofChile,andwasitsgeneralsecretary,1943–70.Heranunsuccessfully


forthepresidencyin1952,1958,and1964.In1970hewonasleaderofanallianceofSocialistsand
Communists,thefirstavowedMarxisttowinaLatin-Americanpresidencyinafreeelection.Atthesame
time,hisnarrow‘relative’majority(winning36.3percentofthepopularvote)gavehimadubious
mandateforthedecisivereformshewasintending.Henationalizedthecopperminesandahostofother,
mostlyforeign-owned,businesseswithoutcompensation.Thisnotonlyincurredthewrathofforeign
governments,butalsobroughtforeigninvestmentalmosttoastandstill.Healsopromotedconsumption
ratherthaninvestment,throughtheintroductionofapayriseandpricefreeze.Thesemeasurespromoteda

thrivingeconomicblackmarket,andtheeconomygotincreasinglyoutofcontrol.Inaddition,anillpreparedbutneverthelessaggressivelandreformresultedinthebreakupofthehaciendaestatesand
broughtchaostothecountryside.Theélitesandthemiddleclasses,mindfuloftheirprivateproperty,
thereforesupportedhisoverthrowbyGeneralPinochet(backedbytheCIA),inwhichhediedinthe
burningpresidentialpalace.
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AllianceforProgressAUSinitiativeunderPresidentJohnF.Kennedy,formalizedinAugust1961when
thecountriesofLatinAmerica(barCuba)andtheUSAsignedaCharteratPuntadelEsteinUruguay.Its
aimwas‘themaintenanceofdemocraticgovernment’,mainlythroughassistanceinsocialandeconomic
development.The$18billionprogrammewasfundedalmostequallybyloans,frombankingand
investmenthousesintheUSA,andtheUSgovernment.Itresultedinmodestdevelopmentofschoolsand
hospitals,butsoonlostimpetus.Itsfundamentalproblemwasthatatthetime,social,economic,and
politicalprogressrarelycoincided,e.g.sothateconomicprogressoftenservedtoreinforceexisting
dictatorialregimes.Also,theAlliancewasweakenedbycontinuingUSinterferenceinthedomestic
affairsofitsneighbours,mostnotablyinCubain1961–2,andtheDominicanRepublicin1965,aswell
asthroughcontinuingCIAactivities.
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AlliedPowersAtermfortheco-belligerentswhofoughtagainsttheCentralandAxisPowersinWorld
WarIandWorldWarIIrespectively.Strictlyspeaking,inWorldWarItheAlliesconsistedofthose
countrieswhohadcreatedaformalallianceofco-operation,ofwhomthemainonesweretheBritish
EmpireandFrance.TheUSAandothercountries(e.g.Brazil,Bolivia,China,Tibet,etc.)enteredthewar
withoutenteringanyofficialpact,andwerethusofficiallyknownasAssociatePowersoftheAllies.In
WorldWarII,aroundfiftycountriesenteredthewaronthesideoftheAllies,thoughsome(e.g.inLatin
America)neversentanytroopsintobattle.Duringthewaritself,Britain,theUSA,andtheUSSRwere
thedominantAllies(‘TheBigThree’),andco-ordinatedtheprogressofthewaranditsaftermathat
meetingsinTehran,Yalta,andPotsdam.Afterthewar,Francewasacceptedasafourthmainally.
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Al-Qaeda(‘TheBase’)
Aterroristorganizationfoundedin1988,originallyrecruitedfromtheIslamicfundamentalistresistance
fightersthatfoughtagainsttheSovietinvasionofAfghanistaninthe1980s.HeadedbyOsamaBinLaden,
it is a highly secret organization whose effectiveness has been ensured by the idea of

compartmentalization. It meant that its different divisions in over 30 countries (which included Kenya,
Pakistan,Somalia,theSudanandthePhilippines)hadlittledetailedknowledgeofeachother'sactivities.
In1998,itwasheldtoberesponsibleforanattackontheUSembassyinKenya,killing213people,and
ontheUSembassyinDar-es-Salaam,killingelevenpeople.Theorganizationthenorganizedtheattackon
USS Cole in Aden in 2000. Sustained by volunteers and money coming from Egypt, Saudi Arabia and
other predominantly Arab states, the al-Qaeda network is sustained by a belief that the US epitomizes
valuesthatareopposedtoIslam,andwhichmustbefoughtbyaholywar.Theorganizationwasbehind
theSeptember11attacks,afterwhichitbecametheprimetargetintheWaronTerrorismledbyPresident
GeorgeW.Bush.Al-Qaeda'sfighterswerethebackboneoftheTalibanregimeinAfghanistan,andwhen


