The perception and use of english subordinating conjunctions in writing among twelfth graders at thang long high school

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

---------------------------

NGUYEN THI HONG THANH

THE PERCEPTION AND USE OF ENGLISH
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS IN
WRITING AMONG TWELFTH GRADERS AT
THANG LONG HIGH SCHOOL

Major: English Language
Course code: 1741900014
HO CHI MINH CITY, JULY 2020


MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

---------------------------

THE PERCEPTION AND USE OF ENGLISH
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS IN
WRITING AMONG TWELFTH GRADERS AT
THANG LONG HIGH SCHOOL
Submitted to the
Faculty of English Language
in partial fulfillment of the Master’s degree in English Language

Course code: 1741900014

By

NGUYEN THI HONG THANH
Supervised by

NGUYEN THI KIEU THU, PH.D

HO CHI MINH CITY, JULY 2020


STATEMENT OF AUTHORITY

I certify my authorship of the Master’s Thesis submitted today entitled:
THE PERCEPTION AND USE OF ENGLISH SUBORDINATING
CONJUNCTIONS IN WRITING AMONG TWELFTH GRADERS AT THANG
LONG HIGH SCHOOL
In terms of the statement of requirements for Thesis in Master’s programs issued by the
Higher Degree Committee of Faculty of English Language, Ho Chi Minh City University
of Technology.

Ho Chi Minh, July 2020

NGUYEN THI HONG THANH

i


RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS

I hereby state that I, Nguyen Thi Hong Thanh, being a candidate for the degree of Master

of Arts in English Language, accept the requirements of the University relating to the
retention and use of Master’s Thesis deposited in the Library.

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my thesis deposited in the Library
should be accessible for purposes of study and research, in accordance with the normal
conditions established by the Library for the care, loan or reproduction of the thesis.

Ho Chi Minh, July 2020

NGUYEN THI HONG THANH

ii


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
With sincere affection and deep gratitude, I would like to give my most sincere
thanks to Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (HUTECH), the Faculty of
English Language, HUTECH’s post-graduation Institute, and all the teachers who were
dedicated to teaching and creating favorable conditions to help me in the process of
studying, researching and completing the thesis. In particular, I would like to express my
deep gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Nguyen Thi Kieu Thu, who has devoted to guiding,
educating, and helping me, and encouraging me throughout the process of studying and
completing the thesis.
On this occasion, I would like to sincerely thank the Principal, the board of
teachers, and all the teachers and students of Thang Long High School for creating
favorable conditions and providing data, materials and enthusiastic comments for me in
the research process. I would also like to thank my colleagues, friends, family for
encouraging and helping me in the process of learning and doing research.
Despite great efforts, the thesis cannot avoid shortcomings; I am looking forward
to receiving the sympathy, guidance, help and comments from scientists, teachers,

managers and colleagues.

iii


ABSTRACT
Conjunctions in general and subordinating conjunctions in particular play an important
role in English, especially the written language because they make ideas in a sentence
and the sentences in a paragraph more closely linked.
The purpose of this study is an attempt to explore and analyze perception and use
subordinating conjunctions in essays written by 12th grade students at Thang Long High
School, Lam Ha District, Lam Dong Province, those in rural areas do not have much
English proficiency and have difficulty in writing essays at a syntactic level, especially in
creating cohesion between sentences together in the paragraph. . It is undeniable that the
use of conjunctions in general and subordinating conjunctions in particular is one of the
key factors in creating cohesion in English texts. That is the reason why a survey of
awareness and the use of English subordinating conjunctions among twelfth graders at
Thang Long High School will be able to help solve problems and improve writing quality
for students at the surveyed school.
The study involved 67 twelfth graders who were studying at Thang Long High School.
Quantitative and qualitative data were obtained through the 16-item questions and 134
paragraphs with 33,317 words written by 67 students. The questionnaire revealed that
twelfth graders understood the importance, use, and functions of English subordinating
conjunctions and usually used them in their writings. Error analysis indicated that the two
most common errors concerning the use of subordinating conjunctions are punctuation
with comma missing (32 times) and fragment (17 times). Lastly, there is a significant
positive correlation between students’ perception and their use of English subordinating
conjunctions in their writings. Results imply that if students are more aware of the
importance and functions of English subordinating conjunctions, they tend to use them
more frequently in their writing.

Key words: cohesion, errors, perception, subordinating conjunctions, twelfth graders

iv


LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
EA: Error Analysis
EFL: English as a foreign language
ESL: English as a second language
ESC: English subordinating conjunctions
L1: First Language
L2: Second Language
TESOL: Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages

v


TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………. 1
1.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………… 1
1.2 Background to the study……………………………………………………………..1
1.3 Rationale of the study………………………………………………………………. 3
1.4 Aims and objectives of the study …………………………………………………... 3
1.4.1 Aims………………………………………………………………………. 3
1.4.2 Objectives ………………………………………………………………… 3
1.5 Research Questions…………………………………………………………………. 4
1.6 Scope of the study …………………………………………………………………. 4
1.7 Significance of the study ………………………………………………………….... 4

1.8 Definitions of the key terms……………………………………………………….... 5
1.9 Overview of the thesis……………………………………………………………… 5
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………7
2.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………....... 7
2.2 English Conjunctions ……………………………………………………………….7
2.2.1 Definition…………………………………………………………….……..7
2.2.2 Classifications ……………………………………………………….…… 7
2.3 The important role of conjunctions in learning writing ……………….…………...13
2.4 Problems encouraged by students in the use of English subordinating conjunctions
133
2.4.1. Definitions of errors …………………………………………………. 133
2.4.2. The role of error analysis (EA) in EFL teaching and learning ………..

13

2.4.3. Classification of errors ………………………………………………...

14

2.4.4. The procedure of error analysis ……………………………………….

15

2.4.5. Sources of errors ……………………………………………………... 166
2.5. Previous studies ………………………………………………………………..

19

2.6 Conceptual framework …………………………………………………………

21

2.7 Summary ……………………………………………………………………….

22

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY ………………………………………………..

23

vi


3.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………….

23

3.2 Research design ………………………………………………………………...

23

3.3 Research site ……………………………………………………………………

25

3.4 Sampling and sampling procedures …………………………………………….

26

3.5 Research instruments …………………………………………………………...

28

3.5.1 Questionnaire …………………………………………………………. 299
3.5.2 Writing text …………………………………………………………… 311
3.6 Data collection procedures ……………………………………………………..

31

3.7 Data analysis procedures ………………………………………………………. 322
3.8 Validity and reliability ………………………………………………………….

33

3.9 Summary ………………………………………………………………………. 355
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION …………………………………

366

4.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………. 366
4.2 Results …………………………………………………………………………

366

4.3 Discussions ……………………………………………………………………...

49

4.4 Summary……………………………………………………………………….. 522
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION ……………………………………………………

53

5.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………..

53

5.2 Summary of the main findings of the thesis ……………………………………

53

5.3 Pedagogical implications ……………………………………………………….

55

5.4 Limitations ……………………………………………………………………..

57

5.5 Recommendations for further studies ………………………………………….

57

LIST OF REFERENCES ………………………………………………………......

59

APPENDICES ……………………………………………………………….…......

63

vii


LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Common English subordinating conjunctions and their semantic relationships
(Sorensen (1997, as cited in Wu, 2019, p. 626)……………………….

10

Table 3.1: Descriptions of participant demographics ………………………………

27

Table 3.2: Reliability results of adjusted questionnaire…………………………….

344

Table 4.1: Students’ understanding of specific English subordinating conjunctions.. 377
Table 4.2: Students’ perceptions of functions of English subordinating conjunctions in
writing……………………………………………………………………………….