the Taliban fell, many al-Qaeda fighters were captured by Northern Alliance forces and other tribal
groups. They were handed over to the US forces, which transported them to special imprisonment on
Guantanamo Bay, where they were protected neither by the US Constitution nor the 1949 Geneva
ConventionrelativetotheTreatmentofPrisonersofWar.
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Alsace-LorraineTheAlsaceisaterritorywestoftheRiverRhinewhichbecamepartofFrance1648–97
andbordersLorraineinthenorth.LorrainecameunderFrenchinfluenceduringthesixteenthcenturyand
becamepartofFranceduringtheseventeenthcentury.AftertheFrenchRevolutionof1789,Alsatians
werecontenttolivewithinFrance,despitethefactthattheywerelargelyProtestantandGermanspeaking.TheyjoinedthefierceoppositionofthepeopleofLorrainetotheGermanannexationwhich
followedGermany'svictoryoverFrancein1871.Thetwoterritorieswerecombinedandadministered
from1879byapowerfulgovernorwhowasadirectappointeeoftheImperialGovernmentinBerlin.
ArbitrarydecreesbytheGermanadministration,misbehaviourbytheGermanarmy(asatZabern),and
effortsat‘Germanization’furtheredtheresentment,andthevastmajoritywelcomedthereturnofFrench
rulein1918.InmanywaysFrencheffortsateliminatingAlsatianpeculiaritiessuchastheGerman
languageandtraditionalcustomswereevenmoredraconianthanGermanrule,sothatresentmentturned
againsttheFrench.FollowingtheexperienceofNazirule,1940–5,thepeopleofAlsaceandLorraine
havethrivedunderFrenchrulesince1945,andtherehasbeenanaturaldeclineoftheAlsatianGerman
dialect.
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AltoAdige,seeSOUTHTIROL
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Ambedkar,BhimraoRamji(b.14Apr.1893,d.6Dec.1956)
.IndianpoliticianBorninMhowintotheMaharcasteof‘untouchables’,hewonaseriesofscholarships
andgraduatedfromColumbiaUniversitywithaPh.D.,andwithaD.Sc.degreefromtheUniversityof
Londonin1923,whenhewascalledtotheBar.BackinIndia,inJuly1924hefoundedtheBahishkrit
HikariniSabha,anorganizationwhichcampaignedfortherightsoftheuntouchables.Tothisend,he
embarkeduponanumberofspecificcampaigns(satyagraha),whilealsoleadingthefightforthe
DepressedClassesintheBombayLegislativeAssembly(1926–34).Meanwhile,inthelegalprofession
headvancedtobecomePerryprofessorofjurisprudenceattheGovernmentLawCollegein1935.A
representativeattheRoundTableConferences,heclashedwithGandhioverthelatter'srejectionofa
separatevotefortheuntouchables.TheresultingPoonaPactof1932wasacompromisewhichreserved
seatsforuntouchablesinthelegislature,aformulathathestillfeltprolongedtheirsocialandpolitical
isolation,butthathasneverthelessbecomeanenduringfeatureofIndianpoliticallife.Hefoundedthe
ScheduledCastesFederationinApril1942,andin1945establishedthePeople'sEducationSociety.He
participatedintheindependencenegotiationsin1947and,asNehru'sLawMinister,successfullydrafted
India'sconstitution.Afterresigningfromthegovernmentin1951,hefailedtogainre-electionin1952and
1953.FrustratedbytheostensibleimpossibilityforuntouchablestogainequalityinIndia,heurgedhis
followerstojoinhiminBuddhism.
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AmericaFirstCommittee(1940–1)Abroadisolationistfrontwhichformedthepoliticalnexusfor
AmericanswhowishednottointerveneintheFranco-BritishwarwithNaziGermanywhichbeganin
1939.ItwasassociatedwithRepublicans,particularlythoseassociatedwiththeAmericanMidwest,but
alsogarneredthesupportofsomeDemocrats,pacifists,socialists,andindependents,andsome
representativesofethnicgroupssuchasGermanAmericans.
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AmericanFederationofLabor,seeAFL