388

Table 4.3: Students’ perceptions of importance of English subordinating conjunctions in
writing…………………………………………………………………………….

40

Table 4.4: Students’ use English subordinating conjunctions in writing …………...

42

Table 4.5: Frequency of subordinating conjunctions by types ……………………..

44

Table 4.6: Frequency of specific subordinating conjunctions ……………………...

45

Table 4.7: Positions of subordinating conjunctions used in students’ writing ……..

46

Table 4.8: Functions of subordinating conjunctions used in writings ……………...

46

Table 4.9: Errors of use of subordinating conjunctions …………………………….

47

Table 4.10: The results of Pearson correlation for perception and use of English
subordinating conjunctions …………………………………………………………

viii

49

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Conceptual framework of the current study……………………………. 22

ix


CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
This introductory chapter provides an overview of (1) background to the study, (2)
rationale of the study, (3) aims and objectives of the study, (4) research questions, (5)
scope of the study, (6) significance of the study, (7) definitions of the key terms, and (8)
overview of the thesis.

1.2 Background to the study
Currently in Vietnam, English is used and taught as a foreign language. Moreover, under
the effect of globalization and internalization, teaching and learning English as a foreign
language (EFL) has become very important in the nation (Hoang Van Van, 2013). In
addition, English is a core subject in the National Educational Curriculum of Vietnam. It
is an elective subject from forms 3 to 5 and compulsory one from forms 6 to 12 (Hoang
Van Van, 2010). The syllabus requires an integration of four language skills; however,
most testing practices focus on reading, grammar and vocabulary (Dang Nhon Thanh,
2011).
There is no denying that writing is one the most important language skills; however, EFL
learners in other educational contexts. There are many factors that might make
contributions to the use of learners’ written language, one of which is the use of
transitions – i.e. how to connect ideas in the writing piece. This element is clearly shown
in many forms of academic writing – two of which are paragraphs and essays. The fact is
that the English language has a wide range of transitions, many of which have varied

usage in different contexts, and Conjunction which is a word class whose function is to
connect sentence elements has been paid much attention to by English teachers of writing
skills. Among the sub groups of this part of speech, English subordinating conjunction
which indicates many relationships within sentences is considered more difficult for
students to learn and to use in their writings.
Besides, errors in language learners’ performance including writing process have long
become the subject of interest among teachers, linguists and syllabus planners. Errors are
natural for second or foreign learners of English language. In language teaching and
1


learning, errors should be treated as a facilitator (Harmer, 2007; DeCarrico& LarsenFreeman, 2010). The linguists particularly are finding reasonable explanations for
occurrence of errors and their implication towards the learning and teaching of a
language.
Among many elements in learners’ writing, the use of subordinating conjunctions is one
that plays an important role in learners’ written language. However, errors are
unavoidable. EFL learners have made numerous errors in their use of subordinating
conjunctions (Wu, 2019). In literature, previous studies inclined to implement the
instruction of subordinating conjunctions to enhance learners’ productive skills- speaking
or writing. Very few studies focused on the way EFL learners apply the conjunctions in
writing and their perception of the subordinating conjunctions’ effectiveness. On a whole,
there should be a gap between how learners perceive the role of subordinating
conjunctions in writing and their actual use. This opens a route for the current study.
In Vietnam, the application of English teaching materials at schools is not effective. After
12 years of studying English, many students cannot listen, speak, read and write fluently.
Examination pressure makes teachers and students often have an opinion: Teaching and
learning just to pass the exam. The subject is not focused as a skill needed in life and at
work but is a subject of teaching and acquiring general knowledge. Accordingly, after 12
years of studying English, learners are not sometimes capable of reading and
understanding texts but cannot write complete passages, a whole story and cannot

communicate smoothly. It is undeniable that the lack of teaching facilities and techniques
is also a major cause of limited language proficiency among students. In many schools,
especially in rural, remote and mountainous areas, teaching and learning equipment is of a
very low quality and outdated.
At Thang Long High School, the students have been studying English as a Foreign
Language but the official national curriculum seems to provide no better chances for the
students to practice language skills, especially writing, and even the teachers to give
immediate directive feedback to students’ writings. In fact, the students have been trying
to improve their productive language skills, especially writing in general and English
subordinating conjunctions (ESC henceforth) in particular.

2


1.3 Rationale of the study
The study was conducted primarily because of the learners’ problems with writing skills
apparently among the students at Thang Long High School. They tend to have relatively
poor cohesion across parts of sentences and many sentences. Thus, understanding how
they perceive and use English subordinating conjunctions is necessary so that they could
improve their writing skill and perform well in tests as well as national high school
examination. Furthermore, yet there has not been any research on this particular
population though they share some similarities with their peers in other schools. For this
reason, a research which narrowly focuses on the students in grade 12 of the school
should be conducted not only for the good of the students but also the teachers in charge
of this level. Besides, the relationship between their perception and use should also be
examined for more clarity.

1.4 Aims and objectives of the study
1.4.1 Aims
This study aims to improve the writing skill of twelfth graders at Thang Long High

School in Lam Dong Province, who are believed not to be very proficient in English and
have problems in writing at syntactic level. One of the most important factors in creating
cohesion in an English text is the use of conjunctions. Consequently, an investigation of
the perception and use of English subordinating conjunctions among twelfth Graders at
Thang Long High School would help solve the problems and better the writing quality of
the students at the surveyed school.
1.4.2 Objectives
The specific objectives of this study are:
(1) To explore the perception of the use of English subordinating conjunctions
among twelfth graders at Thang Long High School.
(2) To analyze the use of English subordinating conjunctions of twelfth graders at
Thang Long High School in their writings.
(3) To examine whether there is a correlation between the perception and the use
of twelfth graders at Thang Long High School in their writings.

3


1.5 Research Questions
In order to achieve the above aims and objectives, the research is guided by the following
questions:
(1) What is the perception of the use of English subordinating conjunctions among
Twelfth Graders at Thang Long High School?
(2) How do the students use English subordinating conjunctions in their essays?
(3) Is there any significant correlation between the students’ perception and their use
of English Subordinating Conjunctions in their essays?

1.6 Scope of the study
This study examines how twelfth graders at Thang Long High School employ English
subordinating conjunctions in writing essays. The study focuses on the high school

students’ perception and use of conjunctions in their English essays only. Other aspects of
writing, such as lexical knowledge, coherence, organization of ideas are beyond the scope
of the study. Likewise, only the twelfth graders are involved and consequently, students
of other grades as well as the teachers at the studied school are excluded. Moreover, both
questionnaire and a corpus of writing texts are employed as research instruments in the
scope of the study.

1.7 Significance of the study
The study has both practical and theoretical contributions. For practical value, it is
expected that the thesis would provide students the use of subordinating conjunctions in
English, especially in writing English that can be committed in improving their writing
and grammar skills. Accordingly, students will be able to actively use subordinating
conjunctions to diversify sentence structures when writing essays in English.
Theoretically, this study adds some useful information to the body of knowledge about
English subordinating conjunctions (ESCs) in their writings; especially the findings
support the teachers in teaching ESCs for their students. By having understanding of
English subordinating conjunctions, teachers will be able to give clear explanations on
how to use them. In addition, the instructor guides the learner to use ESCs more
accurately and coherently when connecting ideas in the text.

4


1.8 Definitions of the key terms
To serve the reader friendliness, the academic terms that may cause confusion hereby will
be briefly defined as the following. The full definition of the terms and the related
literature are discussed in the next section.
Conjunction
Conjunctions refer to a set of words that connects parts of sentences together. As stated
by Arts (Aarts, 2001): “Conjunctions belong to a closed class of words that have a

linking function”.
Subordinating conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions, also named as subordinators, are words that “join an
independent clause and a dependent clause” (Dictionary of Language Teaching and
Applied Linguistics, 2002, p.107).
Errors
Errors are inevitable parts which facilitate language learning. Errors are normally
linguistic flaws which learners produce. At a basic linguistic area, errors can be
grammatical errors, lexical errors, or pronunciation errors. At a higher linguistic area,
errors can be semantic, syntactic, pragmatic, or sociolinguistic errors. Errors can be also
called as intermediate forms. In the process of language acquisition, EFL learners tend to
produce many intermediate forms until they get correct patterns (De Carico & LarsenFreeman (2010). In this study, errors in the use of English subordinating conjunctions are
under consideration.

1.9 Overview of the thesis
The thesis includes five chapters as follows.
 The first chapter introduces background to the study, statement of the problem,
research objectives, research questions, and the overview of the thesis.
 The second chapter presents key literature on conjunctions, English subordinating
conjunctions, the functions of subordinating conjunctions, learners’ problems with
subordinating conjunctions, the nature of learners’ errors, and the error analysis
procedure. Previous findings are also discussed, which provides a gap for the
current study.

5


 The third chapter shows all important information about research designs;
participants, sampling, and site; instruments; data collection and data analysis.
 The fourth chapter reports main findings of the two research questions.

 The final chapter concludes the thesis by remarking key notes after data collection
and data analysis. Research limitations and recommendations for future research
are also stated in this chapter.

6


CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the theoretical framework used in this study. The researcher based
on the fundamentals of conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions in English and
previous findings in past studies on the use of subordinating conjunctions in English
language teaching and learning. Initially, the chapter introduces the standard definition of
conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions. Then it lists key categories of subordinating
conjunctions, followed by the role of these words in English language teaching and
learning in general and EFL writing in particular. Past studies are also reported to help
compare findings critically and expose the researcher to the research gap.

2.2 English Conjunctions
2.2.1 Definition
According to Dictionary of English Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, a
conjunction, or a connective, has two underlying definitions.
The first is “a word which joins words, phrases, or clauses together, such as but, and,
when[…]” (2002, p.107). Accordingly, it is apparent that a conjunction helps combine
single, important units of a sentence or an utterance (e.g., words, phrases, and clauses).
For instance, the sentence “Mary sang beautifully, but her sister didn’t.”includes the
word “but” as a connector between two clauses “Mary sang beautifully” and “her sister
didn’t”. In this case, “but” is called a conjunction.

The second is “the process by which such joining takes place”. In this case, we refer “a
conjunction” to the process of combining such above language units together.
Hence, the study uses the first definition; that is, the term used in this study refers to the
connecting words that link words, phrases, and clauses together.
2.2.2 Classifications
Traditionally, conjunctions are classified into two large groups – coordinating
conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions (Dictionary of Language Teaching and
Applied Linguistics, 2002, p.107)
2.2.2.1 English Coordinating Conjunctions
7


The first group, also named as coordinators, includes words that “join linguistic units
which are equivalent or of the same rank.” Coordinating conjunctions are also divided
into two sub-groups: one-word coordinating conjunctions and two-word coordinating
conjunctions (Carter & McCarthy, 2011). The former deals with these common
conjunctions, which are gathered in a well-known acronym FANBOYS (For, And, Nor,
But, Or, Yet, So).
To be more specific,
- FOR: used to give reasons
For example: I do morning exercise every day, for I want to keep fit.
- AND: used to give addition
For example: I do morning exercise every day to keep fit and relax.
- NOR: used to add a negative idea to the negative idea mentioned earlier.
For example: I do not like listening to music, nor do I like reading books.
- BUT: used to show a general contrast
For example: He works quickly but accurate.
- OR: used to present another option.
For example: You can play games or watch TV.
- YET: used to show a contrast, usually with surprise

For example: She studies very hard, yet she failed the exam.
- SO: used to show a result or an effect of the action or incident mentioned earlier.
For example: I won the lottery yesterday, so I can raise funds to help the poor now.
The latter, also known as correlative conjunctions, refers to the coordinating conjunctions
which have two parts, namely both…and, neither….nor, either….or, not only….but also,
not only…but…as well, whether…or, as…as, rather….than, scarcely…when, no
sooner…than, so….that, such….that, and just as…so.
- EITHER ... OR: Used to describe the choice: either this or the other.
For example: I want to either the pizza or the sandwich.
- NEITHER ... NOR: used to describe double negation: neither this nor that.
For example: I want not the pizza nor the sandwich. I just need some biscuits.
- BOTH ... AND: Used to describe dual choice: both this and the other.
For example: I want both the pizza and the sandwich. I really very hungry now.

8


- NOT ONLY ... BUT ALSO: Used to describe dual choices: not only these but also
the other
For example: I’ll eat them both: not only the pizza but also the sandwich
- WHETHER ... OR: used to describe questions between two objects: whether this or
that
For example: I did not know whether you wanted the pizza or the sandwich, so I got
you both.
- AS ... AS: used to compare parity: by, like
For example: Bowling is not as fun as skeet shooting.
- SUCH ... THAT / SO ... THAT: used to describe human relations - results: so much
that
For example: The boy has such a good voice that he can easily capture everyone's
attention.

- SCARCELY ... WHEN / NO SOONER ... THAN: used to describe the time
relationship: right
For example: I had scarcely walked in the door when I got the call and had to run
right to my office.
- RATHER ... THAN: used to describe choices: rather than, instead
For example: She’d rather play the drums than sing.
- JUST AS…SO: used to link two similar things or two things having the same theme
For example: Just as she loves dancing so she adores singing as well.
The second group of conjunctions, which is the focus of the current study, is discussed in
the following section.
2.2.2.2 English Subordinating conjunctions
Definition
Subordinating conjunctions, also named as subordinators, are words that “join an
independent clause and a dependent clause” (Dictionary of Language Teaching and
Applied Linguistics, 2002, p.107). Particularly, to understand the meaning of
subordinators, it is necessary to know the meaning of dependent and independent clause.
As defined in Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, a dependent
clause, also known as a subordinate clause, is “a clause which must be used with another
clause to form a complete grammatical construction. It depends on the other clause and is
9


subordinate to it.” (2002, pp.149-150). Meanwhile, “an independent clause, also called as
a main clause or a principal clause, does not depend on another clause although it may be
linked to another independent clause, or to a dependent clause.” Accordingly, a
subordinating conjunction is a word used to combine a dependent clause (a clause without
its complete meaning) with an independent clause (a clause with its complete meaning).
For instance, in the sentence “Before Peter studied abroad, he had obtained his IELTS
certificate.”, “Before” serves as a subordinator to connect the depend clause “Before Peter
studied abroad” to the independent clause “he had obtained his IELTS certificate.”

Classification of Subordinating Conjunctions
Normally, English subordinating conjunctions (ESC) are classified according to their
semantic features (i.e., meanings). Many types of semantic relationships are expressed
thanks to ESC. Sorensen (1997, as cited in Wu, 2019, p. 626) stated four common
relationships – adversative, causal, temporal and condition. These common subordinating
conjunctions are restated in the following table (see Table 2.1)

Table 2.1: Common English subordinating conjunctions
and their semantic relationships (Sorensen (1997, as cited in Wu, 2019, p. 626)
Semantic Relationships

Subordinating Conjunctions

Adversative (or contrast)

although, though, even though, while,
whereas

Causal (or reason and result/ purpose) because, since, as, now that, seeing
that, inasmuch as, such…that, so that,
in order that, lest
Temporal (or time)

when, whenever, while, before, after,
since, once, as soon as, until,

Condition

if, provided that, supposing, unless, in
case, as long as, on condition that

Syntactic features of English subordinating conjunctions
According to Azar (2014), subordinating conjunctions are used to link one independent
clause and dependent clause, stated in these following patterns. Basically, a clause is a
group of words with a finite verb and expresses a certain meaning (whether complete or
incomplete). An independent clause is one with its own complete meaning and can stand

10


alone whereas a dependent clause has incomplete meaning and has to connect with
another clause.
Independent clause + Subordinating Conjunction + Dependent clause
Ex: The phone rang while she was eating dinner.
Subordinating Conjunction + Dependent clause + Independent clause
Ex: While she was eating dinner, the phone rang.
Functions of English subordinating conjunctions and EFL learners’ problems
It is noted that ESCs are considered as a kind of conjunctions; therefore, they possess any
functions of conjunctions. In written language, conjunctions are used to express the
logical relationships between ideas; in other words, they mark discourse structure and the
divide the roles of each text segment. (Geva, 1992). Accordingly, when it comes to
functions of ESC in EFL contexts, most people emphasize its function to link ideas in a
sentence. Moreover, ESC helps place a greater emphasis on one part of a sentence
(usually the independent clause). In other words, it helps raise the importance of one
clause in a sentence (Carter & McCarthy, 2011).
Chafe (1994) mentioned that using conjunctions in general helps connect chunks of text
and arrange flow of information in discourse. In other words, conjunctions (in general)
and ESCs (in particular) help ensure coherence and clarity, two important criteria of text.
Geva (1992) also reported that there should be a relationship between conjunctions and
textual comprehension. That is, conjunctions could facilitate the reading comprehension

of L2 readers more efficiently because it directs readers’ attention to some important
textual features and serves to check information in memory. However, problems with
textual comprehension could also have negative influences on learners’ actual use of
conjunctions. When they interpret wrong semantic or syntactic features of any
conjunction, they might create errors in such linking words.
Nevertheless, EFL learners appeared to deal with certain problems with the use of ESCs
(Wu, 2019). Wu commented that EFL learners used a smaller set of these connectors, but
more frequently than the native speakers. Thus, EFL learners seem to be able to apply just
simple or common conjunctions (in general) and subordinating conjunctions (in
particular) due to the familiarity to their spoken or written discourse.
Nishimura, Tamura and Hara (2017) also added that syntactic and semantic features of
these conjunctions might cause certain difficulties to EFL learners. The discrepancies
11


between their L1 and L2 might create many problems, leading to learners’ errors in both
written and spoken products. Normally, linguistic transfer between languages creates
errors in the use of conjunctions, especially the wrong lexical choices and syntactic errors.
Wu (2019) also presented that the lack of appropriate learning strategies might be one of
the factors that prevent learners from accomplish their use of logical connectors (or
conjunctions).

2.3 The important role of conjunctions in learning writing
Among four English skills, writing seems to be the most complex, but it is a crucial skill
for students to learn. Students who have the ability and competency in writing English
will be able to express themselves effectively. Moreover, they will have more privilege
when applying for any jobs compared to other students especially in private sectors and
companies that are involved at international level.
In written language, conjunctions are used to express the logical relationships between
ideas; in other words, they mark discourse structure and the divide the roles of each text

segment. (Geva, 1992). Accordingly, when it comes to functions of ESC in EFL contexts,
most people emphasize its function to link ideas in a sentence. Moreover, ESC helps
place a greater emphasis on one part of a sentence (usually the independent clause). In
other words, it helps raise the importance of one clause in a sentence (Carter & McCarthy,
2011).
Chafe (1994) mentioned that using conjunctions in general helps connect chunks of text
and arrange flow of information in discourse. In other words, conjunctions (in general)
and ESCs (in particular) help ensure coherence and clarity, two important criteria of text.
Geva (1992) also reported that there should be a relationship between conjunctions and
textual comprehension. That is, conjunctions could facilitate the reading comprehension
of the second language (L2) readers more efficiently because it directs readers’ attention
to some important textual features and serves to check information in memory. However,
problems with textual comprehension could also have negative influences on learners’
actual use of conjunctions. When they interpret wrong semantic or syntactic features of
any conjunction, they might create errors in such linking words.

12


2.4 Problems encouraged by students in the use of English subordinating
conjunctions
Errors in language learners’ performance including writing process have long become
the subject of interest among teachers, linguists and syllabus planners. Errors are natural
for second or foreign learners of English language. In language teaching and learning,
errors should be treated as a facilitator (Harmer, 2007; DeCarrico& Larsen-Freeman,
2010). The linguists particularly are finding reasonable explanations for occurrence of
errors and their implication towards the learning and teaching of a language.
2.4.1. Definitions of errors
The defining of errors can be seen from different views. Lennon (1991) related errors to
native-speaker-utterances, although there are various variations among people who

consider themselves to be a native speaker, which makes it difficult to find a standard.
However, James (1998) judged an error according to grammatical correctness and
acceptance. He relates errors to ignorance, inferring that error analysis (EA) is the study
of linguistic ignorance, the investigation of what people do not know and how they
attempt to cope with their ignorance.
DeCarico& Larsen-Freeman (2010) shed light on the role of errors in language learning
by stressing those errors, normally systematic and uniform, are a natural phenomenon in
learning a foreign language learning which facilitates learning. In other words, EFL
learners tend to own those intermediate forms until they get the accurate one.
As stated in Pham Vu Phi Ho & Pham Nguyen Thuy Duong (2015), errors in writing are
inevitable and has become one of the most common problems that any EFL teacher and
learner has to deal with.
Throughout history, errors have been a part of second or foreign language learning. In any
skills, errors tend to be systematic and uniform among learners.
2.4.2. The role of error analysis (EA) in EFL teaching and learning
For decades, Error Analysis (EA) has received a great deal of interest from a number of
scholars in the field of second language acquisition. The following are the definitions of
EA given by some of the scholars.
Corder (1967) who has been considered the father of EA contended that those errors are
“important in and of themselves". Hence, it can be said that errors made by language
learners make it possible to determine areas that need reinforcement in teaching.
13


Moreover, he also points out that EA has two objectives. One is theoretical objective
which concerns what and how learners learn a language. The other is the practical one
which concerns how to help learners learn a language by making use of the knowledge
they have already had.
Dulay, Burt and Krashen (1982) stated that the analysis of errors is the method to analyze
errors made by EFL and ESL learners when they learn a language. Not only can it help

reveal the strategies used by learners to learn a language, it also assists teachers as well as
other concerning people to know what difficulties learners encounter in order to improve
their teaching.
James (1998) proposed that EA is the analysis of learners’ errors by comparing what the
learners have learned with what they lack. It also deals with giving the explanation of the
errors in order to accurately reduce them. Another definition of EA given by Crystal
(1999) is the study of language learners’ language forms which deviate from those of the
target language.
As mentioned in Matsuda & Silva (2010, p. 239), error analysis is normally utilized in
controlled composition classroom where errors are taught, and the focus is on form
accuracy. This type of class affects habit formation and the prevalence of linguistic
features.
Nevertheless, when applying error analysis, as stated in Harmer (2007), EFL teachers
have to adjust and control their teaching appropriately and flexibly. Any overuse of the
form-focus or meaning-focus could pose potential problems.
2.4.3. Classification of errors
Errors found in ESL and EFL learners’ pieces of writing are analyzed and categorized
into various categories. According to Corder (1974), errors are divided into four
categories:
(a) Omission
Certain linguistic forms may be omitted by the learners because of their complexity in
production omission also occurs in morphology, learners often gave out the third person
singular morpheme-S, the plural marker –S and past tense inflection –ed.
(b) Addition
Learner not only omits elements but they also add redundant elements.
For example: I hopes, instead of ‘I hope’.
14